PROF.

GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
Basics of Thermodynamics
Introduction
 Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the
physical properties of substance. Its is based upon observations of
common experience which have been formulated into thermodynamic
laws.
 These laws govern the principles of energy conversion. The Applications
of the thermodynamic laws and principles are found in the fields of
Energy technology like
• Steam and Nuclear Power Plant
• Internal Combustion Engines
• Gas Turbines
• Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
• Gas Dynamics, Compressors
• Chemical Process Plants
• Direct Energy Conversion Devices
• The ZEROTH LAW deals with THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM and establishes a concept of
TEMPERATURE.

• The FIRST LAW throws light on concepts of

INTERNAL ENERGY and Enthalpy

• The SECOND LAW indicates the limit of converting

heat into work and introduces the principal of
INCREASE OF ENTROPY.
• The THIRD LAW defines the ABSOLUTE ZERO of
ENTROPY
Thermodynamics Approach

 It is well-known that a substance consists of a large number of

particles called molecules. The properties of the substance naturally
depend on the behavior of these particles. However, one does not
need to know the behavior of the gas particles to determine the
pressure in the container. It would be sufficient to, attach a pressure
gage to the container. This macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior
of individual particles is called classical thermodynamics.
 It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems. A more elaborate approach, based on the average
behavior of large groups of individual particles, is called statistical
thermodynamics. This microscopic approach is rather involved
and is used in this subject only in the supporting role.
Applications
System and Control Volume

 A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space

chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called
the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings is called the boundary.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the
boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and the
surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero
thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any
volume in space.
System and Control Volume
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the
boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and the
surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero
thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any
volume in space.
 Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on
whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
A closed system (also known as a control mass or just system when
the context makes it clear) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and
no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave
a closed system.
 But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary;
and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a
special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that
system is called an isolated system.
System and Control Volume
System and Control Volume

 An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a

properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that
involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow
through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within
the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross
the boundary of a control volume.
 A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and
out of a system and, therefore, are modeled as control volumes. A
water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve
mass flow and should be analyzed as control volumes (open
systems) instead of as control masses (closed systems).
 The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and
they can be real or imaginary.
System and Control Volume

 Most control volumes, however, have fixed boundaries and thus do

not involve any moving boundaries. A control volume can also
involve heat and work interactions just as a closed system, in
addition to mass interaction.
 The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and
they can be real or imaginary.
System and Control Volume
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

 Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar

properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal
expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and
elevation.
 Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive
properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—
of the system.
 Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.
Some examples of specific properties are specific volume (v =
V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m).
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

 Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the
properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire
system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes
the condition, or the state, of the system. At a given state, all the
properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of even one
property changes, the state will change to a different one.
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

 There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in

thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant
types of equilibrium are satisfied. For example, a system is in
thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system. That is, the system involves no temperature
differential, which is the driving force for heat flow.
 Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in
mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any
point of the system with time. However, the pressure may vary
within the system with elevation as a result of gravitational effects.
 Finally, a system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical
composition does not change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur. A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the
relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

 Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to

another is called a process, and the series of states through which a
system passes during a process is called the path of the process. To
describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and
final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the
interactions with the surroundings.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

 When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains

infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a
quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium, process.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

 When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains

infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a
quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium, process.
Reversible Process
Work Transfer
Work Transfer
Displacement or PdV Work
Path Function and point Function
Displacement or PdV Work
Displacement or PdV Work
Displacement or PdV Work
Displacement or PdV Work
7. Flow work.
The Flow work is significant only in a flow process or an open system.
It represents the energy transferred across the system boundary as a
result of the energy imparted to the fluid by a pump, blower or
compressor to make the fluid flow across the control volume.
Flow work is analogous to displacement work.
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer and work transfer
Specific Volume and Density
Energy and Power
First Law of Thermodynamics to Cyclic Process

 The first law of thermodynamics is often called as the law of the

conservation of energy.
 The transfer of heat and the performance of work may both cause
the same effect in a system. Energy which enters a system as heat
may leave the system as work, or energy which enters the system as
work may leave as heat. Hence, by the law of conservation of
energy, the net work done by the system is equal to the net heat
supplied to the system.
First Law of Thermodynamics to Cyclic Process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
First Law of Thermodynamics to change of state or process
 Unsolved Problems

 A constant volume of 0.3m3 capacity contains 1 kg of air at 5oC. Heat is

transferred to the air until the temperature is 100oC. Find the work done, the heat
transfer, the change in Internal Energy and change in enthalpy.
 Air in stationary system expands in a reversible adiabatic process from 0.5 MPa,
15oC to 0.2 Mpa. Find the final temperature and change in enthalpy, Internal
Energy, heat transfer and work done per kg of air.
 The indicator diagram for a certain water cooled cylinder and piston air
compressor shows that during compression PV3= const. The compression starts
at 100 kPa, 25oC and ends at 600 kPa. If the process is reversible how much heat
is transferred per kg of air. Also calculate change in Internal energy and enthalpy.
 An air compressor takes in air at 105 kPa and 27oC having volume of 1.5 m3/kg
and compresses it to 4.5 × 105 Pa. Find the work done, heat transfer and change
in internal energy if the compression is isothermal.
 Unsolved Problems

 A closed system undergoes a reversible process at constant pressure process of

3.5 bar and its volume changes from 0.15 m3 to 0.06 m3, 25kJ of heat is rejected
by the system during the process. Determine change in internal energy of the
system
 Air at 1.02 bar, 22oC , initially occupy cylinder volume of 0.015 m3 is
compressed reversibly and adiabatically by piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar.
Calculate (i) final temperature, (ii) final volume, (iii) the work done (iv) change
in internal energy and (v) change in enthalpy
 1 kg of air at 1.02 bar, 20oC is compressed reversibly according to law PV1.3=
const., to a pressure of 8.5 bar. Calculate the work done on the air and heat flow
to or from the cylinder wall during the compression.
 A cylinder contains 0.5 m3 of air at 1 × 105 N/m2 and 90oC. The air is compressed
to a volume of 0.125 m3 the final pressure being 6 × 105 N/m2 . Determine
(i)The mass of air, (ii) The value of index ’n’ for compression, (iii) The increase in
internal energy of air (iv) The heat rejected or received by air during compression.
Always assume for Air
Ƴ = 1.4, R= 0.287 kJ/kg.K, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K and Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg.K
1.
2. A gas system, confined by a piston and cylinder, undergoes a change
of state such that the product of pressure and volume remains
constant. If the process begins at a pressure of 3 bar and a volume
0.015m3 and proceeds until the pressure falls to half its initial value,
determine the magnitude and direction of the work flow.

2
3. A certain amount of gas is compressed from 1 bar and 0.1m3 to 5 bar
and 0.03m3. The process is according to the law pVn = K. Determine
the magnitude and direction of work.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.

SOLN.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
 3.

SOLN.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
 4.

SOLN.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
 6.

SOLN.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
- 60
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
 7.

SOLN.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
9. In an internal combustion engine, during the compression stroke the
Heat rejected to the cooling water is 50 kJ/kg and the work input is
100kJ/kg. Calculate the change in internal energy of the working fluid
stating whether it is a gain or loss.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
12. When a stationary mass of gas was compressed without friction at
Constant pressure its initial state of 0.4 m3 and 0.105 MPa was found to
change to final state of 0.20 m3 and 0.105 MPa. There was a transfer of
42.5 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How much did the
internal energy of the gas change ?

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
14.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
 18.

SOLN.

PROF. GAJESH G S
USGAONKAR, GEC
20.
+
22.
24.
25.
 27.

SOLN.
33.
34.
37.
38.
39.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS APPLIED TO OPEN SYSTEMS
– steady flow steady energy equation
FIRST LAW APPLIED TO ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
 REFERENCES:
• ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
SIXTH EDITION- P. K. NAG
• ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
Er. R. K. RAJPUT

PROF. GAJESH G. S.
USGAONKAR, GEC