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About the Authors

David G. Myers, since receiving his PhD from the University of Iowa, has
spent his career at Michigan’s Hope College, where he is a professor of psy-
chology and has taught dozens of social psychology sections. Hope College
students have invited him to be their commencement speaker and named
him “outstanding professor.”
Dr. Myers also communicates psychology science to the general public.
His writings have appeared in four dozen magazines, from Today’s Educa-
tion to Scientific American. His 17 books include The Pursuit of Happiness
and Intuition: Its Powers and Perils.
His research and writings have been recognized for the Gordon Allport
Prize, for an “honored scientist” award from the Federation of Associations
in the Brain and Behavioral Sciences, and for the Award for Distinguished
Service on Behalf of Personality–Social Psychology.

Source: ©David Myers.

Jean Twenge has drawn on her research in her books for a broader audience,
iGen: Why Today’s Super-Connected Kids Are Growing Up Less Rebel-
lious, More Tolerant, Less Happy—And Completely Unprepared for Adult-
hood (2017) and Generation Me: Why Today’s Young Americans Are More
Confident, Assertive, Entitled—And More Miserable Than Ever Before
(2nd ed., 2014). An article by Dr. Twenge in The Atlantic was nominated
for a National Magazine Award. She frequently gives talks and seminars
on generational differences to audiences such as college faculty and staff,
parent–teacher groups, military personnel, camp directors, and corporate
executives.
Dr. Twenge grew up in Minnesota and Texas. She holds a BA and MA
from the University of Chicago and a PhD from the University of Michigan.
She completed a postdoctoral research fellowship in social psychology at
Case Western Reserve University. She lives in San Diego with her husband
and three daughters.
Source: ©Sandy Huffaker, Jr.

iii
iv About the Authors

Christian H. Jordan is a professor and associate chair of the psychology

department at Wilfrid Laurier University. He teaches lecture courses and
seminars in social psychology and research methods at both the undergrad-
uate and graduate levels.
Dr. Jordan is also an active researcher, studying self-esteem, narcis-
sism, and self-enhancement processes. His work has been published in
a number of scholarly handbooks and journals, including the Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Personality, and Journal
of Experimental Psychology. He has also written popular instructional
pieces on how to effectively read journal articles and how to conduct and
report persuasive psychology experiments. He is currently an associate
editor of the Journal of Personality and has served as associate editor of
Self & Identity.
In his spare time, Dr. Jordan spends time with his family and friends,
reads, listens to music, drinks craft beer, and exercises. He enjoys cycling
during the summer months. Christian and Lynne Jordan have two sons,
Grayson and Hayden, and a daughter, Reilly, whom they lost to leukemia.
Source: ©Christian Jordan.

Steven M. Smith is a professor of psychology and the associate vice-

president academic and enrolment management at Saint Mary’s Univer-
sity in Halifax. He completed his BA (honours) at Bishop’s University in
Lennoxville, Quebec, and his MA and PhD in social psychology at Queen’s
University in Kingston, Ontario. Dr. Smith regularly teaches courses in
social behaviour, attitudes and persuasion, and psychology and law. His
lectures are well received, and he been awarded a lifetime service award
for major contributions to students from the Saint Mary’s University
Student Association.
Dr. Smith is an active researcher and is dedicated to applying his theo-
retical work to real-world concerns. His research has been supported by
the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Canadian Insti-
tutes of Health Research, the Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation, the
Nova Scotia Gaming Foundation, and a number of private organizations.
His work has appeared in journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychol-
ogy, Law & Human Behavior, Journal of Personality and Social Psychol-
ogy, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Social Psychology and
Source: ©Steven M. Smith. ­Personality Science, and Psychophysiology.
Dr. Smith has lent his expertise to a number of community organizations, advising on
communication and social marketing issues. He has also served as an expert witness at
criminal trials. His wife, Isabel, is a clinical developmental psychologist, and together they
have two fantastic but heavily analyzed children, Sydney and Dylan.
Table of Contents

Preface xi Part One

CHAPTER 1
Social Thinking 29
Introducing the Science and CHAPTER 2
Methods of Social Psychology 1
The Self in a Social World 30
What Is Social Psychology? 2
Spotlights and Illusions: What Do They
How Much of Our Social World Is Just in Our Heads? 3 Teach Us About Ourselves? 31
If You Were Ordered to Be Cruel, Would
You Comply? 3 Self-Concept: Who Am I? 34
Would You Help Others? Or Help Yourself? 3 At the Centre of Our Worlds: Our Sense of Self 34
Social Comparisons 34
What Are the Major Themes
Self and Culture 37
of Social Psychology? 4
Self-Knowledge 43
We Construct Our Social Reality 4
Our Social Intuitions Are Often What Is the Nature and Motivating
Powerful but Sometimes Perilous 5 Power of Self-Esteem? 46
Social Influences Shape Our Behaviour 6 Self-Esteem Motivation 47
Personal Attitudes and Dispositions Also Shape The Trade-Off of Low vs. High Self-Esteem 50
Behaviour 6 Self-Efficacy 52
Social Behaviour Is Biologically Rooted 7
What Is Self-Serving Bias? 53
Relating to Others Is a Basic Need 7
Explaining Positive and Negative Events 54
Social Psychology’s Principles Are
Can We All Be Better Than Average? 55
Applicable in Everyday Life 8
Unrealistic Optimism 58
How Do Values Affect Social Psychology? 8 False Consensus and Uniqueness 59
Obvious Ways in Which Values Enter Social Psychology 8 Temporal Comparison 60
Not-So-Obvious Ways in Which Values Explaining Self-Serving Bias 61
Enter Social Psychology 9
How Do People Manage Their
Is Social Psychology Merely Common Sense? 11 Self-Presentation? 62
Common Sense, Revisited 13 Self-Handicapping 62
Research Methods: Impression Management 63
How Do We Do Social Psychology? 15 Doubting Our Ability in Social Situations 65
Overpersonalizing Situations 66
Forming and Testing Hypotheses 15
Correlational Research: Detecting Natural Associations 17 What Does It Mean to Have Perceived
Experimental Research: Searching for Cause and Effect 21 Self-Control? 67
Generalizing From Laboratory to Life 26 Learned Helplessness Versus Self-Determination 68

Summing Up 27 Summing Up 70

vi
 Table of Contents vii

CHAPTER 3 Why Does Our Behaviour Affect

Our Attitudes? 131
Social Beliefs and Judgments 73
Self-Presentation: Impression Management 131
How Do We Judge Our Social Worlds, Self-Justification: Cognitive Dissonance 132
Consciously and Unconsciously? 74 Self-Perception 136
Priming 74 Comparing the Theories 141
Intuitive Judgments 76 Summing Up 144
Overconfidence 78
Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts 83
Counterfactual Thinking 86
Part Two
Illusory Thinking 87
Mood and Judgment 89 Social Influence 147
How Do We Perceive Our Social Worlds? 91
CHAPTER 5
Perceiving and Interpreting Events 91
Belief Perseverance 93 Persuasion 148
Constructing Memories of Ourselves and Our Worlds 94
What Paths Lead to Persuasion? 150
How Do We Explain Our Social Worlds? 98 The Central Route and the Peripheral Route 151
Attributing Causality: To the Person or the Situation? 98 Different Routes for Different Purposes 152
The Fundamental Attribution Error 100
What Are the Elements
Why Do We Make the Attribution Error? 102
of Persuasion? 152
Why Do We Study Attribution Errors? 106
Who Says? The Communicator 152
How Do Our Social Beliefs Matter? 106 What Is Said? The Message Content 156
Teacher Expectations and Student Performance 107 How Is It Said? The Channel
Getting From Others What We Expect 108 of Communication 164
To Whom Is It Said? The Audience 169
What Can We Conclude About Social
Beliefs and Judgments? 110 Extreme Persuasion:
How Do Cults Indoctrinate? 173
Summing Up 112
Group Indoctrination Tactics 173
Attitudes Follow Behaviour 174
CHAPTER 4 Persuasive Elements 175
Behaviour and Attitudes 115 Group Effects 176

Persuasion and Climate Change:

How Well Do Our Attitudes Predict
How Do We Address Global Warming? 178
Our Behaviours? 116
Psychology and Climate Change 178
Are We All Hypocrites? 116
New Technologies 181
When Attitudes Predict Behaviour 117
Reducing Consumption 181
When Does Our Behaviour Affect
How Can Persuasion Be Resisted? 183
Our Attitudes? 121
Attitude Strength 183
Role-Playing 122
Information-Processing Biases 183
When Saying Becomes Believing 124
Reactance 185
The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon 125
Strengthening Personal Commitment 185
Low-Ball Technique 126
Inoculation Programs 186
Door-in-the-Face Technique 127
Implications of Attitude Inoculation 189
Immoral and Moral Acts 128
Social Movements 130 Summing Up 190
viii Table of Contents

CHAPTER 6 Deindividuation: When Do People Lose

Their Sense of Self in Groups? 236
Conformity 192
Doing Together What We Would Not Do Alone 236
What Is Conformity? 193 Diminished Self-Awareness 241

What Are the Classic Conformity and Group Polarization: Do Groups Intensify
Obedience Studies? 194 Our Opinions? 241
The Case of the “Risky Shift” 242
Sherif’s Studies of Norm Formation 194
Impact of Group Discussion on Individuals’ Opinions 243
Asch’s Studies of Group Pressure 197
Explaining Polarization 245
Milgram’s Obedience Studies 199
What Breeds Obedience? 201 Groupthink: Do Groups Hinder
Reflections on the Classic Studies 204 or Assist Good Decisions? 248
Symptoms of Groupthink 249
What Predicts Conformity? 209
Critiquing Groupthink 252
Group Size 209 Preventing Groupthink 252
Unanimity 210 Group Problem Solving 253
Cohesion 210
Leadership: How Do Leaders Shape the
Status 211
Group’s Actions? 256
Public Response 211
Task Leadership and Social Leadership 256
No Prior Commitment 212
Transactional Leadership 257
Why Conform? 213 Transformational Leadership 257

Who Conforms? 215 The Influence of the Minority: How Do

Personality 215 Individuals Influence the Group? 258
Culture 217 Consistency 259
Gender 217 Self-Confidence 259
Social Roles 218 Defections From the Majority 260
Group Influences in Juries 260
Do We Ever Want to Be Different? 219
Summing Up 262
Reactance 219
Asserting Uniqueness 221

Summing Up 222
Part Three
Social Relations 265
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
Group Influence 224
Altruism: Helping Others 266
What Is a Group? 225
Why Do We Help? 269
Social Facilitation: How Are We Affected Social Exchange 269
by the Presence of Others? 226 Social Norms 273
The Mere Presence of Others 226 Evolutionary Psychology 276
Crowding: The Presence of Many Others 229 Comparing and Evaluating Theories of Altruism 278
Why Are We Aroused in the Presence of Others? 230
When Will We Help? 282
Social Loafing: Do Individuals Exert Less Number of Bystanders 282
Effort in a Group? 231 Helping When Someone Else Does 289
Many Hands Make Light Work 232 Time Pressures 289
Social Loafing in Everyday Life 233 Similarity to the Victim 290
 Table of Contents ix

Who Helps? 291 What Is Love? 365

Personality Traits 291 Passionate Love 366
Gender 291 Companionate Love 369

How Can We Increase Helping? 292 What Enables Close Relationships? 371
Reduce Ambiguity, Increase Responsibility 292 Attachment 371
Guilt and Concern for Self-Image 293 Equity 375
Socializing Prosocial Behaviour 294 Self-Disclosure 376
Postscript: The Kitty Genovese Case Revisited 297
How Do Relationships End? 378
What to Do When You Need Help 298
Divorce 379
Conclusions 298
The Detachment Process 380
Summing Up 299
Summing Up 381

CHAPTER 9
Aggression: Hurting Others 300 CHAPTER 11
Prejudice 383
What Is Aggression? 301
What Is the Nature and Power
What Are Some Theories of Aggression? 303 of Prejudice? 384
Aggression as a Biological Phenomenon 304
Defining Prejudice 384
Aggression as a Response to Frustration 309
Prejudice: Implicit and Explicit 386
Aggression as Learned Social Behaviour 312 Racial Prejudice 387
What Are Some Influences on Aggression? 315 Gender-Based Prejudice 390
Aversive Incidents 315 LGBT Prejudice 392
Arousal 316 What Are the Social Sources
Aggression Cues 318 of Prejudice? 394
Media Influences: Pornography and Sexual Violence 319 Social Inequalities: Unequal Status and Prejudice 394
Media Influences: Socialization 395
Television, Movies, and the Internet 322
Institutional Supports 399
Another Media Influence: Video Games 327
Group Influences 332 What Are the Motivational Sources
of Prejudice? 400
How Can Aggression Be Reduced? 335
Frustration and Aggression: The Scapegoat Theory 400
Catharsis? 335 Social Identity Theory: Feeling Superior to Others 401
A Social Learning Approach 336 Motivation to Avoid Prejudice 405
Culture Change and World Violence 338
What Are the Cognitive Sources
Summing Up 338 of Prejudice? 406
Categorization: Classifying People Into Groups 406
CHAPTER 10 Distinctiveness: Perceiving People Who Stand Out 408
Attraction and Intimacy: Attributions: Is It a Just World? 412
Liking and Loving Others 341 Motivation to See the World as Just 413

What Are the Consequences of Prejudice? 415

What Leads to Friendship and Attraction? 345
Self-Perpetuating Prejudgments 415
Proximity 345
Discrimination’s Impact: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 416
Physical Attractiveness 349
Stereotype Threat 417
Similarity Versus Complementarity 359
Do Stereotypes Bias Judgments of Individuals? 419
Liking Those Who Like Us 362
Relationship Rewards 364 Summing Up 423
x Table of Contents

CHAPTER 12
Conflict and Peacemaking 426
What Creates Conflict? 427
Social Dilemmas 427
Competition 434
Perceived Injustice 436
Misperception 437

How Can Peace Be Achieved? 441

Contact 441
Cooperation 446
Communication 453
Conciliation 458

Summing Up 460

References RE-1
Chapter Sources CS-1
Glossary GL-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Preface

Welcome to the Eighth Canadian Edition of Social Psychology. We (Steven Smith and
Christian Jordan) were excited to write this new edition but also knew it would be a chal-
lenge. We are thrilled to be working with David Myers and Jean Twenge. Both are known
for their excellent books, which are solidly scientific and warmly human, factually rigor-
ous, and intellectually provocative. Their texts are simply the best.
We continue to meet the challenge of creating a comprehensive Canadian social psy-
chology text. How does one select the material for inclusion in a “reasonably comprehen-
sive” introduction to one’s discipline—a text long enough to allow rich narrative (to weave
a story) but crisp enough not to overwhelm? Further, what Canadian content will most
capture the imaginations of Canadian students? We have sought to present theories and
findings that are not too esoteric but that capture the fundamental concepts of the field in a
scientifically rigorous manner. In doing so, we have sought to balance classic findings with
significant current Canadian research. We think you will find that as the book emphasizes
the Canadian context, it also has a strong research focus presented in an understandable
and engaging style.

Organization
The book opens with a single chapter that includes our methods of inquiry. The chapter
also warns students about how findings can seem obvious—once you know them—and
how social psychologists’ own values permeate the discipline. The intent is to give stu-
dents just enough background to prepare them for what follows.
The book then unfolds around its definition of social psychology: the scientific study
of how people think about (Part One), influence (Part Two), and relate to (Part Three) one
another.
Part One, on social thinking, examines how we view ourselves and others. It assesses
the accuracy of our impressions, intuitions, and explanations; and it examines the relation
of our behaviour and our attitudes.
Part Two explores social influence. In this edition, we begin by discussing how social
influence can shape attitudes—that is, how persuasion occurs. This structure allows
instructors to focus on attitude formation and change in a unit that covers Chapter 5,
Chapter 6, and Chapter 7. We continue to examine social influence by examining the
nature of persuasion, conformity, and group influence.
Part Three considers the attitudinal and behavioural manifestations of both negative
and positive social relations. It flows from altruism to aggression and attraction to preju-
dice. Notably, in this edition we have condensed the material on prejudice into one chapter,
but still highlight both the causes and consequences of prejudice in Chapter 11. Comple-
menting this focus on relations between different social groups, we have expanded cover-
age of research on conflict and peacemaking so that it has its own, comprehensive coverage
in Chapter 12. Applications of social psychology are interwoven throughout every chapter.
This book also has a multicultural emphasis that we seek to stress in every chapter.
All authors are creatures of their cultures, and we are no exceptions. Yet by reading the
world’s social psychology literature, by corresponding with researchers worldwide, and
by examining Canada’s extensive research on the many cultures represented in this coun-
try, we have sought to present a multicultural text to a Canadian audience. The book’s

xi
xii Preface

focus remains the fundamental principles of social thinking, social influence, and social
relations as revealed by careful empirical research. However, hoping to broaden our
awareness of the human family, we aim to illustrate these principles multiculturally.
To assist readers, we have organized chapters into three to six readable-length sections.
Each begins with a preview and ends with a summary that highlights the organization and
key concepts.
We have sought, paragraph by paragraph, to craft the most engaging and effective book
possible. The definitions of key terms appear both in the text and in the Glossary.

Highlights of the Eighth Canadian Edition

• Current research. The text is updated throughout, with more than 750 new cita-
tions, to include the most cutting-edge research in social psychology. The latest
findings on automatic processing, evolutionary psychology, video games and
aggression, perceptions of media bias, counter-arguments and attitude inoculation,
culture and helping strangers, motivational sources of prejudice, and misperceptions
of out-groups are just some of the examples of updated research in this new edition.
• Application of social psychology. Social psychology is a very applied discipline.
Yet sometimes there is a gap between the research described on the page and how
it might roll out in real life—the connection can be a bit abstract. In this edition of
the text, we have tried hard to bridge that gap. Chapters feature a set of insights or
a hands-on activity that applies the science you are learning to the real world and
teaches you how to apply what you have learned to your everyday life.
• Additional coverage of gender. Research on gender continues to evolve. Gender is
examined by a number of different researchers in a number of different contexts. As
such, it seems that gender is less a subfield of social psychology and more a very
important variable that is studied in many contexts. Given this evolution, gender is
covered throughout the book in many subsections.
• Additional coverage of social cognitive neuroscience. New developments in brain
imaging and recording have provided a number of new insights in the field. These
findings make a substantial contribution to a number of chapters.
• Strong pedagogy. Readers benefit from features designed to engage interest while
encouraging understanding of core concepts. Pedagogical elements include section
previews; numerous photos, figures, and tables; a running glossary; Focus On boxes
highlighting applied concepts; The Inside Story vignettes, written by leading research-
ers; a summary of each major section within the text; the Summing Up sections
moved to the end of each chapter, to become a resource for students reviewing for
exams; and an index that highlights coverage of concepts such as culture, ethics,
gender, law and justice, and sexuality.
• Relevant examples. Drawn from the arts, business, sports, and current events,
the text’s examples appeal to students from a variety of majors and academic
backgrounds.

What’s New in the Eighth Canadian Edition

Highlights of new and updated material in the Eighth Canadian Edition include the
following.

Chapter 1: Introducing the Science and Methods of Social Psychology

• Revised chapter opener
• New discussion of correlation and causation
 Preface xiii

• New activity exploring potential causes for correlations

• Updated and recent research incorporated throughout the chapter

Chapter 2: The Self in a Social World

• New studies and examples about social comparison on Facebook
• Studies showing that individualism is on the rise globally
• New studies on how narcissism develops and how it impacts leadership
• New study and example of online “humblebragging” as a self-presentation
strategy
• Self-control research reports on when failures of self-control most likely appear and
when they do not, and how self-control exertion leading to self-control failure may
be a uniquely Western occurrence

Chapter 3: Social Beliefs and Judgments

• Current research on partisanship leading to trust or distrust in news media
• New priming research with a new figure and a subliminal-exposure example
• Example of how embodied cognition can be social and positive
• New overconfidence research on how people can change their opinions
• New confirmation bias research on “ideological echo chambers”
• Updated statistics on transportation safety as related to the availability heuristic
• New example about fake news as related to belief perseverance

Chapter 4: Behaviour and Attitudes

• Updated chapter opening
• Revised Activity box that asks readers to explore how they can understand, use, and
defeat compliance tactics
• Updated coverage of topic
• New research in multiple sections

Chapter 5: Persuasion
• Revised chapter opener
• Activity box that asks readers to deconstruct ads and understand the principles
underlying their construction
• New research and recent studies
• New explanations and current examples for elements of persuasion

Chapter 6: Conformity
• Revised chapter and section openers
• Updates of conformity and obedience examples
• Activity box that asks readers to reflect on personal experiences of conformity
• Enhanced discussion of conformity issues in online contexts
• Discussion on conformity in hazing and “frosh week” situations

Chapter 7: Group Influence

• Revised chapter and section openers
• Enhanced discussion of group polarization on the Internet and in politics
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xiv Preface

• Revised Activity asking readers to reflect on their own experience of group

influence
• Updated and recent research incorporated throughout the chapter

Chapter 8: Altruism: Helping Others

• Revised chapter and section openers
• Updated and recent research incorporated throughout the chapter
• Revised Activity box that asks readers to consider their definition of altruism as
experienced by them
• Updated discussion of the iconic Kitty Genovese case that launched this line of
research
• Discussion of how the reader can encourage people to help in an emergency
situation

Chapter 9: Aggression: Hurting Others

• Analysis of studies confirming that alcohol consumption is associated with higher
levels of aggression especially among men
• New studies on testosterone and alcohol
• New studies with examples of relative deprivation
• Added examples of aggressive cues related to anger
• Reporting on 130 studies across 10 countries showing laws restricting firearm sales
producing reductions in gun-related crimes
• Research showing the connection between sexually explicit/violent movie watching
and dating sexual violence; how pornography viewing makes people more likely to
be sexually aggressive
• Research showing evidence of the link between violent video games and aggression
and fewer prosocial acts
• Research showing how aggressive behaviour spreads in social groups through
modelling
• New examples of how to reduce aggression

Chapter 10: Attraction and Intimacy: Liking and Loving Others

• Research showing how mere exposure by reading can change attitudes
• Study showing that too much exposure can have a negative effect
• Discussion and research example about online dating sites using similarity as a
basis for matching
• Studies showing how passionate love involves the same brain reward pathways as
addictions to substances
• Research revealing how anxiously attached people can become anxiously attached
to their smartphones
• Research showing that couples report more relationship satisfaction when their
partner understands their perspective in a disagreement

Chapter 11: Prejudice

• Previously separate chapters on the sources and consequences of prejudice have
been combined into a single, comprehensive chapter
• Added examples of prejudice in politics
 Preface xv

• Example of how strong beliefs can exaggerate reality

• Added discussion of criticisms of the Implicit Association Test (IAT)
• Updated statistics on racial prejudice, hate crime incidents, and White nationalist views
• Many new examples of favouritism in employment discrimination
• New reporting on implicit-bias training for police and in the political arena
• New reporting on hostile and benevolent sexism
• Discussion and
S
statistics on job discrimination against gay and transgender people
• New discussion on consequences of homophobia and transphobia
• Added research study showing that individuals differ in own-race bias

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between attitudes and actions?A

Key Terms
nd how
past or h
a dw y
Key terms are defined in the text and
v we in e utu e
n a v Glossary.
ri ty of trait

Quotations
“A
o y n
Found throughout the eve text,
yone e se quotations
” from sphilosophers,u writers,b and scientists highlight
had actu lly sur eyed the stud nts at e beginning of term and could com-

how social psychological concepts

Anonymous, somet mes attr but d to J m off relate
at the st to
rt fmany aspects
term than ofy everyday
they act al rated themsel society.
es as e n

y
Ross and Wilson (2002) also observe that we perceive positive past
“The past is to be respected selves as psychologically closer in time and negative past selves as more
and acknowledged, but not to distant. Students who recall being popular in high school report that high
be worshipped. It is our future school feels more recent (“It seems like yesterday!”) than those who recall
in which we will find our high school as a more socially awkward time (“It’s ancient history”). This
greatness.” tendency extends to our social groups: German but not Canadian students
Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Canadian Museum felt as though the Holocaust had occurred in the more distant past when
of History Library they read about German atrocities committed at that time (Peetz, Gunn, &
Wilson, 2010).
xvi Preface

The Inside Story

In their own words, prominent social psychologists explain the motives and methods
behind the
35 studies conducted
PART in their
OC AL areas of expertise. These vignettes give students a
REL TIONS
first-hand account of studies cited in the text.

THE INSIDE STORY

I vividly remember the afternoon I began to
appreciate the far-reaching implications of
physical attractiveness. Graduate student Karen
Dion (now a professor at the University of
Toronto) learned that some researchers at our
Institute of Child Development had collected
popularity ratings from nursery school chil-
dren and taken a photo of each child. Although
teachers and caregivers of children had per-
suaded us that “all children are beautiful” and
no physical-attractiveness discriminations could
be made, Dion suggested we instruct some
people to rate each child’s looks and correlate Source: ©andresr/E+/Getty Images.
these with popularity. After doing so, we real- assumed, with a host of implications that investi-
ized our long shot had hit home: Attractive chil- gators are still tracing.
dren were popular children. Indeed, the effect
was far more potent than we and others had Ellen Berscheid, University of Minnesota

Focus On
In these boxes, a 7point–counterpoint
3
approach
l t
to issues encourages students to apply the
concepts of social psychology to their real-world experience.

FOCUS ON

money, Happiness, and Helping

imagine that you won a million dollars in the lot- bill (either $5 or $20) and told them to spend
tery. How would you spend it? Do you think that the money on either a gift for themselves or a
spending the money would make you happy? if gift for someone else or a charitable donation.
you are like most people, you probably thought later that evening, they called the students and
about buying some nice things for yourself with asked them how happy they were. Students who
the money. Recent research by university of Brit- had spent the money on themselves (regard-
ish Columbia researcher elizabeth Dunn and her less of the amount they had spent) were less
colleagues (Dunn, Aknin, & norton, 2008), how- happy than those who had spent money on oth-
ever, suggests that one of the common ways in ers. these experimental findings mirror what is
which we mispredict our future emotional reac- seen in correlational data as well. When people
tions is that we think that spending money on make more money, on average, this only has a
ourselves will make us happy when usually it small effect on their happiness; but if they spend
does not. in contrast, we think that spending money on others—regardless of how much they
money on other people will bring us little joy make—they tend to be a lot happier.
when, in fact, spending money on others usually this line of research is a dramatic example of
makes us quite happy. how the internal rewards for helping others can
to test the impact of spending money on have a larger impact on happiness than even a
oneself versus others, Dunn and her colleagues powerful external reward like money.
gave students an envelope with a fresh new

Applying Social Psychology

As we noted above, most chapters have a hands-on Activity box that applies the science
you are learning
2 to the
CHAP ER 1 real
ntr world
d cInG and
t S teaches
Ie ce a you how to apply
M thodS cIal PS what you have learned to
c loGy
your everyday life.

Activity: Is Common Sense Really That Common?

for each statement, please determine whether you think it is true or false.
1. T F although women’s salaries in 1994 were approximately $14 000 less than
men’s, women’s incomes have gradually increased so that today we are see-
ing women’s salaries at levels comparable to those of their male counterparts.
2. T F due to the high cost of living, the number of full-time workers in a single
household has increased dramatically over the past 10 years.
3. T F canada is known for its attitudes of acceptance of others and its respect
for human rights and freedoms. It is, therefore, not unexpected that we would
have fewer active terrorist groups here than in any other Western democracy.
4. T F there is a positive relationship between how much money we make and
how happy we are. People who are more wealthy are overall happier.
 Preface xvii

Summing Up
Found at the end of each major section wh within
ha pens wh aw chapter,
ct con ra y to ethis
rly d feature summarizes key
ss
ned a t ud s: We
f ti
concepts and draws connections
hen, between
xplains attitude c important
ange In itu tions w issues.
d
ere our attit

SUMMING UP
How Well Do Our Attitudes Predict Our Behaviours?
• Attitudes do not predict behaviour as well as most people believe.
• Attitudes are better predictors of behaviour, however, when social influences
are minimal, attitudes are specific to behaviours, and attitudes are potent
(strong and on one’s mind).

When Does Our Behaviour Affect Our Attitudes?

• When taking on a role, our actions in that role often shape our attitudes.
• When we state a belief (even if we do not initially believe it), our words often
shape our attitudes.
• When we engage in small actions inconsistent with our attitudes, these small
actions can lead to larger actions that can dramatically shape our attitudes
and behaviour.
xviii Preface

In Appreciation
We would like to thank the many people, past and present, who helped us in writing and
revising this book. The following Canadian scholars provided thoughtful and thorough
reviews, and their suggestions have greatly improved each edition:

Craig Blatz, Grant MacEwan Tara MacDonald, Queen’s University

University Stacey L. MacKinnon, University of
Susan Boon, University of Calgary Prince Edward Island
Rena Borovilo, Humber College Daniel McGrath, University of
David Bourgeois, Saint Mary’s Calgary
University Christopher Motz, Carleton
Delbert A. Brodie, St. Thomas University
University Tom Murphy, Western University
Irene Cheung, Western University Jennifer Ostovich, McMaster
Greg Chung-Yan, University of Windsor University
Ken Cramer, University of Windsor Stephen B. Perrott, Mount Saint
Jill Esmonde, Georgian College Vincent University
Deborah Flynn, Nipissing University Jason Plaks, University of Toronto
Ken Fowler, Memorial University of St. George
Newfoundland Kelley Robinson, University of
James Gibson, University of Victoria Manitoba
Gerald Goldberg, York University Stanley Sadava, Brock University
Naomi Grant, Mount Royal University Saba Safdar, University of Guelph
Stephanie Hancock, University of Rodney Schmaltz, University of
Lethbridge Alberta
Gabriella Ilie, University of Toronto Kelly Schwartz, University of
Scarborough Calgary
Linda Jessup, University of Waterloo Monika Stelzl, St. Thomas
Erika Koch, St. Francis Xavier University
University Mahin Tavakoli, Carleton University
Diane Lachapelle, University of New Warren Thorngate, Carleton
Brunswick University
Stephen Livingstone, University of Susan Weir, University of Regina
Toronto Anne E. Wilson, Wilfrid Laurier
Christine Lomore, St. Francis Xavier University
University

We also want to thank the editorial staff at McGraw Hill for their excellent work. Alex
Campbell followed the vision for the new edition of the text. Veronica Saroli provided edito-
rial feedback and assistance throughout the development of the manuscript. Jack Whelan
provided excellent help in guiding the book through the final changes needed for publication.

Christian Jordan Steven M. Smith

Wilfrid Laurier University Saint Mary’s University
Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5 Halifax, NS B3H 3C3
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
Random documents with unrelated
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63 Seat unsuccessfully contested by D. J. Ball.

64 Seat unsuccessfully contested by John B. Rice.

65 Seat successfully contested by George A. Hinsdale.

66 Seat unsuccessfully contested by Michael Beshoar.

67 Vice James H. Pinkerton, resigned.

68 Vice D. D. Belden, resigned.

Seat successfully contested by William M. Roworth.

69 Absent during session.

70 A. W. Archibald successfully contested his seat.

71 Absent during the whole session.

72 Seat contested by Simon Cort.

73 Seat unsuccessfully contested by Joseph T. Boyd.

74 Absent during session.

75 Ex officio as Territorial Treasurer.

76 Ex-officio President of the Senate.

77 Not eligible for re-election.

78 Ex-officio State Librarian.

79 Seat contested by Thomas M. Patterson to 45th Congress.

80 Seat contested by M. C. Butler (Democrat).

81 In controversy.
 82 In controversy.

83 Died in office April 4, 1841, when Vice President Tyler

succeeded him.

84 Died in office July 9, 1850, when Vice-President Fillmore

succeeded him.

85 Assassinated April 14, 1865, when Vice-President Johnson

succeeded him.

86 Died in office November 22, 1875.

87 Republicans.

88 Biennially.

89 Organized from other counties by the General Assembly.

Transcriber’s Note:
Page 152: “SECTION XI” changed to read “SECTION IX”,
misnumbered.

Obvious printer errors corrected silently.

Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LEGISLATIVE
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