Libros:

NCBI - artículos
Molecular Biology of The cell

1.- ¿Cómo defines la ciencia?

Estudio que trata de explicar los fenómenos e interacciones en nuestro mundo
2.- ¿A qué te suena Bioquímica?
El estudio de la materia aplicada en áreas de la salud(vida)
3.- ¿Conoces el método científico? Explicarlo en pocas palabras
Serie de pasos que te permiten resolver problemas de forma metódica y ordenada
4.- ¿Cuáles son los organelos celulares?
Son las partes que conforman una célula
5.- ¿Cuáles son las biomoléculas más importantes?
Carbohidratos, proteínas, ácidos nucleicos, lípidos
6.- ¿Cuáles son los elementos químicos de la vida?
H2O, Co2
7.- ¿Qué y cuáles son los ácidos nucleicos?
desoxirribonucleico, ribonucleico
8.- ¿Cuál es el dogma de la Biología molecular?
Replicación, Transcripción(DNA - RNA), Reproducción(RNA - Proteínas)
9.- Menciona 3 aminoácidos
desoxirribonucleico, ribonucleico
10.- ¿Qué es una enzima?
Molécula que sirve para descomponer alimentos principalmente en el estómago

CELL BIOLOGY
Cell: Structural, functional and biological unit of all living organisms

Typical Cells:
Eukaryotic - animal, fungus, plants
Prokaryotic - bacteria
In the body: Stems cells, bone cells, blood cells, muscle cells, fat cells, skins cells, skin cells,
nerve cells, endothelial cells, sex cells, pancreatic cells, cancer cells

Archeas: Changes in some cell components chemistry, like cell membrane. Almost
impossible to grow outside their habitat

Virus: Not dead nor alive, they only exist. Not made up of cells but can replicate and
adapt to its environment

Cell Organelles: Subcellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform
in a cell (organs)

1.- The nucleus: Control center of the cell that contains coded directions for the production of
proteins and cell divisions(All eukaryotic cells).

2.- Ribosome: Organelle that is the site of protein synthesis(All cell).

3.- Endoplasmic reticulum: A highly folded membrane that is the site of protein synthesis(All
eukaryotic cells).
4.- Golgi apparatus: A flattened stack of tubular membranes that modifies protein and
packages them for distribution outside the cell(All eukaryotic cells).

5.- Vacuoles: A membrane-bound vesicle for the temporary storage of materials(Plant cells
and some animal cells).

6.- Lysosome: A vesicle that contains digestive enzymes from the breakdown of excess or
worn-out cellular substances(Animal cells and rare in plant cells).

7.- Centrioles: Organelles that occur in pairs and are important for cell division(animal cells
and most protist cells).

Mitochondria: A membrane-Bound organelle that makes energy available to the rest of the
cell (all eukaryotic cells).

Chloroplast: A double.membrane organelle with thylakoid contains chlorophyll, where

photosynthesis takes place(plant cells and some protist cells).

Cell wall: An inflexible barrier that provides support and protects the plant cells(plant cells,
fungi cells and some prokaryotes).

Cilia: Projections from cell surfaces that aid in locomotion and feeding; also used to sweep
substances along the surface(some animal cells, protist cells and prokaryotes.)

Flagella: Projections that aid in locomotion and feeding (Some animal cells, prokaryotes and
some plant cells.

Cell Membrane:

Thin, flexible and relatively stable. lamellar

structure that surround all cell.

- General function:
Non covalent two dimensional polymers
Transport functions between extracellular and
intracellular compartments
Versatile and dynamic cellular components
Prevent the exit of molecules and ions out of the
cell
Entry of nutrients and the elimination of waste products
 - Components:Lipids, Sugar, Proteins, Phospholipids, Cholesterol (mainly)

Phospholipids bilayers:

Polar heads exposed to water with hydrophobic

tails buried in the interior of the membrane
Heads: Hydrophilic. Phosphate with glycerine

Tail: Hydrophobic. Saturated and unsaturated Tails.

Acids. Non-Polar

Non polar: Bonding electrons shared equally

Polar: Bonding electron shared unequally.

Ionic: Complete transfer of one or more valence

electrons

- Polarity:
Tails don't allow polar molecules to
pass in or out the membrane glucose
and proteins.

Small uncharged molecules can enter

any time. Large polar molecules and
ions have more problems to enter.
 - Properties
Two dimensional fluids in which lipids and proteins are to rotate and move in lateral
directions.

Shorter lipids are more liquid.

Individual phospholipidscan
rotate and move laterally within
a bilayer.

Cholesterol:
Hydrocarbon rings of cholesterol interact with the regions of the fatty acid chains.
- Decreases mobility, making the membrane more
rigid
- Insertion of cholesterol interferes with interaction
between fatty acid chains, maintains membrane
fluidity
- It maintains the membrane rigid
Proteins:
- The major constituent of all cell membranes (25%-75%)
- Mosaic fluid, 1972
- Two important groups based on the association with membrane
- Integral membrane: embedded
- Peripheral membrane proteins: periphery

Membrane Transport

- Active transport: Requires chemical

energy to transport molecules
- Passive transport: does not require an
external energy

Passive transport: DIFFUSION

Small molecules simpy dissolves in the phospo layers.
- No membrane proteins are involved
- The direction of transport is determined simply
by relative concentrations of molecules inside
and outside of the cell
- Water, gases, and uncharged molecules
- OSMOSIS enters only for water, it makes salt or potassium attract water to cells
Passive transport: FACILITATED
Differs from diffusion because molecules not dissolve in the phospholipid layer
- Mediated by proteins that enable the transported molecules to cross the membrane
without direct interaction with its hydrophobic interior.
- Allows polar and charged molecules to cross the plasma membrane
- Goes for carbohydrates amino acids nucleosides and ions

- Carrier channel: Big

size ,molecules (sugar
acids, nucleoacids)
- Channel: pore within
the membrane (small
molecules)

Active Transport: NEEDS ENERGY

- Energy provided by ATP
- Molecules go from a lower to higher concentration
- Ion pumps (Na, K, ATPase)

Primary active transport: NA K pump

1. The protein s initially open to the cell interior, allowing sodium ions to adhere to the
high affinity
2. Binding of sodium induces the phosphorylation of the pump via ATp hydrolysis
3. This chemical modification allows the po¿ump to open to the cell exterior
4. Potassium ions bind to the pump causing the release of the attached phosphate
group
5. Removal of that phosphate group returns the pump to its starting confirmation facing
the cell inside
6. Again, the pump reverses its affinity from potassium to sodium so the potassium ions
detach as the sodium ions did on the outside
7. Now, the pump can bind to sodium as before and repeat the process
CAR ACTIVE RECALL:

What's the purpose I've found for studying the cell membrane?
- To understand more deeply the initiation of multiple processes, causes and effects
that apply in multiple if not all cases.

What's its significance in health science?

- Mainly, it's like the deepest gear of a clock. Without it, everything would not work.

How can I study cell membrane in the career I choose?

- It's part of the basis of my career. In biotechnology we need to understand how, why,
when, who and what is responsible for certain processes of the many different.
Cytoplasm
From greek= “kytos=covering”
Gel like substance that fills the
inside of a cell. Made up of water,
ions and macromolecules.

- Maintain shape
- Medium for movement of
molecular and organelles
- Contains the ions for
osmotic balance inside and
outside the cell
- Cellular and metabolic
processes
- Mitosis and meiosis
- Protein synthesis
- Glycosis
- Mitochondrial respiration
Parts:
- Cytosol: Liquid medium of the cytoplasm (semisolid), mostly water, sugar, ions, acids,
etc. (50% of cells volume)
- Organelles: subcellular structures that pérform specific functions
- Inclusions: suspended particles such as granules (nutrients, proteins and pigments).
Specially found in immune cells
- Basophil

Cytoskeleton:
Complex network of proteins filaments and tubules:
Cytoskeleton functions:
- Supports the plasma membrane
- Gives and overall shape to the cells
- Correct positioning of organelles
- Provides track for the transport vesicles
- Allows the cell to move
Three types of filaments, elongated chains of proteins:
- Microfilaments
- intermediate filaments
- and microtubules
They are distinct in their structure and specific function but all work together.

Microfilaments:
Mostly composed of the protein actin
(wound in spiral or double helix)
- Cytokinesis, division of cytoplasm
during cell division
- Cell motility (assemble and
disassemble)
- Highways for cargoes carried by
myosin ( walk alone the filaments
- Cytoplasmic transport of nutrients,
proteins and cell organelles
 Troponin: promotes contraction during work
Tropomyosin: blocks contraction during rest

Intermediate filaments
Made of multiple strands of fibrous proteins wound together

- First class of proteins that compose cytoskeleton

- Between microfilaments
- and microtubules
- Made up from keratin
- Support the nuclear envelope of the nucleus
- Maintain cell shape bear tension and general support to the cell
- Resist stress Anchor the organelles

Microtubules
The largest of the cytoskeleton fibers
Made up of tubulin proteins
From flagella tails that propel a cell forward (sperm)
Form cilia (appendages) that increase a cells surface area
Help the cell resist compression forces
During cell division separate chromosomes giving one copy to the new cells
Tracks for vesicles and other cargoes transportation within the cell
Mitochondria: The Powerhouse of the cell
Organelles found mostly in eukaryotic cells. Believed originated from a bacteria that were
engulfed by primitive eukaryotic cells and established a symbiotic relationship. Most of the
oxygen (98%) consumed for metabolic energy
The mitochondria can be stressed by environmental factors.
Cells can have 1000-2500 mitochondria.

Function:
- To generate chemical energy needed to
power the cell's biochemical reactions.
(adenosine triphosphate)

- ATP production: through oxidative

phosphorylation
- Protein synthesis: Due their own DNA
- Calcium regulation: Acts as calcium stores
and plays role in cell signaling
- Apoptosis: Mitochondria are involved in
apoptosis or programmed cell death
- Citric acid cycle (Kerbs):
- Final step of catabolism or oxidative
degradation for carbohydrates,
amino acids and fatty. A source of numerous biosynthetic intermediates
- Pyruvate (product of glycolysis) is transported into mitochondria
- These transferred electrons to oxidative phosphorylation through the
Electron Transport chain

- Oxidative Phosphorylation:
 - Breakdown of carbohydrates and fatty acids
- Electrons derived from NADH and FADH, combine with O2, and the energy
released from theses oxidation reduction reactions is used to drive the
synthesis ATP from ADP
- Proteins in the mitochondrial inner membrane shuttle electron through a
series of oxidation reduction
- Oxygen converted to carbon dioxide and water;
- Protons being pumped from the cytosolic side of the inner membrane in to the
inner membrane

Structure of mitochondria:

- Outer membrane: Permeable to many small molecules due to the presence of pores
formed by proteins called porins
- Intermembrane space: The space between the outer and inner membranes
- Inner membrane: Impermeable to most molecules and contains numerous folds
called cristae where the proteins involved in the electrons transport chain and
oxidative phosphorylation are located
- Matrix: The inner space of the mitochondrion contains mitochondrial DNA,
ribosomes, and various enzymes.
- Cristae: Folds in the inner membrane.
El descubrimiento de la bacteria J4-IM3Z ocurrió de una manera bastante inusual, pero lo
que más sorprendió fue cómo afecta al sistema inmunológico de los humanos y, en
especial, a los perros.

1. Recolección de la muestra: Un día, mientras caminaba por un maizal cerca de mi casa, vi

una moneda bajo una roca que parecía estar sucia con excremento de algún animal. Decidí
recoger la moneda y, de paso, tomé una muestra del área contaminada para llevarla al
laboratorio por curiosidad.

2. Siembra y aislamiento: Puse la muestra en un medio especial para que las bacterias
crecieran y la dejé durante dos días a una temperatura constante. Entre varias colonias que
se formaron, una en particular llamó mi atención por su color y forma extraña, así que decidí
separarla para estudiarla.

3. Observación microscópica: Luego, utilicé un método para teñir la bacteria y verla mejor al
microscopio. Descubrí que tenía una forma curva y se movía lentamente, lo que me hizo
sospechar que podía ser algo raro.

4. Pruebas básicas: Para aprender más sobre la bacteria, hice algunas pruebas sencillas
que revelaron ciertas características típicas de organismos que pueden causar problemas
en otros seres vivos.

5. Secuenciación de ADN: Analizé su ADN para confirmar si era una bacteria nueva. No
había registros previos de esta especie, así que le di el nombre de J4-IM3Z.

6. Impacto en el sistema inmune humano: Cuando expuse células humanas a esta bacteria,
noté que debilitaba el sistema inmunológico. Las defensas naturales no podían hacer su
trabajo correctamente, lo que facilitaba la aparición de infecciones y posibles problemas de
salud, como tumores en la próstata.

7. Efecto en el sistema inmune de los perros: En estudios adicionales con perros, descubrí
que J4-IM3Z tenía un efecto mucho más fuerte en ellos. Su sistema inmune se debilitaba
rápidamente, y no podían defenderse de enfermedades comunes. En algunos casos, la
bacteria provocaba reacciones graves y debilitaba todo su organismo.

8. Conclusión: El descubrimiento de J4-IM3Z no solo mostró que puede ser perjudicial para
el sistema inmune de los humanos, sino que también afecta negativamente a otras especies
como los perros, lo que la convierte en una bacteria muy peligrosa y digna de más estudios.

Este hallazgo abre nuevas preguntas sobre cómo esta bacteria puede afectar a diferentes
seres vivos de manera tan diversa y preocupante.

Así se ve la bacteria bajo un microscopio:

Nucleus:
Distinguishes eukaryotic from prokaryotic.
Also, repository of DNA

DNA= mRNA (transcription)

mRNA= protein (translation)
*Only translation passes through cytoplasm

Endomplasmic reticulum (ER)

“Network of membrane enclosed (entirely) tubules and sacs that extend from the nuclear
membrane throughout the cytoplasm”
Is the largest organelle of most eukaryotic cells (10% of the cell)
Rough: Has ribosomes and process proteins.
- Nucleus-> mRNA-> rough ER-> Golgi-> plasma membrane-> lysosomes or vesicles.
- Polypeptide (- 99 amino acids)/ (+100, amino acids)

Smooth: Process lipids.

- Membrane lipids are synthesized
- Phospholipids
- Glycolipids
- Cholesterol
-

● Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus processes and sorts proteins from the ER, sending them to lysosomes,
the plasma membrane, or for secretion.

It is composed of flattened sacs (cisternae) with distinct regions for different stages of
processing.

Proteins enter at the cis face and exit at the trans face, undergoing modifications such as
glycosylation.

The Golgi also synthesizes glycolipids, sphingomyelin, and, in plant cells, complex
polysaccharides for the cell wall.

Proteins are exported via vesicles, with some following a constitutive pathway, while others
are secreted in response to signals.

Lysosomal proteins are sorted by mannose-6-phosphate tags; in plants, proteins are

directed to vacuoles.