MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

GE106 1MT-Q | 2ND SEMESTER | LORELIE PASANA MIDTERMS

B2 STAGES IN STATISTICAL
WEEK 1: DATA MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATION

1.​ Collection of Data

A DATA MANAGEMENT 2.​ Organization of data
3.​ Presentation of data
DATA MANAGEMENT 4.​ Analysis of data.
●​ Is a process by which information is 5.​ Interpretation of data.
acquired and processed to ensure the
accessibility and reliability of the data for C VARIABLE
its users.
●​ One of the most important tool in
processing and managing such VARIABLE
information is statistics. ●​ Is a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values in different
persons, places, or things.
B STATISTICS ●​ Includes: age, race, gender, intelligence,
personality type, attitudes, ethnic group
STATISTICS or patients, height, weight, heart rate,
●​ Is a science which deals with the marital status, eye color, etc.
collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data so as C1 TYPES OF VARIABLES
to give a more meaningful information.
●​ Subdivided into two branches, namely:
descriptive statistics and inferential QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
statistics. ●​ Data which can assume values that
manifest the concept of attributes.
●​ Are sometimes called categorical data.
B1 DIVISIONS OF STATISTICS ●​ Examples: person’s gender, hometown,
birthdate, post code, marital status, eye
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS color, etc.
●​ Refers to the collection,
organization,summary, and presentation QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
of data ●​ Data are obtained from counting or
●​ Examples: measuring.
○​ measures of location ●​ Numerical data which represents the
○​ measures of variability numerical value i.e. how much, how
○​ skewness and kurtosis often, how many
●​ Numerical data gives information about
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS the quantities of a specific thing
●​ Deals with the interpretation and analysis ●​ Examples: height, length, weight, test
of data where conclusion is drawn based score, and so on.
from the subset of the population. ●​ Discrete Variables
●​ Examples: ○​ Contain only a finite number of
○​ hypothesis testing possible values.
○​ regression analysis ○​ this type of data can’t be
measured but it can be counted.
e.g. number of students in a class

PAGE 1 LECTURE | MIDTERMS | PREPARED BY JAN DOMINIQUE CERRO

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
GE106 1MT-Q | 2ND SEMESTER | LORELIE PASANA MIDTERMS

●​ Continuous Variables
E SAMPLING METHODS
○​ Continuous data has an infinite
number of probable values that
can be selected within a given SAMPLING METHODS
range. ●​ is a way of selecting individual members
○​ This type of data can’t be counted or a subset of the population to make
but it can be measured. e.g. statistical inferences from them and
temperature range estimate characteristics of the whole
population.
●​ The population is the entire group that
D LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
you want to draw conclusions about.
●​ The sample is the specific group of
NOMINAL individuals that you will collect data from.
●​ Values in the variable are used to label or
classify variables. Nominal data has no
E1 TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS
order.
●​ Words, letters and alpha numeric
symbols can be used. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
●​ e.g. school type (public, private), religious ●​ Means that every member of the
affiliation (Catholic, Christian, Protestant, population has a chance of being
Muslim), in a survey 1 used to represent selected.
male and 2 used to represent female. ●​ It is mainly used in quantitative research.

ORDINAL NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

●​ values represent discrete and ordered ●​ Involves non-random selection based on
units. convenience or other criteria, allowing
●​ Ordinal data follows a natural order you to easily collect data.
●​ e.g. variables found in surveys, finance, ●​ It is often used in exploratory and
economics, questionnaires, and so on. qualitative research.

INTERVAL
E2 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
●​ values tell the distances between the
TECHNIQUES
measurements in addition to the
classification and ordering.
●​ interval values data do not have a true SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE
zero point. ●​ Every member of the population has an
●​ e.g. temperature, the 0ºC equal chance of being selected.
●​ Your sampling frame should include the
RATIO whole population.
●​ is the most informative level of ●​ Two ways of simple random sampling:
measurement. The combination of first lottery or fishbowl technique and table of
three levels of measurements. random numbers.
●​ ratio values also order units that have the
same difference. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
●​ ratio values the same as interval values, ●​ Is similar to simple random sampling, but
with the difference that they have an it is usually slightly easier to conduct.
absolute zero. e.g. height, weight, length, ●​ Every member of the population is listed
etc. with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are
chosen at regular intervals.

PAGE 2 LECTURE | MIDTERMS | PREPARED BY JAN DOMINIQUE CERRO

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
GE106 1MT-Q | 2ND SEMESTER | LORELIE PASANA MIDTERMS

●​ Examples: interview transcripts,

CLUSTER SAMPLING statistical data, and works of art.
●​ Involves dividing the population into ●​ A primary source gives you direct access
subgroups, but each subgroup should to the subject of your research.
have similar characteristics to the whole
sample. SECONDARY SOURCES
●​ Sometimes referred to as “area ●​ Provide second-hand information and
sampling” commentary from other researchers.
●​ Examples: journal articles, reviews, and
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING academic books.
●​ To use this sampling method, divide the ●​ A secondary source describes, interprets,
population into subgroups (called strata) or synthesizes primary sources.
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.
gender, age range, income bracket, job
G DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
role)

INTERVIEWS
E3 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
●​ The researcher asks questions of a large
TECHNIQUES
sampling of people, either by direct
interviews or means of mass
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING communication such as by phone or
●​ Simply includes the individuals who mail.
happen to be most accessible to the ●​ This method is by far the most common
researcher. means of data gathering.

VOLUNTARY RESPONSE SAMPLING PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

●​ Are always at least somewhat biased, as ●​ Data gathering is an indirect interview,
some people will inherently be more used when potential respondents know
likely to volunteer than others. why they're being asked questions and
hesitate to answer.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING ●​ The interviewees get an incomplete
●​ Also known as judgement sampling, question, and they must fill in the rest,
involves the researcher using their using their opinions, feelings, and
expertise to select a sample that is most attitudes.
useful to the purposes of the research.
DELPHI TECHNIQUE
SNOWBALL SAMPLING ●​ Each expert answers questions in their
●​ Can be used to recruit participants via field of specialty, and the replies are
other participants. consolidated into a single opinion.
●​ The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with FOCUS GROUPS
more people. ●​ Like interviews, are a commonly used
technique.
●​ The group consists of anywhere from a
F SOURCES OF DATA
half-dozen to a dozen people, led by a
moderator, brought together to discuss
PRIMARY SOURCES the issue.
●​ Provide raw information and first-hand
evidence.

PAGE 3 LECTURE | MIDTERMS | PREPARED BY JAN DOMINIQUE CERRO

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
GE106 1MT-Q | 2ND SEMESTER | LORELIE PASANA MIDTERMS

QUESTIONNAIRES
●​ Are a simple, straightforward data LINE GRAPH
collection method. ●​ It is the most widely used practical device
●​ Respondents get a series of questions, effective in showing a trend over a
either open or close-ended, related to the period.
matter at hand.

H PRESENTATION OF DATA

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
●​ In this method, collected data are
presented in narrative and paragraph
forms. This mode of presentation
combines text and figures in a statistic.
●​ Examples:
○​ 65% of email users worldwide
access their email via a mobile
device. Emails that are optimised BAR GRAPH
for mobile generate ●​ It is the simplest form of graphic
○​ 15% higher click-through rates. presentation. It is generally intended for
○​ 56% of brands using emojis in comparison of simple magnitude.
their email subject lines had a ●​ It may be either horizontal bar graph or a
higher open rate vertical bar graph.

TABULAR PRESENTATION
●​ This mode of presentation is better than
textual form. The data are systematically
presented through tables consisting of
vertical columns and horizontal rows
with headings for an easier and more
comprehensible comparison of figures.al
report.
●​ Examples:
○​ Excel or Google Sheets

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
●​ Data gathered are presented in visual or
pictorial form. This would enable the
researcher to get clear view of the
relationships of data through pictures
and colored maps.
●​ Examples:
CIRCLE GRAPH OR PIE CHART
○​ line graph, bar graph, circle graph
●​ It is a circle divided into parts whose sizes
or pie chart, pictograph or
are proportional to the magnitude or
pictogram, etc.
percentages they represent.
●​ It is used to show component parts of a
whole.
H1 TYPES OF GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

PAGE 4 LECTURE | MIDTERMS | PREPARED BY JAN DOMINIQUE CERRO

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
GE106 1MT-Q | 2ND SEMESTER | LORELIE PASANA MIDTERMS

●​ They can also be obtained by simply

adding ½ of a unit (0.5) to the upper limit
and subtracting the same to the lower
limit of each class.

CLASS MARK
●​ Also known as class midpoint. It is the
average of the lower and upper limits or
boundaries of each class.
●​ Class mark may be represented by the
letter x.
PICTOGRAPH OR PICTOGRAM
●​ A pictograph uses pictorial symbols for CLASS INTERVAL
population to indicate data. ●​ The range values used in defining a class.
It is simply the length of each class.
●​ It is the difference or distance between
the upper and lower class boundaries of
each class, and is affected by the nature
of the data and by the number of classes.

CLASS SIZE
●​ The width of each class interval.

I2 STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

I FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION 1.​ Find the range by getting the difference

between the highest and the lowest
values in the set of data.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
●​ Is a tabular arrangement of data showing 2.​ Determine the number of class intervals
its classification or grouping according to or categories desired. The ideal is
magnitude or size. between 5 and 15.
Use: K = 1 + 3.3 log n
I1 COMPONENTS OF A FREQUENCY where: n = total number of observations
DISTRIBUTION K = tentative number of classes to use

3.​ Divide the range by the desired number

CLASS LIMITS of class intervals to get the approximate
●​ The end numbers of a class. It is the size of the class intervals.
highest and the lowest values that can
go into each class. 4.​ Start from the multiple of the size of the
class interval where the lowest or the
CLASS BOUNDARIES highest score is included, then write the
●​ Are the “true” class limits defined by class intervals starting from the lowest
lower and upper boundaries. class limit. Succeeding classes will be
●​ The lower boundaries can be determined obtained in the same manner.
by getting the average of the upper limit
of a class and the lower limit of the next
class.

PAGE 5 LECTURE | MIDTERMS | PREPARED BY JAN DOMINIQUE CERRO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
GE106 1MT-Q | 2ND SEMESTER | LORELIE PASANA MIDTERMS

I3 DERIVED DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY POLYGON
●​ A closed broken line curve constructed
RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION by plotting the class marks on the
●​ Represented by (%RF) is derived by horizontal or x-axis against the class
getting the ratio of the number of items frequencies which are plotted on the
in each class to the total number of vertical y-axis
frequency.
●​ The relative frequency distribution may
be expressed in percent. Its total sum
must be equal to 100%.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

●​ Cumulative frequency distribution is
desired to determine the number or
percentage of values “greater than” or
“lesser than” a specified value.
●​ The “less than” cumulative frequency
distribution (cf) is obtained by adding
the frequencies of the class intervals
from the lowest to the highest.
O-GIVE CURVE
●​ The “more than” cumulative frequency
●​ The “ogive” is the graph of a cumulative
distribution (>cf) is obtained by adding
frequency distribution. It is constructed
the frequencies of the class intervals
by plotting the class boundaries on the
from the highest to the lowest.
horizontal or x-axis against the
cumulative “less than” and “more than”
I4 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF frequencies plotted on the vertical or
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION y-axis.
●​ To complete the ogive, the “less than”
curve is terminated at the lower
HISTOGRAM
boundary of the lowest class interval and
●​ Is a special bar graph constructed by
the “more than” curve is terminated at
plotting the class boundaries on the
the upper boundary of the highest class
horizontal axis against frequencies
interval.
plotted on the vertical axis.
●​ The o-give may look like an open pair of
●​ When class intervals have uniform width,
scissors.
the width of the bar must also be
uniform.

PAGE 6 LECTURE | MIDTERMS | PREPARED BY JAN DOMINIQUE CERRO