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UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE

International Examinations

Endorsed for full syllabus coverage

Sylvia Langfield and Dave Duddell

UH.

a/t_oU>

Sylvia Langfield and Dave Duddell

Cambridge International

AS and A level

Computer

Science

Coursebook

Cambridge

UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE

UNIVERSITY PRESS

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of

education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

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© Cambridge University Press 2015

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First published 2015

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The past paper questions on pages 107-108 and 316 are taken from the 9608 Specimen
papers 1 and 3 respectively
and are reproduced with the permission of Cambridge International Examinations.

All other examination-style questions and comments that appear in this book were written by
the authors.

Contents
Contents

Introduction v

PART 1 THEORY FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 1 Information representation 2

Chapter 2 Communication and Internet technologies 18

Chapter 3 Hardware 35

Chapter 4 Logic gates and logic circuits 49

Chapter 5 Processor fundamentals 59

Chapter 6 Assembly language programming 69

Chapter 7 System software 78

Chapter 8 Data security, privacy and integrity 88

Chapter 9 Ethics and ownership 99

Chapter 10 Database and data modelling 109

PART 2 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM¬

SOLVING AND PROGRAMMING SKILLS

Chapter 11 Algorithm design and problem solving 125

Chapter 12 Stepwise refinement and structure charts 155

Chapter 13 Programming and data representation 176

Chapter 14 Structured programming 212

Chapter 15 Software development 228

PART 3 ADVANCED THEORY

Chapter 16 Data representation 246

Chapter 17 Communication and Internet technologies 258

Chapter 18 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 270

Chapter 19 Processor and computer architecture 282

Chapter 20 System software 287

Chapter 21 Security 303

Chapter 22 Monitoring and control systems 310

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

PART 4 FURTHER PROBLEM-SOLVING

AND PROGRAMMING SKILLS

Chapter 23 Computational thinking and problem-solving 317

Chapter 24 Algorithm design methods 337

Chapter 25 Recursion 347

Chapter 26 Further programming 356

Chapter 27 Object-oriented programming (OOP) 368

Chapter 28 Low level programming 394

Chapter 29 Declarative programming 405

Chapter 30 Software development 420

Glossary 430

Index 434

Acknowledgements 442

Introduction

This full-colour, illustrated textbook has been written by experienced authors specifically for
the Cambridge International AS and A Level Computer Science syllabus ( 9608 ).

The presentation of the chapters in this book reflects the content of the syllabus:

• The book is divided into four parts, each of which is closely matched to the corresponding
part of the syllabus.

• Each chapter defines a set of learning objectives which closely match the learning
objectives set out in the syllabus.

• The syllabus defines two assessment objectives: A 01 Knowledge with understanding and
A 02 Skills. Papers 1 and 3 have a major focus on A01 and Papers 2 and 4 have a major
focus on A 02 . The chapters in Parts 1 and 3 have been written with emphasis on the
promotion of knowledge and understanding. The chapters in Parts 2 and 4 have been
written with an emphasis on skill development.
The chapters in Parts 1 and 3 have a narrative. We would encourage students to read the
whole chapter first before going back to revisit the individual sections.

The chapters in Parts 2 and 4 contain many more tasks. We would encourage students to
approach these chapters step-by-step. Whenever a task is presented, this should be carried
out before progressing further.

In particular, Chapter 11 (Algorithm design and problem-solving) may be worked through in

parallel with Chapter 13 (Programming and data representation). For example, Task 13.03
is based on Worked Example 11 . 03 . After studying this worked example, students may
wish
to cover the first part of Chapter 13 and write the program for Task 13 . 03 . This will give the
student the opportunity to test their understanding of an algorithm by implementing it in
their chosen programming language. Then further study of Chapter 11 is recommended
before attempting further tasks in Chapter 13 .

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

How to use this book: a guided tour

Chapter - each chapter begins with

a short list of the learning objectives
and concepts that are explained in it.

Chapter 1

Information Representation

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of the basis of different number

systems

■ show understanding of, and be able to represent,

character data in its internal binary form

■ show understanding of how data for a bitmapped or

vector graphic image is encoded

■ show understanding of how sound is represented and

encoded

■ show understanding of the characteristics of video streams

■ show understanding of how digital data can be

compressed.
TASK 1.01

Convert the denary number 374 into a hexadecimal number.

Convert the hexadecimal number 3A2C to a denary number.

vi

% int«

Discussion Point - discussion points

intended for class discussion.

Key Term -clear and

straightforward explanations of
the most important terms in each
chapter.

0=

Byte: a group of eight bits treated as a single unit

Task - exercises

for the student to Question - questions

test their skills. for the student to test

their knowledge and

understanding.

Question:

Construct a partial drawing list for the graphic shown in figure 1.06. You can take
measurements from the image and use the bottom left corner of the box as the origin of a
coordinate system. You can invent your own format for the drawing list.

Discussion Point

What is the two’s complement of the binary value 1000? Are you surprised by this?

Extension Question:

Graphic files can be stored in a number of formats. For example, JPEG, GIF, PNG and TIFF
are
just a few of the possibilities. What compression techniques, if any, do these use?
Extension Question - extended questions for
consideration of more advanced aspects or topics
beyond the immediate scope of the Cambridge
International AS and A Level syllabus.

Tip - quick notes to highlight

key facts and important
points.

Or

For multiples of bytes, the terminology used has recently changed. Traditionally, computer
scientists have used the terminology kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte etc. in a way that
conflicted
with the definition of these prefixes established by the International System of Units (SI).
Following the SI convention, one kilobyte would represent 1000 bytes. Computer scientists
have used one kilobyte to represent 1024 bytes. There have been a number of variations on
how this was written, for example Kbyte, KB or kB but the basic contradiction remained. In
order to resolve this unsatisfactory situation, the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) in 1998 proposed a new set of definitions for such quantities. 1024 bytes is now
identified
as one kibibyte where the kibi can be considered as representing kitobinary. This proposal
has
been accepted by other international standards bodies.

Worked Example - step-by-step examples

of solving problems or implementing specific
techniques.

Converting a negative number expressed in two’s complement form to the

corresponding denary number.

Consider the two’s complement binary number 10110001.

Method 1. Convert to the corresponding positive binary number then find the denary
value

Converting to two’s complement leaves unchanged the 1 in the least significant bit
position then changes all of the remaining bits to produce 01001111. _

Summary Checklist - at the end of each chapter

to review what the student has learned.

Exam-style Questions

1 A file contains binary coding. The following are two successive bytes in the file:
10010101 00110011

One possibility for the information stored is that the two bytes together represent one
unsigned integer binary
number.

i Give the denary number corresponding to this. Show your working. [2]

ii Give the hexadecimal number corresponding to this. Show your working. [2]

Give one example of when a hexadecimal representation is used. [1]

Exam-style Questions - Exam-style questions

for the student to test their skills, knowledge and
understanding at the end of each chapter

Part 1 Theory Fundamentals

Chapter 1

Information Representation

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

m show understanding of the basis of different number

systems

■ show understanding of, and be able to represent,

character data in its internal binary form

■ show understanding of how data for a bitmapped or

vector graphic image is encoded

■ show understanding of how sound is represented and

encoded

■ show understanding of the characteristics of video streams

■ show understanding of how digital data can be

compressed.

1.01 Number systems

As a child we first encounter numbers when learning to count. Specifically we learn to count
using 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. These are natural numbers expressed in what can be described
as the denary, decimal or base-10 system of numbers. Had we learned to count using 0,1,2,
3,4,5,6,7,8,9 we would have more clearly understood that the number system was base-10
because there are 10 individual, distinct symbols or digits available to express a number.

A little later we learn that the representation of a number has the least significant digit at the
right-hand end. For example, writing a denary number as 346 has the meaning:

3 x 10 2 + 4 x 10 1 + 6 x 10°

All computer technology is engineered with components that represent or recognise only
two states. For this reason, familiarity with the binary number system is essential for an
understanding of computing systems. The binary number system is a base-2 system which
uses just two symbols, 0 and 1. These binary digits are usually referred to as ‘bits’.

All data inside a computer system are stored and manipulated using a binary code.
However,
if there is ever a need to document some of this binary code outside of the computer system
it is not helpful to use the internal code.

Instead, it is far better to use a hexadecimal representation for documentation purposes.

Whether or not a code represents a binary number, it can be treated as such and converted
to the corresponding hexadecimal number. This makes the representation more compact
and, as a result, more intelligible.

Hexadecimal numbers are in the base-16 system and therefore require 16 individual
symbols
to represent a number. The symbols chosen are 0-9 supplemented with A-F. A few examples
of the hexadecimal representation of binary numbers represented by eight bits are shown in
Table 1.01.

Binary

Hexadecimal

Denary

00001000

08

00001010

0A

10

00001111
OF

15

11111111

FF

255

Table 1.01 Hexadecimal representations of binary numbers and the denary values

Note that each grouping of four bits is represented by one hexadecimal symbol. Also note
that it is common practice to include leading zeros in a hexadecimal number when used in
this way.

Question 1.01

Does a computer ever use hexadecimal numbers?

Converting between binary and denary numbers

To convert a binary number to a denary number the straightforward method is to sum the
individual position values knowing that the least significant bit represents 2°, the next one 2
1
and so on. This is illustrated by conversion of the binary number 11001 as shown in Figure
1.01.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Position values

2 4 = 16

00

II

ro

<N

22=4

21=2

iH

II

o
CM

Binary digits

Figure 1.01 Position values for a binary number

Starting from the least significant bit, the denary equivalent is 1 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 16 = 25.

An alternative method is to use the fact that 1 x 16 is equal to 2 x 8 and so on. To carry out
the conversion you start at the most significant bit and successively multiply by two and add
the result to the next digit:

1x2=2
add 2 to 1, then 2x3=6
add 6 to 0, then 2 x 6 = 12
add 12 to 0, then 2 x 12 = 24
add 24 to 1 to give 25.

When converting a denary number to binary the procedure is successive division by two
with the remainder noted at each stage. The converted number is then given as the set of
remainders in reverse order.

This is illustrated by the conversion of denary 246 to binary:

246 * 2
123 - 2

61 t 2

30 t 2
15-2
7-2
3-2
1-2

Thus the binary equivalent of denary 246 is 11110110. As a check that the answer is sensib
you should remember that you are expecting an 8-bit binary number because the largest
denary number that can be represented in seven bits is 2 7 — 1 which is 127. Eight bits can
represent values from 0 to 2 8 -1 which is 255.
123 with remainder 0
61 with remainder 1
30 with remainder 1
15 with remainder 0
7 with remainder 1
3 with remainder 1
1 with remainder 1
0 with remainder 1

Converting hexadecimal numbers

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, each digit is treated separately and converted
into a 4-bit binary equivalent, remembering that F converts to 1111, E converts to 1110 and
so on. Subsequent conversion of the resulting binary to denary can then be done if needed.

To convert a binary number to hexadecimal you start with the four least significant bits
and convert them to one hexadecimal digit. You then proceed upwards towards the most
significant bit, successively taking groupings of four bits and converting each grouping to the
corresponding hexadecimal digit.

It is possible to convert a denary number directly to hexadecimal but it is easier to convert

first to binary before completing the conversion.

TASK 1.01

Convert the denary number 374 into a hexadecimal number.

Convert the hexadecimal number 3A2C to a denary number.

Chapter 1: Information Representation

1.02 Internal coding of numbers

The discussion here relates only to the coding of integer values. The coding of non-integer
numeric values (real numbers) is considered in Chapter 16 (Section 16.03).

It is convenient at this point to emphasise that the coding used in a computer system is
almost exclusively based on bits being grouped together with eight bits representing a byte.
A byte, or a group of bytes, might represent a binary value but equally might represent a
code. For either case, the right-hand bit is referred to as the least significant and the left-
hand
bit as the most significant or top bit. Furthermore, the bits in a byte are numbered right to left
starting at bit 0 and ending at bit 7.

to

KEY TERMS
Byte: a group of eight bits treated as a single unit

Coding for integers

Computers have to store integer values fora number of purposes. Sometimes the
requirement is only for an unsigned integer to be stored. However, in many cases a signed
integer is needed where the coding has to identify whether the number is positive or
negative.

An unsigned integer can be stored simply as a binary number. The only decision to be made
is how many bytes should be used. If the choice is to use two bytes (16 bits) then the range
of
values that can be represented is 0 to 2 16 -1 which is 0 to 65535.

If a signed integer is to be represented, the obvious choice is to use one bit to represent
the + or - sign. The remaining bits then represent the value. This is referred to as ‘sign and
magnitude representation’. However, there are a number of disadvantages in using this
format.

The approach generally used is to store signed integers in two’s complement form. Here we
need two definitions. The one’s complement of a binary number is defined as the binary
number obtained if each binary digit is individually subtracted from 1 which, in practice,
means that each 0 is switched to 1 and each 1 switched to 0. The two’s complement is
defined as the binary number obtained if 1 is added to the one’s complement number.

KEY TERMS

One’s complement: the binary number obtained by subtracting each digit in a binary number
from 1
Two’s complement: the one's complement of a binary number plus 1

If you need to convert a binary number to its two’s complement form you can use the
method indicated by the definition but there is a quicker method. For this you start at the
[east significant bit and move left ignoring any zeros up to the first 1 which is also ignored.
Any remaining bits are then changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.

For example, expressing the number 10100100 in two’s complement form leaves the right-
hand 100 unchanged then the remaining 10100 changes to 01011 so the result is 01011100.

The differences between a sign and magnitude representation and a two’s complement
representation are illustrated in Table 1.02. For simplicity we consider only the values that
can be stored in four bits (referred to as a ‘nibble’).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Signed denary numberto

be represented
Sign and magnitude
representation

Two’s complement
representation

+7

0111

0111

+6

0110

0110

+5

0101

0101

+4

0100

0100

+3

0011

0011

+2

0010

0010

+1

0001

0001

+0

0000
0000

-0

1000

Not represented

-1

1001

1111

-2

1010

1110

-3

1011

1101

-4

1100

1100

-5

1101

1011 *

-6

1110

1010

-7

1111

1001

-8
Not represented

1000

Table 1.02 Representations of signed integers

There are several points to note here. The first is that sign and magnitude representation
has
a positive and a negative zero which could cause a problem if comparing values. The
second,
somewhat trivial, point is that there is an extra negative value represented in two’s
complement.

The third and most important point is that the representations in two’s complement are
such that starting from the lowest negative value each successive higher value is obtained
by
adding 1 to the binary code. In particular, when all digits are 1 the next step is to roll over to
an all-zero code. This is the same as any digital display would do when each digit has
reached
its maximum value.

It can be seen that the codes for positive values in the two’s complement form are the same
as the sign and magnitude codes. However, this fact rather hides the truth that the two’s
complement code is self-complementary. If a negative number is in two’s complement form
then the binary code for the corresponding positive number can be obtained by taking the
two’s complement of the binary code representing the negative number.

TASK 1.02

Take the two’s complement of the binary code for -5 and show that you get the code for + 5 .

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.01

Converting a negative number expressed in two’s complement form to the

corresponding denary number.

Consider the two’s complement binary number 10110001 .

Method 1. Convert to the corresponding positive binary number then find the denary
value

Converting to two’s complement leaves unchanged the 1 in the least significant bit
position then changes all of the remaining bits to produce 01001111.

Parti

Chapter 1: Information Representation

Now using the ‘successive multiplication by two’ method we get (ignoring the 0 in the
most significant bit position):

2x1

add 2 to 0, then 2x2

add 4 to 0, then 2x4
add 8 to 1, then 2x9
add 18 to 1, then 2 x 19
add 38 to 1, then 2 x 39
add 78 to 1 to give 79

18

38

78

So the original number is -79 in denary.

Method 2. Sum the individual position values but treat the most significant bit as a
negative value

From the original binary number 10110001 this produces the following:

2 7 + 0 + 2 5 + 2 4 +0 + 0 + 0 + l =

-128 + 0 + 32 + 16+0 + 0 + 0+1 = -79.

Discussion Point:

What is the two's complement of the binary value 1000? Are you surprised by this?

One final point to make here is that the reason for using two’s complement representations
is to simplify the processes for arithmetic calculations. The most important example of this is
that the process used for subtracting one signed integer from another is to convert the
number
being subtracted to its two’s complement form and then to add this to the other number.

TASK 1.03

Using a byte to represent each value, carry out the subtraction of denary 35 from denary 67
using binary arithmetic with two’s complement representations.
Binary coded decimal (BCD)

One exception to grouping bits in bytes to represent integers is the binary coded decimal
(BCD) scheme. If there is an application where single denary digits are required to be stored
or transmitted, BCD offers an efficient solution. The BCD code uses four bits (a nibble) to
represent a denary digit. A four-bit code can represent 16 different values so there is scope
for a variety of schemes. This discussion only considers the simplest BCD coding which
expresses the value directly as a binary number.

If a denary number with more than one digit is to be converted to BCD there has to be a
group of four bits for each denary digit. There are, however, two options for BCD; the first is
to store one BCD code in one byte leaving four bits unused. The other option is packed BCD
where two 4-bit codes are stored in one byte. Thus, for example, the denary digits 8503
could
be represented by either of the codes shown in Figure 1 . 02 .

One BCD digit per byte 00001000

00000101

00000000

00000011

Two BCD digits per byte 10000101

00000011

Figure 1.02 Alternative BCD representations of the denary digits 8503

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

There are a number of applications where BCD can be used. The obvious type of application
is where denary digits are to be displayed, for instance on the screen of a calculator or in a
digital time display. A somewhat unexpected application is for the representation of currency
values. When a currency value is written in a format such as $300.25 it is as a fixed-point
decimal number (ignoring the dollar sign). It might be expected that such values would be
stored as real numbers but this cannot be done accurately (this type of problem is discussed
in more detail in Chapter 16 (Section 16.03). One solution to the problem is to store each
denary digit in a BCD code.

It is instructive to consider how BCD arithmetic

might be performed by a computer if fixed-point
decimal values were stored as BCD values. Let’s
consider a simple example of addition to illustrate
the potential problem. We will assume a two-byte
representation. The first byte represents two
denary digits for the whole part of the number and
the second byte represents two denary digits for
the fractional part. If the two values are $0.26 and
$0.85 then the result should be $1.11. Applying
simple binary addition of the BCD codes will
produce the result shown in Figure 1.03.

0000 0000

0010 0110

0000 0000 I

1000 0101

0000 0000 I

10101011

Figure 1.03 Erroneous addition using BCD coding

In the first decimal place position, the 2 has been added to the 8 to get 10 but the BCD
scheme only recognises binary codes for a single-digit denary number so the addition has
failed. The same problem has occurred in the addition for the second decimal place values.
The result shown is ‘point ten eleven’, which is meaningless in denary numbers. The ‘carry’
of
a digit from one decimal place to the next has been ignored.

To counteract this in BCD arithmetic,

the processor needs to recognise that
an impossible value has been produced
and apply a method to remedy this. We
will not considerthe recognition method.
The remedy is to add 0110 whenever the
problem is detected.

Starting with the least significant nibble

(see Figure 1.04), adding 0110 to 1011
gives 10001 which is a four-bit value plus
a carry bit. The carry bit has to be added
to the next nibble as well as adding the
0110 to correct the error. Adding 1 to 1010
and then adding 0110 gives 10001. Again
the carry bit is added to the next nibble to
give the correct result of $1.11 for the sum
of $0.26 and $0.85.

0.26

0.85

Initial sum (giving values over 1001)

Add correction to least significant nibble

The result has a carry bit

Add correction plus carry to next nibble

The result has a carry bit

Add carry to next nibble to get 1.11

0000 0000

0010 0110

0000 0000

1000 0101

0000 0000

10101011

0110

10001

01110001

100010001

0000 0001

0001 0001

Figure 1.04 Correct representation of the BCD code for 1.11

In Chapter 5 (Section 5.02) there is a brief discussion of how a processor can recognise
problems arising from arithmetic operations using numbers coded as binary values.
“

Chapter 1: Information Representation

1.03 Internal coding of text

ASCII code

If text is to be stored in a computer it is necessary to have a coding scheme that provides a

unique binary code for each distinct individual component item of the text. Such a code is
referred to as a character code. There have been three significant coding schemes used in
computing. One of these, which is only mentioned here in passing, is the EBCDIC code
used
by IBM in their computer systems.

The scheme which has been used for the longest time is the ASCII (American Standard
Code
for Information Interchange) coding scheme. This is an internationally agreed standard.
There are some variations on ASCII coding schemes but the major one is the 7 -bit code. It
is
customary to present the codes in a table for which a number of different designs have been
used.

Table 1.03 shows an edited version with just a few of the codes. The first column contains
the binary code which would be stored in one byte, with the most significant bit set to
zero and the remaining bits representing the character code. The second column presents
the hexadecimal equivalent as an illustration of when it can be useful to use such a
representation.

Binary code

Hexadecimal equivalent

Character

Description

00000000

00

NUL

Null character

00000001

01
SOH

Start of heading

00000010

02

STX

Start of text

00100000

20

Space

00100001

21

Exclamation mark

00100100

24

Dollar

00101011

2B

Plus

00101111

2F

Forward slash

00110000
30

Zero

00110001

31

One

00110010

32

Two

01000001

41

Uppercase A

01000010

42

Uppercase B

01000011

43

Uppercase C

01100001

61

a
Lowercase a

01100010

62

Lowercase b

01100011

63

Lowercase c

Table 1.03 Some examples of ASCII codes

The full table shows the 2 7 ( 128 ) different codes available for a 7 -bit code. You should not
try
to remember any of the individual codes but there are certain aspects of the coding scheme
which you need to understand.

Firstly, you can see that the majority of the codes are for printing or graphic characters.
However, the first few codes represent non-printing or control characters. These were
introduced to assist in data transmission or in entering data at a computer terminal. It is fair
to say that these codes have very limited use in the modern computer world so they need no
further consideration.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Secondly, it can be seen that the obvious types of character that could be expected to be
used in a text based on the English language have been included. Specifically there are
upper- and lower-case letters, punctuation symbols, numerals and arithmetic symbols in the
coding tables.

It is worth emphasising here that these codes for numbers are exclusively for use in the
context of stored, displayed or printed text. All of the other coding schemes for numbers are
for internal use in a computer system and would not be used in a text.

There are some special features that make the coding scheme easy to use in certain
circumstances. The first is that the codes for numbers and for letters are in sequence in
each
case so that, for example, if 1 is added to the code for seven the code for eight is produced.
The second is that the codes for the upper-case letters differ from the codes for the
corresponding lower-case letters only in the value of bit 5 . This makes conversion of upper
case to lower case, or the reverse, a simple operation.

Unicode

Despite still being widely used, the ASCII codes are far from adequate for many purposes.
For this reason new coding schemes have been developed and continue to be developed
further. The discussion here describes the Unicode schemes but it should be noted that
these have been developed in tandem with the Universal Character Set (UCS) scheme;
the only differences between these schemes are the identifying names given to them. The
aim of Unicode is to be able to represent any possible text in code form. In particular this
includes all languages in the world. However, Unicode is designed so that once a coding set
has been defined it is never changed. In particular, the first 128 characters in Unicode are
the ASCII codes.

Unicode has its own special terminology. For example, a character code is referred to as
a ‘code point'. In any documentation there is a special way of identifying a code point. An
example is U +0041 which is the code point corresponding to the alphabetic character A.
The
0041 are hexadecimal characters representing two bytes. The interesting point is that in a
text where the coding has been identified as Unicode it is only necessary to use a one-byte
representation for the 128 codes corresponding to ASCII. To ensure such a code cannot be
misinterpreted, the codes where more than one byte is needed have restrictions applied.
Figure 1.05 shows the format used for a two-byte code.

11 ??????

10 ??????

Figure 1.05 Unicode two-byte code format

The most significant bit for an ASCII code is always 0 so neither of the two-byte
representations here can cause confusion.

1.04 Images

Images can be stored in a computer system for the eventual purpose of displaying the image
on a screen or for presenting it on paper, usually as a component of a document. Such an
image can be created by using an appropriate drawing package. Alternatively, when an
image
already exists independently of the computer system, the image can be captured by using
photography or by scanning.

Chapter 1: Information Representation

Parti
Vector graphics

It is normal for an image that is created by a drawing package or a computer-aided design

(CAD) package to consist of a number of geometric objects. The outcome is then usually for
the image to be stored as a vector graphic file.

KEY TERMS

Vector graphic: a graphic consisting of components defined by geometric formulae and

associated
properties, such as line colour and style

We do not need to consider how an image of this type

would be created. We do need to consider how the data
is stored after the image has been created. A vector
graphic file contains a drawing list. The list contains
a command for each object included in the image.

Each command has a list of attributes that define the

properties of the object. The properties include the
basic geometric data such as, for a circle, the position of
the centre and its radius. In addition properties such as
the thickness and style of a line, the colour of a line and
the colour that fills the shape, if that is appropriate, are
defined. An example of what could be created as a vector
graphic file is shown in Figure 1 . 06 .

Figure 1.06 A simple example

of a vector graphic image

The most important property of a vector graphic image is that the dimensions of the objects
are not defined explicitly but instead are defined relative to an imaginary drawing canvas. In
other words, the image is scalable. Whenever the image is to be displayed the file is read,
the
appropriate calculations are made and the objects are drawn to a suitable scale. If the user
then requests that the image is redrawn at a larger scale the file is read again and another
set
of calculations are made before the image is displayed. This process cannot of itself cause
distortion of the image.

11

TASK 1.04

Construct a partial drawing list for the graphic shown in Figure 1 . 06 . You can take
measurements from the image and use the bottom left corner of the box as the origin of a
coordinate system. You can invent your own format for the drawing list.
A vector graphic file can only be displayed directly on a graph plotter, which is an expensive
specialised piece of hardware. Otherwise the file has to be converted to a bitmap before
presentation.

Bitmaps

Most images do not consist of geometrically defined shapes so a vector graphic

representation is inappropriate. The general purpose approach is to store an image as a
bitmap. Typical uses are when capturing an existing image by scanning or perhaps by taking
a screen-shot. Alternatively, an image can be created by using a simple drawing package.

The fundamental concept underlying the creation of a bitmap file is that the picture
element (pixel) is the smallest identifiable component of a bitmap image. The image is
stored as a two-dimensional matrix of pixels. The pixel itself is a very simple construct; it has
a position in the matrix and it has a colour.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

12

KEYTERMS

Picture element (pixel): the smallest identifiable component of a bitmap image, defined by
just two
properties: its position in the bitmap matrix and its colour

It is of no consequence as to whether it is considered to be a small rectangle, a small circle

or a dot. However, the scheme used to represent the colour has to be decided and this can
be quite detailed. The simplest option is to use one bit to represent the colour, so that the
pixel is either black or white. Storage of the colour in four bits would allow simple greyscale
colouring. At least eight bits per pixel are necessary to code a coloured image. The number
of
bits per pixel is sometimes referred to as the colour depth.

The other decision that has to be made concerns the resolution of the image which can be
represented as the product of the number of pixels per row times the number of rows. When
considering resolution it is important to distinguish between the resolution of a stored image
and the resolution of a monitor screen that might be used to display the image. Both of these
have to be considered if a screen display is being designed.

From the above discussion it can be seen that a bitmap file does not define the physical
size of a pixel or of the whole image. The image is therefore scalable but when the image
is scaled the number of pixels in it does not change. If a well-designed image is presented
on a suitable screen the human eye cannot distinguish the individual pixels. However, if
the image is magnified too far the quality of the display will deteriorate and the individual
pixels will be evident. This is illustrated in Figure 1.07 which shows an original small image,
a
magnified version of this small image and a larger image created with a more sensible,
higher
resolution.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.07 (a) a bitmap logo; (b) an over-magnified version of the image; (c) a sensible
larger version

Bitmap file size

The above account has considered the two approaches for storing images and when they
are
appropriate.

File size is always an issue with an image file. A large file occupies more memory space and
takes longer to display or to be transmitted across a network. A vector graphic file will have a
smaller size than a corresponding bitmap file. A bitmap file has to store the pixel data but the
file must also have a header that defines the resolution of the image and the coding scheme
for the pixel colour.

Chapter 1: Information Representation

You can calculate the minimum size (the size not including the header) of a bitmap file
knowing the resolution and the colour depth. As an example, consider that a bitmap file is
needed to fill a laptop screen where the resolution is 1366 by 768. If the colour depth is to be
24 then the number of bits needed is:

1366 x 768 x 24 = 25178112 bits

The result of this calculation shows the number of bits but a file size is always quoted as a
number of bytes or multiples of bytes. Thus our file size could be quoted as:

25178112 bits = 25178112 - 8 = 3147 264 bytes

= 3147 264 -r 1024 = 3073.5 kibibytes (3073.5 KiB)

= 3073.5 -r 1024 = approximately 3 MiB

KEYTERMS

Kibi: a prefix representing the factor 2 10 (1024) written as the symbol Ki

Mebi: a prefix representing the factor 2 20 (1048576) written as the symbol Mi
Gibi: a prefix representing the factor 2 30 written as the symbol Gi

TIP

For multiples of bytes, the terminology used has recently changed. Traditionally, computer
scientists have used the terminology kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte etc. in a way that
conflicted
with the definition of these prefixes established by the International System of Units (SI).
Following the SI convention, one kilobyte would represent 1000 bytes. Computer scientists
have used one kilobyte to represent 1024 bytes. There have been a number of variations on
how this was written, for example Kbyte, KB or kB but the basic contradiction remained. In
order to resolve this unsatisfactory situation, the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) in 1998 proposed a new set of definitions for such quantities. 1024 bytes is now
identified
as one kibibyte where the kibi can be considered as representing kilobinary. This proposal
has
been accepted by other international standards bodies.

1.05 Sound

Natural sound consists of variations in pressure which are detected by the human ear.
Atypical
sound contains a large number of individual waves each with a defined frequency. The result
is
a wave form in which the amplitude of the sound varies in a continuous but irregular pattern.

If there is a need to store sound or transmit it electronically the original analogue sound
signal has to be converted to a binary code. A sound encoder has two components. The first
is a band-limiting filter. This is needed to remove high-frequency components. The ear would
not be able to detect these and they could cause problems for the coding if not removed.
The
other component in the encoder is an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).

The method of operation of the ADC is described with reference to Figure 1.08. The
amplitude
of the wave (the red line) has to be sampled at regular intervals. The blue vertical lines
indicate
the sampling times. The amplitude cannot be measured exactly; instead the amplitude is
approximated by the closest of the defined amplitudes represented by the horizontal lines. In
Figure 1.08, sample values 1 and 4 will be an accurate estimate of the actual amplitude
because
the wave is touching an amplitude line. In contrast, samples 5 and 6 will not be accurate
because
the actual amplitude is approximately half way between the two closest defined values.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

14

Sound

amplitude
Time

■>

Figure 1.08 ADC sampling

In practice, for coding sound, two decisions have to be made. The first is the number of
bits to be used to store the amplitude values, which defines the sampling resolution. If only
three bits are used then eight levels can be defined as shown in Figure 1.08. If too few are
used there will be a significant quantisation error. In practice 16 bits will provide reasonable
accuracy for the digitised sound.

The other decision concerns the choice of the sampling rate, which is the number of
samples
taken per second. This should be in accordance with Nyquist’s theorem which states that
sampling must be done at a frequency at least twice the highest frequency in the sample.

Once again file size can be an issue. Clearly an increased sampling rate and an increased
sampling resolution will both cause an increase in file size.

Simply recording sound and storing a digital representation is not enough for many
applications. Once a digital representation of the sound has been stored in a file, it can be
manipulated using sound-editing software. This will typically have features for:

• combining sound from different sources

• fading in or fading out the sound

• editing the sound to remove noise and other imperfections.

1.06 Video

The emphasis here is on the visual aspect of a video recording and, in particular, how the
image is displayed on a screen. It might be imagined that a video would be stored very
simply as a succession of still images or frames and the only concern would be the frame
rate
defined as the number of frames displayed per second. In practice the issues are far more
complex. They have not been made any more simple by the recent changes that have taken
place with regards to screen technology.

The basic principle of operation is that the display of an individual frame is created line by
line. One of the issues is the choice of resolution. The resolution can be defined in terms
of the number of lines per frame and the number of pixels per line. There needs to be
compatibility between the resolution of the stored image and the resolution of the display
screen. However, the technology used has to be chosen with regard to the sensitivity of the
human eye. One constraint is that unless the screen is refreshed at least 50 times per
second
Chapter 1: Information Representation

Parti

the eye will notice the flicker. However, provided that the refresh rate is 25 times per second
i the eye cannot see that any motion on the screen is not actually continuous.

The traditional solution to this problem has been to use interlaced encoding. This was used
t in television broadcasting and then adapted for video recordings. The image for each frame

’ is split into two halves, one containing the odd numbered lines and the other the even. The

first half is displayed completely then the second half follows. This produces what appears to
the eye as being a high refresh rate but is halving the transmission bandwidth requirements.
The alternative approach is to use progressive encoding where a full frame is displayed
each
r time. As improved transmission bandwidths become more generally available it is likely that

r progressive encoding will become the norm.

| 1.07 Compression techniques and packaging of

multimedia content

For another time the issue of file size will be discussed, this time in the context of starting
f with a file that needs to have its size reduced to reduce memory storage requirements and

improve transmission rates.

There are two categories of compression. The first is lossless compression where the file
size is reduced but no information is lost and when necessary the process can be reversed
to
re-create the original file. The second is lossy compression where the file size is reduced
with some loss of information and the original file can never be recovered. In many
applications a combination of lossless and lossy methods may be used.

KEY TERMS

Lossless compression: coding techniques that allow subsequent decoding to recreate

exactly the
original file

Lossy compression: coding techniques that cause some information to be lost so that the
exact
original file cannot be recovered in subsequent decoding

15
If a file contains text then compression must be lossless because it is
not sensible to allow any loss of information. One possible compression
method would be Huffman coding. The procedure used to carry out the
compression is quite detailed but the principle is straightforward. Instead
of having each character coded in one byte an analysis is carried out to find
the most often used characters. These are then given shorter codes. The
original stream of bytes becomes a bit stream. A possible set of codes if a
text contained only eight different letters is shown in Table 1.04.

The important point to note here is the prefix property. None of the codes
begins with the sequence of bits representing a shorter code. Thus there

can be no ambiguity when the transmitted compressed file has to be . fI1 „

....... Table 1.04 An example of Huffman coding

converted back to the original text.

A different lossless compression technique is run-length encoding. This can be particularly

effective for compressing a bitmap file. The compression converts sequences of the same bit
pattern into a code that defines the bit pattern and the number of times it is repeated.

Lossy compression can be used in circumstances where a sound file or an image file can
have
some of the detailed coding removed or modified when it is likely that the human ear or eye
will hardly notice any difference. One example would be to reduce the colour depth for the
coding of a bitmap.

Code

Character

10

01

111

110

0001
1

0000

0011

0010

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Extension Question 1.01

Graphic files can be stored in a number of formats. For example, JPEG, GIF, PNG and TIFF
are
just a few of the possibilities. What compression techniques, if any, do these use?

If the image coding for a video is to be compressed, one approach is to tackle the spatial
redundancy in individual frames using techniques applicable to an image file. Plowever, this
is unlikely to be an efficient technique because, in general, one frame is very similar to the
preceding one. It will be more effective to tackle this temporal redundancy by changing the
frame by frame coding to one which mainly records differences between adjacent frames.

A video contains images and sound but these do not go to the same part of any receiving
and
displaying system. Clearly the audio and visual parts of a video must be handled
independently
but in a way that guarantees synchronisation. The solution to this is to package the audio
and
visual components in what is known as a multimedia container format. This concept is
currently
being developed by several different organisations or companies. The use is not restricted to
one video file and one sound file. Rather, one multimedia container file will have many audio
and video streams plus other streams, perhaps for subtitles or chapter headings.

SuQgEI

• A binary code or a binary number can be documented as a hexadecimal number.

• Internal coding of signed integers is usually based on a two’s complement representation.

• BCD is a convenient coding scheme for single denary digits.

• ASCII and Unicode are standardised coding schemes for text characters.
• An image can be stored either in a vector graphic file or in a bitmap file.

• An ADC works by sampling a continuous waveform.

• Lossless compression allows an original file to be recovered by a decoder; lossy

compression
irretrievably loses some information.

Exam-style Questions

1 A file contains binary coding. The following are two successive bytes in the file:

10010101

00110011

a One possibility for the information stored is that the two bytes together represent one
unsigned integer binary

number.

i Give the denary number corresponding to this. Show your working.

ii Give the hexadecimal number corresponding to this. Show your working.

Give one example of when a hexadecimal representation is used.

[2]

[2]

[1]

Parti

Chapter 1: Information Representation

c Another possibility for the information stored is that the two bytes individually represent two
signed integer
binary numbers in two’s complement form.

i State which byte represents a negative number and explain the reason for your choice.

ii Give the denary number corresponding to each byte. Show your working. [ 3 ]

d Give two advantages from representing signed integers in two’s complement form rather
than using a sign and

magnitude representation. . pj
e Give three different examples of other options for the types of information that could be
represented by two

bytes. For each example, state whether a representation requires two bytes each time, just
one byte or only
part of a byte each time. [ 3 ]

2 A designer wishes to include some multimedia components on a web page.

a If the designer has some images stored in files there are two possible formats for the files.

i Describe the approach used if a graphic is stored in a vector graphic file. [2]

ii Describe the approach used if a graphic is stored in a bitmap file. [2]

iii State which format gives better image quality if the image has to be magnified and explain
why. [2]

b The designer is concerned about the size of some bitmap files.

i If the resolution is to be 640 x 480 and the colour depth is to be 16, calculate an
approximate size for the

bitmap file. Show your working and express the size using sensible units. [2]

ii Explain why this calculation only gives an approximate file size. [ 1 ]

c The designer decides that the bitmap files need compressing.

i Explain how a simple form of lossless compression could be used. [2]

ii Explain one possible approach to lossy compression that could be used. [2]

3 An audio encoder is to be used to create a recording of a song. The encoder has two
components,

a One of the components is an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).

i Explain why this is needed. [ 2 ]

ii Two important factors associated with the use of an ADC are the sampling rate and the
sampling

resolution. Explain the two terms. Use a diagram if this will help your explanation. [5]

b The other component of an audio encoder has to be used before the ADC is used.

i Identify this component. [jj

ii Explain why it is used. [ 2 ]

c The recorded song is to be incorporated into a video. Sound-editing software is to be used
as part of this

process. Describe two techniques that the sound-editing software could provide. [3]

Chapter 2

Communication and Internet Technologies

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ explain the client-server model of networked computers

■ give examples of applications which use the client-server

model

■ describe what is meant by the World Wide Web (WWW)

and the Internet

■ explain how hardware and communication systems are

used to support the Internet

■ explain the benefits and drawbacks of using copper cable,

fibre-optic cabling, radio waves, microwaves, satellites

■ show understanding of bit streaming and the importance

of bit rates/broadband speed on bit streaming

■ explain the format of an IP address and how an IP address

is associated with a device on a network

explain the difference between a public IP address and a

private IP address and the implication for security
explain how a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is used to
locate a resource on the WWW and the role of the Domain
Name Service

describe the sequence of events executed by the client

computer and web server when a web page consisting
only of HTML tags is requested and displayed by a
browser

recognise and identify the purpose of some simple

JavaScript and PHP code and show understanding of
the typical use of client-side code in the design of an
application.
H

Parti

Chapter 2: Communication and Internet Technologies

2.01 Transmission media

Cable

The options for a cable are twisted pair, coaxial or fibre-optic. (The first two use copper
for the transmission medium.) In discussing suitability for a given application there are a
number of factors to consider. One is the cost of the cable and connecting devices. Another
is the bandwidth achievable, which governs the possible data transmission rate. There are
then two factors that can cause poor performance: the likelihood of interference affecting
transmitted signals and the extent of attenuation (deterioration of the signal) when high
frequencies are transmitted. These two factors affect the need for repeaters or amplifiers in
transmission lines. Table 2.01 shows some comparisons of the different cable types.

Twisted pair

Coaxial

Fibre-optic

Cost

Lowest

Higher

Highest

Bandwidth or data rate

Lowest

Higher

Much higher

Attenuation at high frequency

Affected

Most affected
Least affected

interference

Worst affected

Less affected

Least affected

Need for repeaters

More often

More often

Less often

Table 2.01 Comparisons between cable types

It should be understood that for each of the three types of cabling

there are defined standards for different grades of cable which must
be considered when a final decision is made. However, it can be seen
that fibre-optic cable performs best but does cost more than the other
technologies. Fora new installation the improved performance of fibre-
optic cable is likely to be the factor that governs the choice. However,
where copper cable is already installed the cost of replacement by
fibre-optic cable may not be justified.

Currently, twisted pair cable is still in use almost universally for

connecting a telephone handset to a telephone line. This type of cable
is illustrated in Figure 2.01. It is also the technology of choice for high¬
speed local area networks.

Figure 2.01 One cable with four twisted pairs

with differing twist rates to reduce interference

Coaxial cable has mainly been replaced for use in long-distance

telephone cabling but is still used extensively by cable television companies and is often
used in metropolitan area networks. Fibre-optic cable is the technology of choice for long¬
distance cabling. As shown in Figure 2.02, coaxial cable is not bundled but a fibre-optic
cable
contains many individual fibres.

metallic shield

centre core (a) (b)

Figure 2.02 (a) Coaxial cable and (b) a bundled fibre-optic cable
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

20

Wireless

The alternative to cable is wireless transmission. The three options here are radio,
microwave
or infrared, which are all examples of electromagnetic radiation; the only intrinsic difference
between the three types is the frequency of the waves.

When making a choice of which wireless option to use, all of the factors discussed when
comparing cable media need to be considered again. In addition, the ability for the radiation
to transmit through a solid barrier is an important factor. Also the extent to which the
transmission can be focused in a specific direction needs to be considered. Figure 2.03
shows the approximate frequency ranges for the three types of radiation. The factors listed
on the left increase in the direction of the arrow, so the bandwidth increases through radio
and microwave to infrared but the ability of the waves to penetrate solid objects is greatest
for radio waves. Interference is not consistently affected by the frequency.

Frequency range

Bandwidth or data rate

Attenuation (mainly due to rain)
Need for repeaters
Directional focusing capability
Penetration through a wall
Interference

Radio

Microwave

Infrared

3KHz-3GHz

3-300GHZ

300GHz-400THz

There is no systematic trend

Figure 2.03 Frequency ranges and frequency dependency of factors affecting wireless
transmission

The increased attenuation for infrared transmission, which has the highest frequency, leads
to it only being suitable for indoor applications. The fact that it will not penetrate through
a wall is then of benefit because the transmission cannot escape and cause unwanted
interference elsewhere. For most applications, microwave transmission is the option of
choice with the improvement in bandwidth being the determining factor.

Comparing cable and wireless transmission

It is worth noting that cables are often referred to as ‘guided media’ and wireless
as‘unguided

media’. This is slightly misleading because only radio wave transmission fits this description.

It is possible with microwaves or infrared to direct a transmission towards a receiver (as

suggested in Figure 2.03).

There are a number of points to make when considering the relative advantages of

transmission through a cable or wireless transmission:

• The use of specific wireless transmission frequencies is regulated by government agencies

and so permission has to be obtained before wireless transmission is used.

• Outside these frequencies, no permission is needed to use the air for transmission but
cables can only be laid in the ground with the permission of landowners.

• For global communications, the two competing technologies are transmission through
fibre-optic cables laid underground or on the sea bed and satellite transmission
(discussed in Section 2.02); currently neither of these technologies is dominant.

• Interference is much more significant for wireless transmission and its extent is
dependent on which frequencies are being used for different applications.

Chapter 2: Communication and Internet Technologies

• Repeaters are needed less often for wireless transmission.

• Mobile (cell) phones now dominate Internet use and for these only wireless transmission
is possible.

• For home or small office use, wired or wireless transmission is equally efficient; the lack
of cabling requirement is the one factor that favours wireless connections for a small
network.

2.02 The Internet

Prior to the existence of the Internet there were two major periods of networking
development. The first occurred in the 1970s when what are now referred to as wide area
networks (WANs) were created. The ARPANET in the USA is the one usually mentioned first
in this context. The second period of development was triggered by the arrival of the PC in
the 1980s which led to the creation of the first examples of what are now referred to as local
area networks (LANs). These developments continued into the 1990s (with, along the way,
the addition of metropolitan networks (MANs)) but most importantly with the increasing aim
of connecting up what were originally designed and created as independent, stand-alone
networks. The era of internetworking had arrived and, in particular, the Internet started to
take shape.

It is important to understand that the Internet is not a WAN; it is the biggest internetwork in
existence. Furthermore, it has never been designed as a coherent entity; it has just evolved
to reach its current form and is still evolving to whatever future form it will take. One of the
consequences of the Internet not having been designed is that there is no agreed definition
of its structure. However, there is a hierarchical aspect to the structure particularly with
respect to the role of an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The initial function of the ISP was
to give Internet access to an individual or company. This function is now performed by
what may be described as an ‘access ISP’. Such ISPs might then connect to what might be
called ‘middle tier’ or regional ISPs which in turn are connected to tier 1 ISPs which may
alternatively be termed ‘backbone’ ISPs. An ISP is a network and connections between ISPs
are handled by Internet Exchange Points (IXPs). The other networks which can be
considered
to share the top of the hierarchy with tier 1 ISPs are the major content providers.

Discussion Point:

How many ISPs or major Internet providers are you familiar with?

Communication systems not originally designed for computer networking provide significant
infrastructure support for the Internet. The longest standing example is what is often referred
to as POTS (plain old telephone service) but is more formally described as a PSTN (public
switched telephone network). At the time of the early period of networking the telephone
network carried analogue voice data but digital data could be transmitted provided that
a modem was used to convert the digital data to analogue with a further modem used to
reverse the process at the receiving end. A dial-up network connection was available which
provided modest-speed, shared access when required. However, an organisation could
instead pay for a leased line service which would provide a dedicated link with guaranteed
transmission speed which was permanently connected. Typically, organisations have made
use of leased lines to establish MANs or WANs.

More recently, the PSTNs have upgraded their main communication lines to fibre-optic cable
employing digital technology. This has allowed them to offer improved leased line services to
ISPs but has also given them the opportunity to provide their own ISP services. In this guise

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

22
they provide two types of connectivity service. The first is a broadband network connection
for traditional network access. The second is WiFi hotspot technology, in which a public
place or area is equipped with an access point which has a connection to a wired network
that provides Internet access. Mobile devices in the vicinity of the access point can connect
to it wirelessly and from this connection gain Internet access.

For users of devices with mobile (cell) phone

capability there is an alternative method for
gaining Internet access. This is provided by mobile
phone companies acting as ISPs. The mobile
phone equipped with the appropriate software
communicates with a standard cell tower to access
the wireless telephone network which in turn can
provide a connection to the Internet.

Satellites are important components of modern

communication systems. Three types of satellite are
identified by the altitude at which they orbit. Figure
2.04 shows the positioning with respect to altitude of
the different types of satellite. The Van Allen belts are
no-go areas full of charged particles.

The highest altitude satellites are in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) over the equator and
these
are used to provide long-distance telephone and computer network communication. Only
three GEO satellites are needed for full global coverage. Closer to Earth are a group of
medium-
Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites some of which provide the global positioning system (GPS). Ten
MEO satellites are needed for global coverage. Finally, low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites work
in
‘constellations’ to supplement the mobile phone networks. Fifty LEO satellites are needed for
full global coverage but currently there are several hundreds of them up there.

Because of its height above the ground a satellite has the advantage that it can act as a
component in a network and can connect with other components that are separated by
greater distances than would be possible if only ground-based components were used. The
disadvantage is that the greater transmission distance causes transmission delays which
can
cause problems for the underlying technology supporting network operation.

Altitude (km)
35786

15000

5000
///

Upper Van Allen belt

///

Lower Van Allen belt

///

EARTH

Figure 2.04 Satellite altitudes

GEO

MEO

LEO

2.03 The World Wide Web (WWW)

It is common practice to talk about ‘using the web’ or‘using the Internet’ as though these
were just two different ways of saying the same thing. This is not true. The Internet is, as
has been described above, an internetwork. By contrast, the World Wide Web (WWW) is a
distributed application which is available on the Internet.

Specifically, the web consists of an enormous collection of websites each having one or
more
web pages. The special feature of a web page is that it can contain hyperlinks which, when
clicked, give direct and essentially immediate access to other web pages.

2.04 Internet-supporting hardware

Although the Internet has a structure which is in part hierarchical it is at heart a mesh
structure. The device that acts as a node in this mesh is the router. Routers are found in
what can be described as the backbone fabric of the Internet as well as in the ISP networks.
The details of how a router works are discussed in Chapter 17 (Sections 17.03 and 17.04).

Parti

Chapter 2: Communication and Internet Technologies

At the periphery of the Internet there are different types of network. Whenever networks of a
► different underlying technology need to communicate, the device needed is a gateway.
Part

r of the functionality provided by a gateway can be the same as that provided by a router.
One definition of a server is a specialised type of computer hardware designed to provide
functionality when connected to a network. A server does not contribute to the functioning
of the network itself but, rather, it is a means of providing services via the network. In the
context of the Internet, a server may act as any of the following:

an application server (see Section 2.05)

a web server (see Section 2.05)
a domain name server (see Section 2.08)
a file server
a proxy server.

KEY TERMS

Router: a device that acts as a node on the Internet

Gateway: a device that connects networks of different underlying technologies

Server: a device that provides services via a network

File server functionality is very often provided by what is called a ‘server farm’, in which a
very
large numbers of servers work together in a clustered configuration. Tier 1 content providers
use server farms and they are also used in the provision of cloud storage, which an ISP can
offer as part of its service portfolio.

One example of the use of a proxy server is when a web server could become overwhelmed
by web page requests. When a web page is requested for the first time the proxy server
saves
a copy in a cache. Then, whenever a subsequent request arrives, it can provide the web
page without having to search through the filestore of the main server. At the same time a
proxy server can act as a firewall and provide some security against malicious attacks on the
server Security is discussed further in Chapter 8 (Section 8.02).

2.05 Client-server architecture

Following the arrival of the PC in the 1980s it was soon realised that the use of stand-alone
PCs was not viable in any large organisation. In order to provide sufficient resource to any
individual PC it had to be connected to a network. Initially servers were used to provide
extra facilities that the PCs shared (such as filestore, software applications or printing). A
further development was the implementation of what came to be known as the ‘client-
server’ architecture. At the time, the traditional architecture of a mainframe computer with
connected terminals was still in common use and the client-server approach was seen
as a competitor in which networked PCs (the clients) had access to one or more powerful
! minicomputers acting as servers.

The essence of the client-server architecture as it was first conceived is a distributed

’ computer system where a client carries out part of the processing and a server carries out

k another part. In order for the client and server to cooperate, software called ‘middleware’
has

to be present. This basic concept still holds in present-day client-server applications but the

language used to describe how they operate has changed.

23

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The server is now a ‘web server’ which is a suite of software that can be installed on virtually
any computer system. A web server provides access to a web application. The client is the
web browser software. The middleware is now the software that supports the transmission of
data across a network together with the provision for scripting (see Section 2.09).

It is worth emphasising that the original uses of the web involved a browser displaying web
pages which contained information. There was provision for downloading of this information
but the web pages were essentially static. For a client-server application, the web page is
‘dynamic’ which means that what is displayed is determined by the request made by the
client. In this context, there is almost no limit to the variety of applications that can be
supported. The only requirement is that the application involves user interaction. The most
obvious examples of a client-server application can be categorised as ‘ecommerce’ where
a customer buys products online from a company. Other examples are: e-business, email,
searching library catalogues, online banking or obtaining travel timetable information. Most
applications require a ‘web-enabled’ database to be installed on the server or accessible
from the server. In contrast, the monthly payroll run typifies the type of application which is
unsuitable for implementation as a dynamic web application and will continue to be handled
by batch processing.

24

2.06 Bit streaming

Streaming media are a major component of the use of the Internet for leisure activities like
listening to music or watching a video. Before discussing such applications the use of the
term bit stream needs an explanation. In general, data prior to transmission is stored in
bytes and it is possible to transmit this as a ‘byte stream’. However, streamed media is
always
compressed using techniques discussed in Chapter 1 (Section 1.07). Some compression
techniques involve converting each byte into a representation with fewer bits. Thus, to allow
the decoding process at the receiver end to work properly, the data must be transferred as a
bit stream. So, to summarise, any reference to streaming media would normally imply that
bit
streaming is used.

For one category of streaming media, the source is a website that has the media already
stored. One option in this case is for the user to download a file then listen to it or watch it at
some future convenient time. However, when the user does not wish to wait that long there
is the streaming option. This option is described as viewing or listening on demand. In this
case the delivery of the media and the playing of the media are two separate processes. The
incoming media data are received into a buffer created on the user’s computer. The user’s
machine has media player software that takes the media data from the buffer and plays it.

The other category of streaming media is real-time or live transmission. In this case the
content is being generated as it is being delivered such as when viewing a sporting event. At
the receiver end the technology is the same as before. The major problem is at the delivery
end because a very large number of users may be watching simultaneously. The way
forward
now is to transmit the media initially to a large number of content provider servers which
then transmit onwards to individual users.

A crucial point with media streaming is whether the technology has sufficient power to
provide a satisfactory user experience. When the media is created it is the intention that the
media is to be delivered to the user at precisely the same speed as used for the creation; a
song that lasted four minutes when sung for the recording will sound very peculiar if, when
it is received by a user, it lasts six minutes. More specifically, the process of delivering the

Chapter 2: Communication and Internet Technologies

content will be quantified by the bit rate. For example, a relatively poor-quality video can
be delivered at a bit rate of 300 kbps but a reasonably good-quality audio file only requires
delivery at 128 kbps. Figure 2.05 shows a simple schematic diagram of the components
involved in the streaming.

User's computer

Figure 2.05 Schematic diagram of bit streaming

The bit rate for delivery to the user from the buffer must match the defined rate for the
specific media in use but the planned transmission rate to the buffer should be higher to
allow for unexpected delays. These rates are controlled by the media player by continuous
monitoring of the extent of filling of the buffer in relation to the defined high- and low-water
marks. It is essential to have a buffer size that is sufficiently large for it never to get filled.
The rate of transmission to the buffer is limited by the bandwidth of the network
connection. For a connection via a PSTN, a broadband link is essential. For good-quality
movie presentation the broadband requirement is about 2.5 Mbps. Because this will not
be available for all users it is often the practice that an individual video is made available
at different levels of compression. The most highly compressed version will be the poorest
quality but the bit rate may be sufficiently low for a reasonable presentation with a relatively
low bandwidth Internet connection.

25

TASK 2.01

Consider a bit-streaming scenario for a video where the following values apply:

• The buffer size is IMiB

• The low watermark is set at 100 KiB

• The high watermark is set at 900 KiB

• The incoming data rate is 1 Mbps.

• The video display rate is 300 Kbps.

Assume that the video is playing and that the buffer content has dropped to the low-water
mark. The media player sets the controls for data input to begin again.

Calculate the amount of data that will be input in two seconds to the buffer and the amount
of
data that will be removed from the buffer in the same time period.

Repeat the calculation for 4,6,8,10 and 12 seconds.

From this data, estimate when the buffer will have filled up to the high-water mark.

Assuming that the incoming transmission is halted at this time, calculate how long it will be
before the buffer content has again fallen to the low-water mark level.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

2.07 IP addressing

The functioning of the Internet is based on the implementation of the TCP/IP protocol suite
as will be explained in Chapter 17 (Section 17.04). One aspect of this is IP addressing which
is
used to define from where and to where data is being transmitted.

IPv4 addressing
Currently the Internet functions with IP version 4 (IPv4) addressing. The reason for the
strange name is of no consequence but the fact that this was devised in the late 1970s
is of considerable consequence. Had the PC and the mobile phone not been invented,
the scheme would be still sufficient for needs. Unfortunately for this scheme, these
developments did take place and have come to dominate Internet usage.

The IPv4 addressing scheme is based on 32 bits (four bytes) being used to define an IPv4
address. It is worth putting this into context. The 32 bits allow 2 32 different addresses. For
big
numbers like this it is worth remembering that 2 10 is approximately 1000 in denary so the
32
bits provide for approximately four billion addresses. The population of the world is about
seven billion and it is estimated that approaching half of the world’s population has Internet
access. From this we can see that if there was a need to supply one IP address per Internet
user the scheme would just about be adequate. However, things are not that simple.

KEY TERMS

IPv4 address: a 32-bit long, hierarchical address of a device on the Internet

The original addressing scheme was designed on the basis of a hierarchical address with
a group of bits defining a network (a netID) and another group of bits defining a host on
that network (a hostID). The aim was to assign a unique universally recognised address for
each device on the Internet. The separation into two parts allows the initial transmission
to be routed according to the netID. The hostID only needs to be examined on arrival at
the identified network. Before proceeding, it is important to note that the term ‘host’ is a
little misleading because some devices, particularly routers, have more than one network
interface and each interface requires a different IP address.

The other feature of the original scheme was that allocated addresses were based on the
concept of different classes of networks. There were five classes but only the first three need
concern us here. The structures used for the addresses are shown in Table 2.02.

Class

Class identifier

Number of bits
for netID

Number of bits
for hostID

Class A

0
7

24

Class B

10

14

16

Class C

110

21

Table 2.02 Address structure for three classes of IPv4 address

It can be seen from Table 2.02 that the most significant bit or bits identify the class. A group
of
the next most significant bits define the netID and the remaining, least significant, bits define
the hostID. The rationale was straightforward. The largest organisations would be allocated
to Class A. There could only be 2 7 i.e. 128 of these but there could be 2 24 distinct hosts for
each of them. This compared with 2 21 , approximately two million, organisations that could
be
allocated to Class C but each of these could only support 2 s i.e. 256 hosts.

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Chapter 2: Communication and Internet Technologies

The problems with this scheme arose once LANs supporting PCs became commonplace.

The number of Class B netIDs available was insufficient but if organisations were allocated
to
Class C the number of hostIDs available was too small. There have been a number of
different
modifications made available to solve this problem.

Before considering some of these, the representation used for an IP address needs to be
introduced. During transmission, the technology is based on the 32-bit binary code for
the address; for documentation purposes, a dotted decimal notation is used. Each byte is
written as the denary equivalent of the binary number represented by the binary code. For
example, the 32 bit code:
10000000 00001100 00000010 00011110
is written in dotted decimal notation as:

128.12.2.30

Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR)

The first approach developed for improving the addressing scheme is called ‘classless inter¬
domain routing’ (CIDR). This retains the concept of a netID and a hostID but removes the
rigid
structure and allows the split between the netID and the hostID to be varied to suit individual
need. The simple method used to achieve this is to add an 8-bit suffix to the address that
specifies the number of bits for the netID. If, for instance, we define the suffix as 21, that
means that 21 bits are used for the netID and there are 11 bits remaining (of a 32-bit
address)
to specify hostIDs allowing 2 n , i.e. 2048, hosts. One example of an IP address using this
scheme is shown in Figure 2.06. The 21 bits representing the netID have been highlighted.

The remaining 11 bits represent the hostID which would therefore have the binary value

1.

Binary code:

l 110000110000110000000 / 11000001110/ | 0001C101 |

netID

suffix

Dotted decimal notation: 195.12.6.14/21

Figure 2.06 A CIDR IPv4 address

It should be noted that with this scheme there is no longer any need to use the most
significant bit or bits to define the class. However, it does allow already existing Class A, B or
C
addresses to be used with suffixes 8,16 or 24, respectively.

TASK 2.02

Create an example of the binary code for a Class C address expressed in CIDR format. Give
the
corresponding dotted decimal representation.

Sub-netting

A quite different approach, sub-netting, allows further structure in the addressing.

To illustrate an example of this we can consider a medium-sized organisation with about
150 employees each with their own computer workstation. Let’s assume that there are
six individual department LANs and one head-office LAN. Figure 2.07 shows a schematic
diagram of how the LANs would be connected to the Internet if the original scheme were

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

used. The organisation would need seven individual Class C netIDs. Each of these would
point to one of the LAN gateways (which have to function as routers). Each netID would be
associated with 256 hosts so an organisation with just 150 computer workstations would
leave 1642 IP addresses unused and unavailable for use by any other organisation.

Figure 2.07 Connecting LANs using the original classful IPv4 scheme

28

The sub-netting solution for this organisation would require allocating just one Class C netID.
For example, the IP addresses allocated might be 194.10.9.0 to 194.10.9.255 where the
netID
comprises the first three bytes, represented by the decimal values 194,10 and 9.

The sub-netting now works by having a defined structure for the 256 codes constituting the
hostID. A sensible solution for this organisation is to use the top three bits as a code for the
individual LANs and the remaining five bits as codes for the individual workstations. Figure
2.08 shows a schematic diagram of this arrangement.

Figure 2.08 Connecting LANS using sub-netting

On the Internet, all of the allocated IP addresses have a netID pointing to the router. The
router then has to interpret the hostID to direct the transmission to the appropriate host on
one of the LANS. For example:

• hostID code 00001110 could be the address for workstation 14 on the head office LAN
(LAN 000).

• hostID code 01110000 would be the address for workstation 16 on LAN 3 (LAN Oil).

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With 150 workstations the organisation hasn’t used all of the 256 allocated IP addresses.
However, there are only 106 unused which is a reasonable number to have available in case
of future expansion.

Network address translation (NAT)

The final scheme to be considered is different in that it deviates from the principle that every
IP address should be unique. In this scheme, provision has been made for large
organisations
to have private networks (intranets) which use the same protocols as those used for the
Internet. One justification for using a private network has always been that this provides
extra security because of the isolation from the Internet. However, this is no longer normal
practice. Organisations want private networks but they also want Internet connectivity.

The solution for dealing with the addressing is to use network address translation (NAT).
Figure 2.09 shows a schematic diagram of how this can be used. The NAT box has one
IP address which is visible over the Internet so can be used as a sending address or as a
receiving address. Internally the IP addresses have to be chosen from one of the three
ranges
of IP addresses shown in Table 2.03 that have been allocated for such networks. (You do not
need to remember these numbers!)

Lower bound

Upper bound

10.0.0.0

10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0

172.31.255.255

192.168.0.0

192.168.255.255

Table 2.03 IPv4 addresses to be used in private networks

The important point is that each address can be simultaneously used by any number of
different private networks. There is no knowledge of such use on the Internet itself or in
any other private network. The interface in the NAT box has software installed to examine
each incoming or outgoing transmission. There can be a security check before an incoming
transmission is directed to the correct internal address. The diagram shows undefined
arrows from the router connected to the NAT box. These indicate that the network structure
within the organisation could take many different forms.

Discussion Point:

Can you find out which IP addressing scheme is being used when you are connected to the
Internet?

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

IPv6 addressing

Today there are combinations of IPv4 approaches in use and these allow the Internet
to continue to function. Respected sources argue that this cannot continue beyond the
current decade. There must soon be a migration to IP version 6 (IPv6), which uses a 128-bit
addressing scheme allowing 2 128 different addresses, a huge number! In practice, this will
allow more complex structuring of addresses. Documenting these addresses is not going to
be fun. The addresses are written in a colon hexadecimal notation. The code is broken into
16-bit parts with each of these represented by four hexadecimal characters. Fortunately,
some abbreviations are allowed. A few examples are given in Table 2.04.

IPv6 address

Comment

68E6:7C48:FFFE:FFFF:3D20:1180:695A:FF01

A full address

72E6::CFFE:3D20:1180:295A:FF01

:0000:0000: has been replaced by::

6C48:23:FFFE:FFFF:3D20:1180:95A:FF01

Leading zeros omitted

::192.31.20.46

An IPv4 address used in IPv6

Table 2.04 Some examples of IPv6 addresses

Extension question 2.01

If IPv6 addressing is used, how many addresses would be available per square metre of the
Earth’s surface? Do you think there will be enough to go round?

30

2.08 Domain names

In everyday use of the Internet, a user needs to identify a particular web page or email box.
The user will not wish to have to identify an IP address using its dotted decimal value. To get
round this problem the domain name system (DNS) was invented in 1983. The DNS system
allocates readable domain names for Internet hosts and provides a system for finding the IP
address for an individual domain name.
Domain name system (DNS): a hierarchical distributed database installed on domain name
servers
that is responsible for mapping a domain name to an IP address

The system is implemented as a hierarchical distributed database which is installed on

a large number of domain name servers covering the whole of the Internet. The domain
name servers are connected in a hierarchy, with powerful replicated root servers at the top
of the hierarchy supporting the whole Internet. DNS name space is then divided into non¬
overlapping zones. Each zone has a primary name server with the database stored on it.
Secondary servers get information from this primary server.

As a result the naming system is hierarchical. There are more than 250 top-level domains
which are either generic (e.g. .com, .edu, and .gov) or represent countries (e.g. .uk and .nl).

The domain name is included in a universal resource allocator (URL), which identifies a web
page, or an email address. A domain is named by the path upward from it. For example,
.eng.
cisco.com. refers to the .eng subdomain in the .cisco domain of the .com top-level domain
(which is the reverse of that used for a pathname of a file).

Looking up a domain name to find an IP address is called ‘name resolution’. For such a
query
there are three possible outcomes:

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If the domain is under the jurisdiction of the server to which the query is sent then an
authoritative and correct IP address is returned.

• If the domain is not under the jurisdiction of the server, an IP address can still be returned
if it is stored in a cache of recently requested addresses but it might be out of date.

• If the domain in the query is remote then the query is sent to a root server which can
provide an address for the name server of the appropriate top-level domain which in turn
can provide the address for the name server in the next lower domain. This continues
until the query reaches a name server that can provide an authoritative IP address.

2.09 Scripting and HTML in a client-server application

It is possible for an individual to create a client-server-based web application for personal

use on an individual computer. This would require downloading appropriate server software,
installing the application and using the computer’s browser to access the application.
However, a better understanding is gained by considering a scenario where a developer has
created a web application and made it available for use by remote users.
The application developer has to create the application as one or more web pages. This is
a three-stage process. Firstly, for each web page a file has to be created which is written in
r HTML (HyperText Markup Language). Secondly, a domain name has to be obtained from a

► web-hosting organisation. Finally, the HTML files have to be uploaded to the server
provided

r by the web-hosting organisation.

j The following is the simplest sequence of events associated with a user accessing the

application:

1 The user opens up a browser on the client computer.

2 The user types in the URL of the web application or selects it from the bookmark list.

3 The browser asks the DNS system for the IP address.

r 4 The browser connects to the IP address and sends a request for the web page.

5 The page is sent by the server to the browser.

6 The browser displays the page.

Once the page is displayed the user can activate the application by clicking on a suitable
^ feature or by entering data as appropriate.

f HTML

We now need to consider the framework for creating a file using HTML. This is a text file
constructed using pairs of what are referred to as ‘tags’. The basic overall structure can be
l represented as:

31

In between each pair of opening and closing tags there can beany number of lines of text.
These can be used to display on the browser screen any or all of the following: text, images,
videos, forms, hyperlinks, icons and so on.

&

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The facilities offered by HTML can be supplemented by the inclusion of scripted code,
written
in JavaScript or PHP.

JavaScript

JavaScript is written by the application developer into the HTML text but its effect is to allow
the user at the client end to interact with the application and to cause processing to take
place on the client computer. For this to work the browser must have JavaScript enabled. In
the early days of the use of JavaScript it was necessary to ensure this and to include explicit
reference to the use of JavaScript in the HTML file. However, JavaScript is now the default
scripting language so a script runs automatically. The important point is that this has nothing
to do with what is installed on the server.

One way to incorporate JavaScript is to write the code in a separate file which is then called
from within the HTML. Here we only consider the case when JavaScript code is contained
within the HTML itself. This is easily done (and easily recognised in an example HTML file)
by
containing the script in script tags:

If the developer wants the script to be accessed immediately when the web page is
displayed
the script tags are included in the HTML header section.

JavaScript is a full-blown computer programming language. Below is an example script

which indicates how easy it is to identify some JavaScript within HTML and to see what it is
doing. It uses variables (see Section 13.02 for more information about variables) to convert
a temperature value input in Celsius to a value output as Fahrenheit. The input uses the
prompt construct, which provides text to guide the user as to what should be input, and the
alert construct, which displays an explanatory text with the output value.

clDOCTYPE html>

You can input a value in Celsius and this will be converted to Fahrenheit.

The question now is when would a developer want to use JavaScript? The answer to this is
‘whenever the developer wants the user to have processing carried out on the client
computer
which does not involve the software running on the server’. This might involve running a
program as illustrated by the above simple example. More often the JavaScript is used for
collecting data which is to be used by a program running on the server. In particular, data
validation and verification can be handled using JavaScript (see Chapter 8, Section 8.04).

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PHP
PHP is also a full-blown computer programming language. The difference is that any PHP
script is processed on the server. As for JavaScript, the PHP can be contained in a separate
file accessed by the HTML. The example considered here will have the script written inside
the file containing the HTML. In this case the HTML file must be named with a .php
extension
ratherthan the usual .html extension. The PHP code is included within special tags:

The JavaScript program shown in the previous section could be converted to PHP to run on
the server in the following way:

dDOCTYPE html>

This particular example has to be run by supplying the value for $tempc as a parameter to
the URL for the file. This is done when the URL is entered into the address bar of the
browser.
To provide the value 25 the format is to append ?vaiue =25 to the URL following the .php file
extension (e.g. index.php?value=25).

As before this simple example shows how to identify some PHP code within HTML and see
what it is doing. It is worth noting that variables start with $ and they are case sensitive.

The first character has to be in lower case so $ _ get, which is the method for getting the
parameter value, can be recognised as not being a variable.

The main question is, again, why would a developer choose to include PHP script in some
HTML? The answer is that an application will not run quickly if it is constantly transmitting
data back and forward between the client computer and the server. For the particular case
of a database application it is imperative that the database remains on the server (or within
the system of which the server is part) and that only the results of queries are displayed on
a browser screen. Also any SQL associated with the use of the database needs to be
running
on the server not on the client. An example of this will be considered after SQL has been
introduced in Chapter 10 (Section 10.6).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

• The main transmission media are copper (twisted pair, coaxial) cables, fibre-optic cables
and wireless
(radio, microwave, infrared).

• Factors to consider are bandwidth, attenuation, interference and the need for repeaters.

• The Internet is the largest internetwork in existence.

• The World Wide Web is a distributed application accessible on the Internet.

• ISPs provide access to the Internet.

• Internet infrastructure is supported by PSTNs and cell phone companies.

• Client-server architecture is established using a web server and a client browser.

• The current addressing scheme is IPv4, with IPv6 a future contender.

• The DNS resolves a domain name to an IP address.

• JavaScript is used to provide client-side processing.

• PHP is used to provide server-side processing.

Exam-style Questions

1 A new company has been established. It has bought some new premises which consist of
a
number of buildings on a single site. It has decided that all of the computer workstations in
the different buildings need to be networked. They are considering ways in which the
network
might be set up.

a One option they are considering is to use cabling for the network and to install it
themselves.

i Name the three types of cabling that they might consider. [2]

[4]

ii Explain two factors, other than cost, that they need to consider when choosing suitable
cabling.

b Another option they are considering is to use wireless technology for at least part of the
network.

Explain one option that might be suitable for wireless networking.

i Identify one advantage, other than cost, of using wireless rather than cable networking.

ii Identify one disadvantage (other than cost) of using wireless rather than cable networking.

[2]

[1]

[1]

c The final option they are considering is to use the services of a PSTN.

i Define what a PSTN is or does.

ii Explain how a PSTN could provide a network for the company.

[1]

[3]

2 a The Domain Name System is vitally important for Internet users.

i Name the type of software used by the system and the type of hardware on which the
software is installed. [2]

Parti

ii Name two types of application that use the Domain Name System and for each give a brief
description of
how it is used.

[4]

In the classful IPv4 addressing scheme, the 32-bit binary code for the address has the top
(most significant)
bit set to 0 if it is of class A, the top two bits set to 10 if class B or the top three bits set to 110
if class C. In a
document an IPv4 address has been written as 205.124.16.152.

Give the name for this notation for an IP address and explain how it relates to the 32-bit
binary code.

[2]

[2]

[3]

Identify the class of the address and explain your reason,

i Explain why an IPv4 address defines a netID and a hostID.

If the CIDR scheme for an IPv4 address is used the IP address 205.124.16.152 would be
written as:

205.124.16.152/24

State the binary code for the hostID in this address with a reason.

[2]

A client-server web application has been developed which uses a file containing the
following code:

clDOCTYPE html>
We can give you an estimate of how many you will need if you are tiling a floor
with our tiles.

You need to tell us the length and the width of the room
(in metres) .

i Name the role of the person who would create this file. [1]

ii Identify where this file would be stored. [1]

iii A browser is needed to run the application. State where the browser software is installed.
[1]

The file uses JavaScript.

i Identify two component parts of the file which involve JavaScript and explain their purpose.
[4]

ii Explain the sequence of events executed by the client computer and the web server when
this

application is used. [6]

Chapter 3
Hardware

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

m show understanding of the need for primary storage

■ show understanding of the need for secondary (including
removable) storage

■ identify hardware devices used for input, output,

secondary storage

■ show understanding of the basic internal operation of

specific types of device.

3.01 The memory system

As a broad generalisation it can be said that there are two main uses of a computer system.
The first is to run programs.

In the discussion of computer system architecture in Chapter 5 (Section 5.01) you will see
that the simplest model consists of a processor with access to a stored program. The history
of computing is one of increasing performance. In the context of increasing performance of
the system in running programs, the first requirement is for the speed of the processor to
increase. However, this potential for improvement can only be realised if the time taken for
the processor to access the stored program decreases to match the increased processor
speed. The reality so far has been that access speeds have improved but they haven’t kept
pace fully with the improvement in processor speeds.

The second main use of a computer system is to store data. Here the major issues with
regards to increasing performance are capacity and cost; access speeds are not so
important.

The terminology used to describe components for storing programs and data is not always
consistent. One variation is to distinguish between memory as the component which the
processor can access directly and the (file-) store used for long-term storage. An alternative
is
to distinguish between the primary and the secondary storage.

The memory system hierarchy is a useful concept for considering the choice of components
in a memory system. Figure 3.01 uses a simplified version of a memory system hierarchy to
show the trends in the important factors affecting this choice. The factors increase in the
direction of the arrow.

Component

Category

Register

Processor component

Cache memory

Primary storage

Main memory

Hard disk

Secondary storage

Auxiliary storage

Access time

Capacity Size

Figure 3.01 Trends in the factors affecting the choice of memory components

Cost
A

The individual entries in the Component column are discussed in Sections 3.02 and 3.03.
Computer users would really like to have a large amount of primary storage that costs little
and allows quick access. This is not possible; the fastest components cost more and have
limited capacity. In practice, the choice made is a compromise.

It could be argued that there is a need for secondary storage because the use of only
primary
storage would be far too expensive. However, it is more sensible simply to recognise that
long-term storage of data requires separate dedicated components.

37

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3.02 Memory components

The processor has direct access to three types of storage component. The registers, as
discussed in Chapters (Section 5.02), are contained within the processor. External to the
processor there is cache memory and main memory, which together constitute the primary
storage. Cache memory is used to store data that at any time is the most likely to be needed
again by the processor.

There is another way of categorising memory components. The first category is called
random-access memory (RAM). This is a potentially misleading term because a
programmer does not expect a program to make random decisions about which memory
location should be accessed.

KEY TERMS

Random-access memory (RAM): volatile memory that can be read from or written to any
number of
times

Read-only memory (ROM): non-volatile memory that cannot be written to but can be read
from any
number oftimes

38

The name has been chosen because such memory can be accessed at any location
independently of which previous location was used (it might have been better called ‘direct-
access memory’). A better description is read-write memory because RAM can be
repeatedly
read from or written to. Another distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is volatile which
means that when the computer system is switched off the contents ofthe memory are lost.
There are two general types of RAM technology. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is constructed
from capacitors which leak electricity and therefore need regularly recharging (every few
milliseconds) to maintain the identity ofthe data stored. Static RAM (SRAM) is constructed
from flip-flops (discussed in Chapter 18 (Section 18.02)) which continue to store data
indefinitely while the computer system is switched on.

SRAM provides shorter access time but unfortunately it compares unfavourably with DRAM
in
all other aspects. DRAM is less expensive to make, it can store more bits per chip and
despite
the need for recharging it requires less power to operate. So, once more, a compromise is
needed. The norm is for cache memory to be provided by SRAM with the main memory
being constructed from DRAM technology.

The second category of memory component is called read-only memory (ROM). Again
this name does not give a full picture ofthe characteristics of this type of component. ROM
shares the random-access or direct-access properties of RAM except that it cannot be
written
to. The other important characteristic is that the data in ROM is not lost when the computer
system is switched off; the memory is non-volatile.

ROM has specialised uses involving the storage of data or programs that are going to be
used unchanged over and over again. ROM may be programmable (PROM) or erasable
PROM
(EPROM) or even electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM). These terms relate to the
manufacture
and installation ofthe ROM and do not impact on its basic use in a computer system.

Discussion Point:

Can you find out what memory components are in the computer system you are using and
any details about them such as the type and storage capacity?

3.03 Secondary storage devices

Before discussing storage devices it is appropriate to discuss some terminology that can
confuse. For any hardware device, whether an integral part of the computer system ora
connected peripheral, its operation requires appropriate software to be installed. This
software is referred to as the ‘device driver’. This should not be confused with the term
‘drive’
associated specifically with a storage device. Furthermore, the term ‘drive’ was initially
introduced to refer to the hardware that housed a storage medium item and provided the
physical mechanism for transferring data to it or reading data from it. However, as so often
happens, such distinctions are often ignored. As a result, for example, references to a ‘hard
disk’, a ‘hard disk drive’ and to a ‘hard drive’ have the same meaning.
Magnetic media

Magnetic media have been the mainstay of filestore technology for a very long time. The
invention of magnetic tape for sound recording pre-dates the invention of the computer by
many years so, not unexpectedly, this technology was the first to be utilised as a storage
device. In contrast the hard disk was invented as a technology specifically for computer
storage, arriving a few years later than the first use of magnetic tape.

For either type of magnetic media the interaction with it is controlled by a read head and
a write head. A read head uses the basic law of physics that a state of magnetisation will
affect an electrical property; a write head uses the reverse law. Although they are separate
devices the two heads are combined in a read-write head. The two alternative states of
magnetisation are interpreted as a 1 or 0.

A schematic diagram of a hard disk is shown in Figure 3.02. Points to note about the
physical
construction are that there is more than one platter (disk) and that each platter has a read-
write head for each side. The platters spin in unison. The read-write heads are attached to
actuator arms which allow the heads to move over the surfaces of the platters. The motion
of each actuator head is synchronised with the motion of the other heads. A cushion of air
ensures that a head does not touch a platter surface.

Figure 3.02 A schematic drawing of the components of a hard disk drive

39

The logical construction is that data is stored in concentric tracks. Each track consists of a
sequence of bits but these are formatted into sectors where each sector contains a defined

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number of bytes. The sector becomes the smallest unit of storage. To store a file, a sufficient
number of sectors have to be allocated but these may or may not be adjacent to each other.
As files are created and subsequently deleted or edited the use of the sectors becomes
increasingly fragmented which degrades the performance of the disk. A defragmentation
program can reorganise the allocation of sectors to files to restore performance. This is
discussed in Chapter 7 (Section 7.03).

A hard drive is considered to be a direct-access read-write device because any sector can
be
chosen for reading or writing. However, the data in a sector has to be read sequentially.

The above account only gives a simplified version of hard drive technology. One particular
omission is consideration of how manufacturers can effectively deal with the fact that the
physical length of a track increases from the innermost track to the outermost track. If this
fact is ignored the data storage capacity must be less than it potentially could be. The other
omission is the simple fact that the storage capacity of disk drives has continued to improve
and sizes have continued to shrink. There is every reason to believe that this performance
improvement is due to continue for some time.

There has always been a need for a storage device that can be removed from the computer
system. For large installations an organisation’s requirement is normally driven by security
concerns and the need for suitable back-up procedures. For individuals the need may be the
storage of personal data or personally owned programs or simple transfer of data between
computers or between a computer and, for example, a camera. The first technology to
dominate the use by individuals was the floppy disk but this was superseded by optical
storage.

Optical media

As with the magnetic tape medium, optical storage was developed from existing technology
not associated with computing systems. The compact disc (CD) evolved into CD digital
audio
(CD-DA) and this became the technology used in the CD-ROM. This was extensively used
for
distributing software but was of no value as a replacement for the floppy disk. The read-write
version (CD-RW) which came later provided the needed write functionality. However, the
CD has now given way to the DVD (originally ‘digital video disc’ but later renamed as ‘digital
versatile disc’). The latest and most powerful technology is the Blu-ray disc (BD).

A schematic diagram of an optical disc drive is shown in Figure 3.03. The disc spins and the
laser
beam is reflected from a surface which is sandwiched between a substrate and a protective
outer coating. For a CD-ROM, the reflective surface is
manufactured with indentations, called ‘pits’, separated by
what are referred to as ‘lands’. When the disc is being read,
the travel of the laser beam to a pit causes a difference
in phase compared to reflection from a land. This phase
difference is recognised by the photodiode detector and
attached circuitry and interpreted as a 1 or 0. For CD-RW
and DVD-RW technologies, the reflective surface is a special
alloy material. When data is being written to the disc (the
‘burn’ process) the heat generated by the absorption of the
laser light changes the material to liquid form. Depending on
the intensity of the laser light the material reverts to either a
crystalline or an amorphous solid form when it cools. When
the disc is read, the laser light is reflected from the crystalline
solid but not from the amorphous solid allowing the coding
of a 1 orO.

Focus offset control

Read signal detector

Figure 3.03 A schematic drawing of an optical disc drive

Parti

Chapter 3: Hardware

While the disc is spinning the optical head that directs the laser beam is made to move so
that the point of contact of the laser beam with the disc follows a single spiral path from the
centre of the disc to the periphery. Despite there only being this one path the formatting of
the data into sectors allows the disc to be used as a direct-access device just as is the case
for
a magnetic hard disk.

Another similarity with magnetic disk technology is that the storage capacity is dependent on
how
close together individual physical representations of a binary digit can get. There are two
aspects
governing this for an optical disc. The first is that if the disc is spinning at constant
revolutions per
second the outer part of the disc travels faster than the inner part. Early technology
counteracted
this by spinning at a constantly changing speed keeping the bit density constant along the
spiral
path. The second is that the wavelength of the light controls how well the light can be
focused; the
shorter the wavelength the better the focus. The original infrared diode laser used in a CD-
ROM
has much longer wavelength than the red laser light used in a DVD. The more recently used
blue
laser light has an even shorter wavelength. This change in wavelength is one of the reasons
forthe
improvements in the storage capacity of the modern technology.

Solid-state media

Despite the continued improvement in optical technology there is now a powerful

competitor in solid-state storage. The basis for this is ‘flash’ memory which is often said to
be a form of EEPROM but where the programmable aspect is part of the normal use. Flash
memory is a semiconductor technology with no moving parts. The circuits consist of arrays
of transistors acting as memory cells. The most frequently used technology is called ‘NAND’
because the basic circuitry resembles that of a NAND logic gate (see Section 4.03) with the

41
memory cells connected in series. The special feature is that blocks of memory cells can
have their contents erased all at once ‘in a flash’. Furthermore, before data can be written to
a block of cells in the memory the data in the block first has to be erased. When data is read,
a whole block of data has to be read in one operation.

The technology can be used for ‘solid-state’ drives, which can replace hard disk drives. The
more frequent use is either in a memory card or in a USB flash drive. In the latter case the
flash memory is incorporated in a device with the memory chip connected to a standard USB
connector. This is currently the technology of choice for removable data storage but how
long this will remain so is very uncertain with alternative technologies such as phase-change
random access memory (PRAM) already under development.

Extension Question 3.01

Carry out some research into the technologies currently available for storage.

Consider first the options available for the storage device inside a laptop computer. Create a
table showing cost, storage capacity and access speed for typical examples. Then consider
the options available for peripheral storage devices. Create a similar table for these.

Can you identify which technologies remain viable and which ones are becoming
uncompetitive? Are there any new technologies likely to come into common use?

3.04 Computer graphics

The technologies associated with presenting a computer graphic as a screen display or as

a printed page share common limitations. The nature of these was well understood by the
newspaper printing industry many years before computers were invented. The issue was
how to include pictures that were originally photographs. A photograph has continuous

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tones but a printer at any position on a page could only print black or nothing. The solution
to this was halftoning. This technique approximated a grey tone by printing an array of black
dots; varying the size of the dots changed the tone displayed. The technique, of course,
relies
on the limitations of the human eye which does not register the individual dots if they are
sufficiently small.

Avariation of this technique is used in computer graphic presentation. Normally, neither

screen nor printer technology can produce varying size dots but the same effect can be
produced by varying the number of dots created in what can be described as a halftone cell.

It is now standard practice for grey-scale images or colour images to be presented using a
halftoning technology. This requires a raster image processor, which can be a combination
of hardware and software, to control the conversion of data stored in a graphics file to the
physical screen display or printed page.
3.05 Screens and associated technologies

Screen technology associated with computer systems has a long evolutionary history. For
many years the only example was the visual display unit (VDU) which was used as a
computer
monitor or terminal. The VDU employed the cathode ray tube (CRT) technology used in a
television set but the functionality offered by the device was limited to recording keyboard
input and displaying text output.

42

Computer mouse

A significant step forward came with the introduction of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) as
standard features for microcomputer systems in the 1980s. The screen technology remained
the same but the functionality was completely transformed by the arrival of screen windows
and icons. To use the GUI effectively, the user needed a pointing device. The computer
mouse was introduced for this purpose. The screen became not just an output device but
also an input device activated by a mouse click.

The computer mouse introduced initially contained

a rubber ball held in contact with two rollers set
perpendicularly to each other. Figure 3.04 shows a
schematic diagram. As the mouse moves the rubber
ball rotates causing one or both rollers to rotate. Each
roller is attached to a spindle on which there is a disc
with holes arranged around the outer edge. A light
beam and detector are arranged so that the intermittent
transmission of the lightthrough the holes in the disc is
recorded as the disc rotates and the circuitry attached to
the pair of detectors then sends the appropriate data to
the computer to activate movement of the screen cursor.

More recently the tracker ball mouse was phased out and the optical mouse was introduced.
This
technology dispenses with the mechanical aspects associated with the movement of a
rubber

There are two aspects to computer mouse technology. The first is the behaviour instigated
by a button click which needs no further discussion; the second is the operation of the
mouse in controlling a screen cursor. The important point to emphasise here is that a mouse
has no knowledge of an absolute position; all it can do is
allow a relative movement to be recorded so that it can
influence the screen cursor position.

Figure 3.04 The components of a mechanical mouse

Chapter 3: Hardware

ball. The mouse shines a light beam from a light emitting diode down onto the surface the
mouse
is resting on. This light is reflected back on to a sensor fitted to the underside of the mouse.
As the
mouse is moved along the surface the sensor acts like a camera taking successive images
of the
surface. Image processing software then interprets these images to establish the movement
that
has taken place and this data is transmitted to the computer as before.

Screen display

We can now consider the technology associated with the creation of a screen display.
Chapter 1
(Section 1.04) described how an image could be stored as a bitmap built up from pixels.
Screen
displays are also based on the pixel concept but with one major difference: a screen pixel
consists of three sub-pixels typically one each for red, green and blue. Varying the level of
light
emitted from the individual sub-pixels allows a full range of colours to be displayed.

There have been a number of very different technologies used to create a pixel. In the
original
cathode ray tube (CRT) technology, there is no individual component for a pixel. The inner
surface of the screen is covered with phosphor, which is a material that emits light when
irradiated. An individual pixel is created by controlling the direction of the electron beam
irradiating the phosphor. This is modified for colour displays where individual red, green and
blue phosphors are arranged so as to create an array of pixels.

Phosphors are also used in one of the major flat-screen technologies, the plasma screen.
There is now a construction based on individual cells constituting a matrix of pixels. Each
cell contains plasma and a phosphor. When an electrical charge is applied to the plasma
it releases radiation that hits the phosphor and causes light emission. Each pixel or, more
accurately, each sub-pixel is a light source. The sub-pixel emits one of red, green or blue
light.

KEY TERMS

Liquid-crystal display (LCD): a screen back-lit by light-emitting diodes and with liquid crystal
cells
sandwiched between polarisers

In the flat-screen technology that is most used at present, the pixel is not a light source.
The liquid-crystal display (LCD) screen has individual cells containing a liquid crystal to
create the pixel matrix but these do not
emit light. The pixel matrix is illuminated
by back-lighting and each pixel can affect
the transmission of this light to cause the
on-screen display. A typical arrangement is
shown in Figure 3.05.

The back-lighting is usually provided by

light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The important
feature is the use of polarised light directed
towards the pixel matrix and the use of a
further polariser between the pixel matrix
and the screen. If a voltage is applied to an
individual pixel cell the alignment of the
liquid crystal molecules is affected and in
turn this can change the polarisation of the
light and therefore affect what is displayed on
the screen. There are a number of different

Polarizer

Colour Filter
Colour Filter glass

TFT Glass
Polarizer

//ii\ ii i li \ \ \

Backlight

Figure 3.05 The components of a liquid-crystal display screen

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technologies but the principle of their functioning is the same and colour displays use red,
green
and blue combinations as before.

More recently, a different technology has been introduced. This is based on the use of an
organic light-emitting diode (OLED) to create the pixel. The OLED is used directly as a light
source so this technology requires no back-lighting.

Touch screens

As well as providing improved display capability, flat-screen technology has allowed a new
mechanism for interaction with the display. Touch-screen technology is now a major feature
of a whole range of computer-based products.

Extension Question 3.02

Consider the different possibilities for interacting with a screen display. Create a table
showing the advantages and disadvantages for each technique.

The modern version of a touch-sensitive screen has the layers of technology providing the
display with extra layers of technology added immediately beneath the surface of the screen.
There have been two approaches used. The first is the resistive touch screen. This type
has two layers separated by a thin space beneath the screen surface. The screen is not rigid
so when a finger presses on to the screen the pressure moves the topmost of these two
separated layers so that it makes contact with the lower layer. The point of contact creates a
voltage divider in the horizontal and vertical directions. These allow the position of the point
of contact to be transmitted to the processor.

The second technology is the capacitive touch screen. This does not require a soft
screen but instead makes use of the fact that a finger touching a glass screen can cause
a capacitance change in a circuit component immediately below the screen. The most
effective technology is projective capacitive touch (PCT) with mutual capacitance. This has
a circuit beneath the screen which contains an array of capacitors. This enables multi-touch
technology, which allows more functionality than just pointing at one location on a screen.

KEY TERMS

Resistive touch screen: a flexible surface which causes contact between electrically resistive
layers
beneath when touched

Capacitive touch screen: a rigid surface above a conductive layer which undergoes a
change in
electrical state when a finger touches the screen

Discussion Point:

Investigate which flat-screen technologies are used in any computer, laptop, tablet or mobile/
cell phone that you use. Discuss the benefits and drawbacks associated with their use.

3.06 Keyboards and keypads

The standard method of inputting significant amounts of text data into a computer system
has always been to use a QWERTY keyboard (named after the top left row of alphabetic
characters). The central part of the keyboard layout matches that of a standard typewriter,
allowing skilled typists to continue to function effectively. When numbers only need to be
input a skilled operator will use a numeric keypad. What might be described as a traditional
mobile phone has a different type of keypad which can be used to input text data. The
technology underpinning all of these devices is the same assuming that there are actual
physical keys to be used.

When the keyboard is being used to input text it appears as though a key press immediately
transfers the appropriate character to the computer screen but this is an illusion. The key
press has to be converted to a character code which is transmitted to the processor. The
processor, under the control of the operating system, ensures that the text character is
displayed on the screen. The same process takes place if the keyboard is used to initiate
some action, perhaps by using a shortcut key combination, except that the processor has to
respond by taking the requested action.

To achieve this functionality the keyboard has electrical circuitry together with its own
microprocessor and a ROM chip. The keys are positioned above a key matrix which consists
of a set of rows of wires and another set of columns of wires. Pressing a key causes contact
at a specific intersection. The microprocessor continuously tests to see if any electrical
circuit involving a row wire and a column wire has become closed. When the microprocessor
recognises that a circuit has become closed, it can identify the particular intersection that
is causing this. It then uses data stored in the ROM to create the appropriate character code
relating to the key associated with that intersection and sends this code to the processor.

The same principles apply if two keys are pressed simultaneously.

3.07 Printers, scanners and plotters

Inkjet printer

Two technologies have come to dominate the printing of documents from data stored in a
computer system. The technologies can be used irrespective of whether text or an image is
being printed. The technology that is cheapest to buy is the inkjet printer but the purchase
price is soon dwarfed by the cost of replacement ink. A genuine advantage of an inkjet
printer
is its relatively small size.

The working principle of an inkjet printer is very simply explained: a sheet of paper is fed in;
the printhead moves across the sheet depositing ink on to the paper; the paper is moved
forward a fraction and the printhead carries out another traversal and so on until the sheet
has been fully printed. The precision of the mechanical operations involved is one of the
factors governing the quality of the printing. The other factor is the accuracy of the process
of applying the ink to the paper. The printhead consists of nozzles that spray droplets on to
the paper. The number of nozzles in a printhead is truly amazing, running into the
thousands.
This is only possible because the manufacturing process can produce an individual nozzle
with a diameter considerably less than that of a human hair. There are two alternative
technologies for causing the ejection of the ink droplet (thermal bubble or piezoelectric) but
neither has significant advantages or disadvantages.
Ink is supplied to the printhead from one or more ink cartridges. Often the printhead is part
of the cartridge. For black and white printing only one cartridge is required but for colour
printing more are needed. The simplest technology for colour printing uses three colour
cartridges (one for each of the subtractive primaries: cyan, magenta and yellow) in addition
to the black cartridge. Suitable positioning of combinations of overlapping droplets in
principle allows any colour to be created. Good quality printing requires a printing resolution
of several hundred dots per inch which is achievable because of the large number and small
size of the nozzles. The number of dots per inch is defined by the printhead geometry and
cannot be changed but the number of dots per pixel can be dictated by the controlling
software. Increasing the number gives better colour definition for the pixel but the pixel size
is

45

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increased giving poorer resolution forthe image. Better resolution can only be achieved with
poorer colour definition.

Laser printer

The alternative technology is the laser printer. Laser printers have always been more
expensive to buy and used to offer much higher-quality printing but the comparison is no
longer so clear cut.

A schematic diagram of the workings of a laser printer is shown in Figure 3.06. The
operation
can be summarised as follows:

1 The drum is given an electric charge.

2 The drum starts to revolve step by step.

3 At each step a laser beam is directed by the mirror and

lens assembly to a sequence of positions across the
width of the drum.

4 At each position the laser is either switched off to leave

the charge on the drum or switched on to discharge the
position.

5 This process repeats until a full page electrostatic

image has been created.

6 The drum is coated with a charged toner which

only sticks to positions where the drum has been
discharged.
7 The drum rolls over a sheet of paper which is initially
given an electric charge.

8 The sheet of paper is discharged and then is passed

through heated rollers to fuse the toner particles and
seal the image on the paper surface.

9 The drum is discharged before the process starts again for the next page.

The above sequence represents black and white printing. For colour printing, separate
toners
are required for the colours and the process has to take place for each colour. Although the
technology is completely different the logical aspect of the printing is the same as that for
inkjet printing. Colours are created from cyan, magenta, yellow and black. The technology
produces dots; quality depends on the number of dots per inch and software can control the
number of dots per pixel.

It is normal nowadays for a laser printer or an inkjet printer to be a multi-functional device.

It will have the capability to act as a flatbed scanner with the option for this also to provide
a photocopying facility. Effectively, a scanner reverses the printing process in that it takes
an image and creates from it a digital representation rather than the digital representation
being used to create an image on paper. The principles of the operation of a typical scanner
are straightforward. The sheet of paper is held in a fixed position and a light source covering
the width of the paper moves from one end of the sheet to the other. The reflected light is
directed by a system of mirrors and lenses on to a charge-coupled device (CCD). The finer
details of how a CCD works are not important but the three aspects to note are:

• It consists of an array of photo-sensitive cells.

• It produces for each cell an electrical response proportional to the light intensity.

• It needs an analogue-to-digital converter to create a digital value to be stored.

Chapter 3: Hardware

Graphics plotter and 3D printer

In Chapter 1 (Section 1.04) the difference between a bitmap and a vector graphic was
discussed. If a vector graphic file has been created the image can be displayed on a screen
or printed by first converting the file to a bitmap version. However, specialised technical
applications often require a more accurate representation to be created on paper. This
requires the use of a graphics plotter. A plotter uses pens to write, usually, on a large sheet
of paper constrained by sprockets along one pair of sides. The sprockets can move the
paper forwards or backwards and pens can either be parked or in use at any given time. The
controlling circuitry and software can create the drawing directly from the original vector
graphic file.
Engineers and designers working in manufacturing are potential users of graph plotters.
They
are also potential users of the 3D printer. The name could be said to be a little misleading
but
its meaning is generally understood. It is a device that offers an alternative technology for
computer-aided manufacture (CAM).

The original concept was that the starting point is a 3D design created in a suitable
computer-
aided design (CAD) package. The design is split into layers. The data for the first layer is
transmitted to the 3D printer. Rather than using ink to draw the
layer, the 3D printer uses a nozzle to squirt material on to the
printer bed to create a physical layer to match the design. This
process is repeated for successive layers. When the whole object
has been formed it has to be cured in some way to ensure that
the layers are, in effect, welded together and the material has
been converted to the form required for the finished product.

The technology is very versatile and still under development.

Figure 3.07 shows a striking example. This bionic ear was

constructed with three ‘inks’. Silicone was used for the basic
structure, a gel containing chondrocyte cells and silicone infused
with silver nanoparticles were the other two ‘inks’. The final
curing step involved incubation in a culture medium to allow
the chondrocyte cells to produce cartilage. The only missing
component was skin.

3.08 Input and output of sound

IP telephony and video conferencing are the two obvious technologies requiring voice input
to a computer system and voice output from a computer system. Voice recognition is an
alternative technique for data input to a computer.

For input, a microphone is needed. This is a device that has a diaphragm, a flexible material
which is caused to vibrate by an incoming sound. If the diaphragm is connected to suitable
circuitry the vibration can cause a change in an electrical signal. A condenser microphone
uses capacitance change as the mechanism; an alternative is to use a piezoelectric crystal.
The electrical signal has to be converted to a digital signal by an analogue-to-digital
converter before it can be processed by a sound (audio) card inside the computer.

For output, a loudspeaker or speaker is needed. This is involved in what is effectively the
reverse process to that for input. The computer sound card produces a digital signal which
is converted to analogue by a digital-to-analogue converter. The analogue signal is fed to
the speaker. In the traditional technology the current flows through a coil suspended within
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

the magnetic field provided by a permanent magnet in the speaker. As the direction of the
current keeps reversing, the coil moves backwards and forwards. This movement controls
the movement of a diaphragm which causes sound to be created.

Summary

• Primary storage is main memory, consisting of RAM (DRAM or SRAM) and ROM.

• Secondary storage includes magnetic, optical and solid-state media.

• Input devices include the mouse, keyboard, scanner and microphone.

• Output devices include screens (CRT, plasma, LCD, OLED), printers (inkjet, laser and 3D),
plotters and speakers.

• Touch screens (capacitive or resistive) are used for both input and output.

Exam-style Questions

1 a Atypical computer will have RAM and ROM.

i Describe two differences between RAM and ROM. [4]

ii Name one similarity between RAM and ROM. [1]

iii RAM may be either DRAM or SRAM. Explain the difference between these. [2]

b Secondary storage can be magnetic, optical or solid state.

i For each type of storage identify one feature of the basic internal operation which

is different from that of the other two types. P]

ii For two of the three types of storage identify two similarities in the basic internal operation.
[2]

2 a Pressing a key on a computer keyboard can cause a character to be displayed on the

computer screen.

i Identify four aspects of the basic internal operation of a keyboard that makes this happen.
[4]

ii Describe an alternative method for a user to enter some text into a computer system. [2]

b There are two types of printer commonly used with a PC.

i Describe two differences between how an inkjet printer works and how a laser printer
works. [4]
ii Identify two similarities in the logical approach used in these two types of printer. [2]

Learning objectives

W At

AKHm

jaS

AH

r By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

f ■ use logic gate symbols

■ understand and define the functions of NOT, AND, OR,

► NAND, NOR and XOR (EOR) gates

^ ■ construct the truth table for each of the logic gates above

[ ■ construct a logic circuit from:

^ • a problem statement

• a logic expression

■ construct a truth table from:

• a logic circuit

• a logic expression

■ show understanding that some circuits can be constructed

from fewer gates to produce the same outputs.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

4.01 Boolean logic and problem statements

Consider the following question:

Is Colombo further north than Singapore?

In everyday language the answer will be either yes or no. (‘Yes’, in fact.) However, the
question
could be rephrased to make use of the language of Boolean logic:

Colombo is further north than Singapore TRUE or FALSE?

More formally, the statement:

Colombo is further north than Singapore.

can be described as an example of a logic assertion or a logic proposition that can have
only one of the two alternative Boolean logic values TRUE or FALSE.

KEY TERMS

Logic proposition: a statement that is either TRUE or FALSE

Now consider the following two individual statements:

50

• You should take an umbrella if it is raining or if the weather forecast is for rain later

• The air-conditioning system is set to come on in an office only during working hours but
also only if the temperature rises to above 25°C.

Each of these statements contains two logic propositions which are highlighted. In each
statement these logic propositions are combined in some way. Finally, each statement has
the addition of an outcome which is dependent on the combination of the two propositions.
Each of these is, therefore, an individual example of a problem statement.

KEY TERMS

Problem statement: an informal definition of an outcome which is dependent on one logic

proposition or a combination of two or more logic propositions

4.02 Boolean operators

The problem statements identified above can be more formally expressed in a form that is
suitable for handling with Boolean logic. To do this it is necessary to use Boolean operators.
The three basic Boolean operators are AND, OR and NOT.

The definition for AND can be expressed as:

A AND B is TRUE if A is TRUE and B is TRUE

Here, both A and B represent any logic proposition or assertion that has a value TRUE or
FALSE.

In a similar way the definition for OR is:

A OR B is TRUE if AisTRUE or B is TRUE
The two problem statements above might be rephrased as follows:

• Take_umbrella = TRUE IF (raining = TRUE) OR (rain_forecast = TRUE)

• System_on = TRUE IF (office hours = TRUE) AND (temperature >25°C)

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Chapter 4: Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

mm

Each original problem statement has now been rephrased as a form of logic expression
with a defined outcome. The format of each expression here does not follow any formally
defined convention but the structure does allow the underlying logic to be understood. In
general, a logic expression consists of logic propositions combined using Boolean operators
and the expression optionally may be stated with a defined output.

KEY TERMS

Logic expression: logic propositions combined using Boolean operators, which may be
written with a
defined outcome

TASK 4.01

Convert the following problem statement into a simple logic expression:

A document can only be copied if it is not covered by copyright or if there is copyright and
' permission has been obtained.

Any logic expression can be constructed using only the Boolean operators AND, OR and
NOT
but it is often convenient to use other operators. Here are the definitions for the six operators
with which you need to be familiar:

• NOTAisTRUEifAisFALSE

• A AND Bis TRUE if A is TRUE and Bis TRUE

• AORBisTRUEifAisTRUEorBisTRUE

• A NAND B is TRUE if A is FALSE or B is FALSE

• A NOR B is TRUE if A is FALSE and B is FALSE

• AXOR B is TRUE if A is TRUE or B is true but not both of them

4.03 Truth tables

The truth table is a simple but powerful technique for representing any logic expression or
for
describing the possible outputs from a logic circuit.

A truth table is presented by making use of the convention that TRUE can be
represented as 1 and FALSE can be represented as 0. The simplest use of a truth table is
to represent the logic associated with a Boolean operator.

As an example let us consider the AND operator. The labelling of the truth table follows
the convention that the initially defined values are represented by A and B and the value
obtained from the simple expression using the AND operator is represented byX. In other
words we write the truth table for X = A AN D B. Remembering that AN D only returns true if
both A and B are true we expect a truth table with only one instance of X having the value 1.

The truth table is shown in Table 4.01.

The truth table has four rows corresponding to the four combinations of the truth values
for A and B. Three of these lead to a 0 in the X column as expected.

1
Table 4.01 The truth table for
the AND operator

51

TASK 4.02

Without looking further on in the chapter, construct the truth table for the OR operator.

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4.04 Logic circuits and logic gates

The digital circuits that constitute the inner workings of a computer system all operate on the
basis that at any one time an individual part of the circuit is either in an ‘on 7 state, which
can
be represented by a 1, or in an ‘off’ state, represented by a 0. The physical circuitry consists
of
integrated circuits constructed from transistors. There can be billions of transistors in a single
integrated circuit.

We will view a logic circuit as comprising component parts called logic gates. Each different
logic gate has an operation that matches a Boolean operator.

KEY TERMS

Logic gate: a component of a logic circuit that has an operation matching that of a Boolean
operator

Discussion Point:

There will be no further discussion of integrated circuits in this book but you might wish
to do some research and have a look at the structure of a small-scale integration chip.

When drawing a circuit, standard symbols are used for the logic gates. As an example,
the symbol shown in Figure 4.01 represents an AND gate.

The first point to note here is that the shape defines the type of gate. The second point
is that the inputs are on the left-hand side and the output is on the right-hand side. In
general, the number of inputs is not limited to two but the discussion in this book will only
consider circuits where the number of inputs does not exceed two.

Figure 4.02 shows the logic gate symbols and the associated truth tables for each of the six
Boolean operators introduced in Section 4.02.

Figure 4.01 The symbol for

the AND logic gate

NOT
AND

OR

NAND

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Chapter 4: Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

NOR

XOR

1
0

Figure 4.02 Logic gate symbols and their associated truth tables

There are two other points to note here. The NOT gate is a special case having only one
input. The NAND and NOR gates are each a combination of a gate and the NOT gate so
they
produce complementary output to that produced by the AND and OR gates.

TASK 4.03

Draw a circuit where A and B are input to an AND gate from which the output is carried to a
) NOT gate from which there is an output X. Show that this has the same outcome as having
one

NAND gate.

r Extension question 4.01

r Could the same outcome be produced by positioning a NOT gate before the AND gate?

You need to remember the symbol for each of these gates. A good start here is to remember
► that AN D has the proper D symbol and OR has the curvy one. You also need to
remember the

r definitions for the gates so that you can construct the corresponding truth table for each
gate.

Question 4.01

I Can you recall from memory the symbols and definitions of the six logic gates introduced in

this chapter?

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.01

Constructing a logic circuit from a problem statement or logic expression

You need to be able to construct a logic circuit from either a problem statement or from
a logic expression. If you are given a problem statement the best approach is to first
convert it to a logic expression and then to identify the individual Boolean operations in
the logic expression. This approach will be illustrated here.

Consider the following problem statement: A bank offers a special lending rate to
customers subject to certain conditions. To qualify, a customer must satisfy certain criteria:

• The customer has been with the bank for two years.

• Two of the following conditions must also apply:

• The customer is married.

• The customer is aged 25 years or older.

• The customer’s parents are customers of the bank.

53

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

To convert this statement to a logic expression you need to represent each condition by
a symbol (in the same way that a problem might be tackled in normal algebra):
• Let A represent an account held for two years.

• Let B represent that the customer is married.

• Let C represent that the customer’s is age 25 years or more.

• Let D represent that the customer’s parents have an account.

The logic expression can then be written as:

A AND (((B AND C) OR (B AND D)) OR (C AND D))

This could alternatively be presented with an outcome:

SpeciaLrate IF A AND (((BAND C) OR (BAND D)) OR (C AND D))

Note the use of brackets to ensure that the meaning is clear. You may think that not all of
the brackets are needed. In this example, an extra pair has been included to guide the
construction of the circuit where only two inputs are allowed for any of the gates.

It can be seen, therefore, that the logic circuit corresponding to this logic expression
derived from the original problem statement could be constructed using four AND gates
and two OR gates as shown in Figure 4.03.

Figure 4.03 A logic circuit constructed from a problem statement

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.02

Constructing a truth table from a logic expression or logic circuit

You also need to be able to construct a truth table from either a logic expression or a
logic circuit. We might have continued with the problem in Worked Example 4.01 but
four inputs will lead to 16 rows in the truth table. Instead, we consider a slightly simpler
problem with only three inputs and therefore only eight rows in the truth table. We will
start with the circuit shown in Figure 4.04.

Figure 4.04 A circuit with three inputs for conversion to a truth table

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Chapter 4: Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

Table 4.02 shows how the truth table needs to be set up initially. There are several points
to note here. The first is that you must take care to include all of the eight different possible
combinations of the input values. Therefore, you present the values in increasing binary
number value from 000 to 111. The second point is that for such a circuit it is not sensible to
try to work out the outputs directly from the input values. Instead a systematic approach
should be used. This involves identifying intermediate points in the circuit and recording
the values at each of them in the columns headed ‘Workspace’ in Table 4.02.
Inputs

Workspace

Output

1
1

Table 4.02 The initial empty truth table

Figure 4.05 shows the same circuit but with four intermediate points labelled M, N, P and
Q identified. Each one has been inserted on the output side of a logic gate.

Figure 4.05 The circuit in Figure 4.04 with intermediate points identified

Now you need to work systematically through the intermediate points. You start by
filling in the columns for M and N. Then you fill in the columns for P and Q which feed
into the final AND gate. The final truth table is shown as Table 4.03. The circuit has two
combinations of inputs that lead to a TRUE output from the circuit.

The columns containing the intermediate values (the workspace) could be deleted at this
stage.

Inputs

Workspace

Output

0
0

0
0

0
0

Table 4.03 The truth table for the circuit shown in Figure 4.05

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One final point to make here is that you may be able to check part of your final solution
by looking at just part of the circuit. For this example, if you look at the circuit you
will see that the path from input C to the output passes through two AND gates. It
follows, therefore, that for all combinations with C having value 0 the output must be 0.
Therefore, in order to check your final solution you only need to examine the other four
combinations of input values where C has value 1.

56

TASK 4.04

An oven has a number of components which should all be working properly. For each
component there is a signalling mechanism that informs a management system if all is well
or if there is a problem when the oven is being used. Table 4.04 summarises the signal
values
that record the status for each component.

Signal

Value

Component condition

0
Fan not working

Fan working properly

Internal light not working

Internal light working properly

Thermometer reading too high

Thermometer reading in range

Table 4.04 Signals from the oven components

If the thermometer reading is in range but either or both the fan and light are not working, the
management system has to output a signal to activate a warning light on the control panel.
Draw a logic circuit for this fault condition.

4.05 Alternative circuits

For any given logic problem there will be different circuits that deliver the same output values
from a given set of inputs. In some cases it will be possible to simplify an initial circuit design
by reducing the number of logic gates. As a trivial example you may have noticed that the
circuit in Figure 4.04 includes an AND gate immediately followed by a NOT gate. These
could
have been combined as a NAND gate. For more complex examples, there are techniques
available which will be discussed in Chapter 18 (Sections 18.03 and 18.04).

Flowever, reducing complexity is not just about reducing the number

of logic gates. Logic circuit manufacturers can reduce costs by building
circuits that contain only one type of logic gate; one that is itself cheap
to manufacture. The NAND gate is an example of a universal gate which
fits this requirement (the NOR gate is the other possibility). Manufacturers
may find it cheaper to build a circuit with just NAND gates even though the
circuit contains more components than alternatives containing different
gates. To illustrate the concept of the universal NAND gate the circuit in
Figure 4.06 has the same functionality as an OR gate.

Extension question 4.02

Create the truth table for the circuit shown in Figure 4.06 and show that it is the same as that
for an OR gate.

B —L

Figure 4.06 A circuit containing only NAND

gates which is equivalent to an OR gate

• A logic scenario can be described by a problem statement or a logic expression.

• A logic expression comprises logic propositions and Boolean operators.

• Logic circuits are constructed from logic gates.

• The operation of a logic gate matches that of a Boolean operator.

• The outcome of a logic expression or a logic circuit can be expressed as a truth table.

Exam-style Questions

1 a The following are the symbols for three different logic gates.

Gate 1 Gate 2 Gate 3

33 “ 33 " -D>°-

i Identify each of the logic gates.

ii Draw the truth table for either Gate 1 or Gate 2.

b Consider the following circuit:

i Construct the truth table for the circuit using the following template:

Inputs

Workspace

Output

X
0

[3]

[2]
57

ii There is an element of redundancy in this diagram. Explain what the problem is.

[8]

[2]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

58

2 a The definition of the NAND gate can be expressed as:

A NAND B is TRUE if A is FALSE or B is FALSE

Draw the truth table for a NAND gate [4]

b Consider the following statement:

In a competition, two teams play two matches against each other. One of the teams is
declared the winner
if one of the following results occurs:

• The team wins both matches.

• The team wins one match and loses the other but has the highest total score.

i Identify the three logic propositions in this statement. [3]

ii By assigning the symbols A, B and C to these three propositions express the outcome of
the competition

as a logic expression. * [3]

iii Construct a logic circuit to match this logic expression. [4]

3 A domestic heating system has a hot water tank and a number of radiators. There is a
computerised management
system which receives signals dependent on whether or not the conditions for components
are as they should be.

The following table summarises the signals received:

Signal

Value

Component condition

A
0

Water flow in the radiators is too low

Water flow in the radiators is within limits

Hot water tank temperature too high

Hot water tank temperature within limits

Water level in hot water tank too low

Water level in hot water tank within limits

a Consider the following fault condition. The water level in the hot water tank is too low and
the temperature
in the hot water tank is too high. The management system must output a signal to switch off
the system.

i Construct a truth table for this fault condition including the A, B and C signals. . [4]

ii Construct the circuit diagram for this fault condition to match this truth table. [5]

b Consider the fault condition where the hot water tank temperature is within limits but the
water flow in the

radiators is too low and the water level in the hot water tank is too low. Construct the circuit
diagram for this fault
condition which requires the management system to output a signal to increase water
pressure. [5]

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of the basic Von Neumann model

■ show understanding of the roles carried out by registers

■ show understanding of the roles carried out by the

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and system
clock

■ show understanding of how data are transferred between

various components of the computer system using the
address bus, data bus and control bus

■ show understanding of how the bus width and clock

speed are factors that contribute to the performance of
the computer system

■ show understanding of the need for ports

■ describe the stages of the fetch-execute cycle

■ show understanding of‘register transfer’ notation

■ describe how interrupts are handled.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

5.01 The Von Neumann model of a computer system

The simplest form of what might be described as a computer system model or computer
system architecture is usually attributed to John von Neumann. This recognises the fact that
he was the first to describe the basic principles in a publication.

The model has the following basic features:

• There is a processor, a central processing unit.

• The processor has direct access to a memory.

• The memory contains a ‘stored program’ (which can be replaced by another at any time)
and the data required by the program.

• The stored program consists of individual instructions.

• The processor executes instructions sequentially.

5.02 Central processing unit (CPU) architecture

Modem processors are extremely complex; some

of the complexities will be discussed in Chapter
19 (Sections 19.02 and 19.03). In this chapterthe
focus is on the fundamentals of the operation of
an up-to-date version of a simple von Neumann
computer system.

Figure 5.01 gives a simplified schematic diagram

of a processor that could be part of this simple
system. The dotted outline shows the boundary
of the processor. The logical arrangement of some
of the processor components is indicated. The
arrows show possible directions of flow of data.

As the following discussion will show, the data for

some of the arrows is specifically an address or an
instruction. However, in general, data might be an
instruction, an address or a value.

Components of the CPU

The two major components of the CPU are the

arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) (or Arithmetic
Logic Unit) and the control unit. As its name

implies, the ALU is responsible for any arithmetic Figure 5.01 A schematic diagram of the
architecture of a simple CPU
or logic processing that might be needed when a
program is running. The functions of the control

unit are more diverse. One aspect is controlling the flow of data throughout the processor
and, indeed, throughout the whole computer system. Another is ensuring that program
instructions are handled correctly. A vital part of the control unit is a clock which is used
by the unit to synchronise processes. Strictly speaking there are two clocks. The first is an
internal clock which controls the cycles of activity within the processor. The other is the
system clock which controls activities outside the processor. The CPU will have a defined
frequency for its clock cycle, which is usually referred to as the clock speed. The frequency
defines the minimum period of time that separates successive activities within the system.

Extension question 5.01

In an advertisement for a laptop computer, the system is described as 4GB, 1TB, 1.7 GHz.

1 Which three components are being referred to here?

2 Have the values quoted been presented correctly? To answer this you need to refer back
to the discussion in Chapter 1 (Section 1.04) about terminology.

3 Calculate the minimum time period that could separate successive activities on this
system.
Registers

The other components of the CPU are the registers. These are storage components which,
r because of their proximity to the ALU, allow very short access times. Each register has
limited

storage capacity, typically 16,32 or 64 bits. A register is either general purpose or special

purpose. If there is only one general-purpose register it is referred to as the accumulator

For the rest of this discussion and for the discussion in Chapter 6, the assumption will be
that
f the processor does have just this one general-purpose register. The Accumulator is used to

f store a single value at anyone time. A value is stored in the Accumulator that is to be used

. by the ALU for the execution of an instruction. The ALU can then store a different value in
the

Accumulator after the execution of the instruction.

KEY TERMS

Accumulator: a general-purpose register that stores a value before and after the execution of
an
instruction by the ALU

Figure 5.01 shows some of the special-purpose registers as individual components. The box
labelled ‘Other registers’ can be considered to comprise the Accumulator plus the special-
purpose registers not identified individually. The full names of the special-purpose registers
included in the simple CPU which we are going to discuss are given in Table 5.01 with a
brief
description of their function.

Register name

Abbreviation

Register’s function

Current instruction
register

CIR
Stores the current instruction while it is being
decoded and executed

Index register

IX

Stores a value; only used for indexed addressing

Memory address
register

MAR

Stores the address of a memory location which is

about to have a value read from or written to

Memory data register

(memory buffer
register)

MDR(MBR)

Stores data that has just been read from memory or

is just about to be written to memory

Program counter

PC

Stores the address of where the next instruction is

to be read from

Status register

SR

Contains individual bits that are either set or cleared

Table 5.01 Registers in a simple CPU

Two points are worth making at this point. The first is that the alternative name for the MDR
emphasises that this particular register must act as a buffer because transfers of data within
the processor take place much more quickly than transfers outside the processor. This

61

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

statement has to be slightly qualified because the transfer could be to or from cache memory
which would be a fast process but it is otherwise generally applicable. The mention of cache
memory brings us to the second point which is that all discussion in this chapter and Chapter
6 ignores the fact that cache memory exists. All references are simply to memory as in
Table 5.01.

A further point to note here is that the index register (IX) can be abbreviated as IR but in
some
sources the current instruction register (CIR) is abbreviated as ‘IR’, which is an unnecessary
potential cause of confusion. In this book, the index register is always IX and the current
instruction register is CIR. Finally, there is also possible confusion if the abbreviation PC is
used. This will only be used in this book when register transfer notation is being used as you
will see later in the chapter. Everywhere else, a PC is a computer.

The SR is used when an instruction requires arithmetic or logic processing. Each individual
bit in the SR operates as a flag. The bit is set to 1 if a condition is detected. As an example,
the
use of the following three flags will be illustrated:

• The carry flag, identified as C, is set to 1 ifthereisacarry.

• The negative flag, identified as N, is set to 1 if a result is negative.

• The overflow flag, identified as V, is set to 1 if overflow is detected.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.01

Using the status register during an arithmetic operation

1 Consider the addition of two positive values where the sum of the two produces an
answer that is too large to be correctly identified with the limited number of bits used to
represent the values. For, example if an eight-bit binary integer representation is being
used and an attempt is made to add denary 66 to denary 68 the following happens:

0100 0010

0100 0100

1000 0110

Flags: N V C
110

The value produced as an answer is denary -122. Two positive numbers have been
added to get a negative number. This impossibility is detected by the combination of
the negative flag and the overflow flag being set to 1. The processor has identified the
problem and can therefore send out an appropriate message.
2 Consider using the same eight-bit binary integer representation but this time two
negative numbers (-66 and -68 in denary) are added:

10111110

10111100

( 1 ) 01111010

Flags: N V C
Oil

This time we get the answer +122. This impossibility is detected by the combination of
the negative flag not being set and both the overflow and the carry flag being set to 1.

Parti

Chapter 5: Processor Fundamentals

Extension question 5.02

Carryout a comparable calculation for the addition in binary of-66 to +68. What do you
think the processor should do with the carry bit?

5.03 The system bus

A bus is a parallel transmission component with each separate wire carrying a single bit. It
is important not to describe a bus as a storage device. A bus does not hold data. Instead it
is a mechanism for data to be transferred from one system
component to another.

In the simple computer system described in this chapter

there will be a system bus that comprises three distinct
components: the address bus, the data bus and the control
bus. The schematic diagram of the CPU in Figure 5.01
shows the logical connection between each bus and a CPU
component. The address bus is connected to the MAR; the
data bus to the MDR; and the control bus to the control unit.

The system bus allows data flow between the CPU, the
memory, and input or output (I/O) devices as shown in the
schematic diagram in Figure 5.02.

CPU

Memory
Input and
Output

k)

t>

<>

k>

k>

k>

Control bus

Address bus

r|>

Data bus

CO

CO

Figure 5.02 A schematic diagram of the system bus

The address bus

The sole function of the address bus is to carry an address. This address is loaded on to the
bus from the MAR as and when directed by the control unit. The address specifies a location
in memory which is due to receive data or from which data is to be read. The address bus is
a
‘one-way street 5 . It can only be used to send an address to a memory controller. It cannot
be
used to carry an address from the memory controller back to the CPU.

KEY TERMS

Address bus: a component that carries an address to the memory controller to identify a
location in
memory which is to be read from or written to

The crucial aspect of the address bus is the ‘bus width 5 , which is the number of separate
wires
in the bus. The number of wires defines the number of bits in the address’s binary code. In *
the simple computer system considered here we will assume that the bus width is 16 bits
allowing 65 536 memory locations to be directly addressed. Such a memory size would, of
course, be totally inadequate for a modern computer system. Even doubling the address bus
width to 32 bits would only allow the direct addressing of a little over four billion addresses. If
the memory size is too large special techniques have to be used.

The data bus

The function of the data bus is to carry data. This might be an instruction, an address ora
value. As can be seen from Figure 5.02, the data bus might be carrying the data from CPU
to
memory or from memory to CPU.

However, another option is to carry data to or from an I/O device. The diagram does not
make clear whether, for instance, data coming from an input device is carried first to the
CPU
or directly to the memory. There is a good reason for this. Some computer systems will only

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

allow input to the CPU before the data can be stored in memory. Other systems will allow
direct transfer to memory.

Bus width is again an important factor in considering how the data bus is used. Before
discussing this, it is useful to introduce the concept of a word. A word consists of a number
of bytes and for any system the word length is defined. The significance of the word length is
that it defines a grouping that the system will handle as one unit. The word length might be
stated as a number of bytes or as a number of bits. Typical word lengths are 16,32 or 64 bits
that is, 2,4 or 8 bytes respectively. For a given computer system, the bus width is ideally the
same as the word length. If this is not possible the bus width can be half the word length so
that a full word can be transmitted by two consecutive data transfers. For our simple system
we assume a data bus width of 16 bits and a word length of two bytes to match this.

KEYTERMS

Data bus: a component that carries data to and from the processor
Word: a small number of bytes handled as a unit by the computer system

Extension question 5.03

Can you find out the bus widths used in the computer system you are using?

64

The control bus

The control bus is another bidirectional bus which transmits a signal from the control unit to
any other system component or transmits a signal to the control unit. There is no need for
extended width so the control bus typically has just eight wires. A major use of the control
bus is to carry timing signals. As described in Section 5.02, the system clock in the control
unit defines the clock cycle for the computer system. The control bus carries timing signals
at time intervals dictated by the clock cycle. This ensures that the time that one component
transmits data is synchronised with the time that another component reads it.

The clock speed is the most important factor governing the processing speed of the system.
However, it is not the only factor. The performance will be limited if the bus widths are
insufficient for the whole of a data value to be transferred in one clock cycle. For optimum
performance it is also particularly important that memory access is as efficient as possible.

The schematic diagram in Figure 5.02 slightly misrepresents the situation because it looks
as
if the CPU, the memory and the I/O devices have similar access to the data and control
buses.
The reality is different. Each I/O device is connected to an interface called a port. Each port
is connected to the I/O or device controller. This controller handles the interaction between
the CPU and an I/O device. A port is described as ‘internal’ if the connected I/O device is an
integral part of the computer system. An external port allows the computer user to connect a
peripheral I/O device.

The universal serial bus (USB)

In the early days of the PC, the process of connecting a peripheral was time-consuming and
required technical expertise. The aim of the plug-and-play concept was to remove the need
for technical knowledge so that any computer user could connect a peripheral and start
using it straight away. The plug-and-play concept was only fully realised by the creation of
the
USB (Universal Serial Bus) standard. Nowadays anyone buying a new peripheral device will
expect it to connect to a USB port. There is an alternative technology known as FireWire but
this is not so commonly used in computer systems.

Parti

Chapter 5: Processor Fundamentals

Some information about the USB standard:

• A hierarchy of connections is supported.

• The computer is at the root of this hierarchy and can handle 127 attached devices.

• Devices can be attached while the computer is switched on and are automatically
configured for use.

• The standard has evolved, with USB 3.0 being the latest version.

Discussion Point:

Carry out an investigation into storage devices that could be connected as a peripheral to a
PC using the USB port.

Fortwo representative devices find out which specific USB technology is being used and
what the potential data transfer speed is. How do these speeds compare with the speed of
access of a hard drive installed inside the computer?

5.04 The fetch-execute cycle

The full name for this is the fetch, decode and execute cycle. This is illustrated by the
flowchart in Figure 5.03.

Figure 5.03 Flowchart for the fetch, decode and execute cycle

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

If we assume that a program is already running then the program counter already holds the
address of an instruction. In the fetch stage, the following steps happen:

1 This address in the program counter is transferred within the CPU to the MAR.

2 During the next clock cycle two things happen simultaneously:

• the instruction held in the address pointed to by the MAR is fetched into the MDR

• the address stored in the program counter is incremented.

3 The instruction stored in the MDR is transferred within the CPU to the CIR.

For our simple system the program counter will be incremented by 1. However, it should be
noted that the instruction just loaded might be a jump instruction. In this case, the program
counter contents will have to be updated in accordance with the jump condition. This can
only happen after the instruction has been decoded.

In the decode stage, the instruction stored in the CIR is received as input by the circuitry
within the control unit. Depending on the type of instruction, the control unit will send
signals to the appropriate components so that the execute stage can begin. At this stage, the
ALU will be activated if the instruction requires arithmetic or logic processing.

The description of the execute stage is postponed until Chapter 6, in which a simple
instruction set is introduced and discussed.

66

5.05 Register transfer notation

Operations involving registers can be described by register transfer notation. The simplest
form of this can be illustrated by the following representation of the fetch stage of the fetch-
execute cycle:

mar «- [PC]

PC 4 - [PC] + 1; MDR 4 - MAR

CIR 4 - [MDR]

The basic format for an individual data transfer is similar to that for variable assignment. The
first item is the destination of the data. Here the appropriate abbreviation is used to identify
the particular register. To the right of the arrow showing the transmission of data is the
definition of this data. In this definition, the square brackets around a register abbreviation
show that the content of the register is being moved possibly with some arithmetic operation
being applied. When two data operations are placed on the same line separated by a
semi-colon this means that the two transfers take place simultaneously. The double pair of
brackets around MAR on the second line needs careful interpretation. The content of the
MAR
is an address; it is the content of that address which is being transferred to the MDR.

5.06 Interrupt handling

There are many different reasons for an interrupt to be generated. Some examples are:

• a fatal error in a program

• a hardware fault
• a need for I/O processing to begin

• user interaction

• a timer signal.

There are a number of different approaches possible for the detailed mechanisms used to
handle interrupts but the overriding principles are clearly defined. Each different interrupt

Parti

needs to be handled appropriately and different interrupts might possibly have different
priorities. Therefore, the processor must have a means of identifying the type of interrupt.
One way is to have an interrupt register in the CPU that works like the status register, with
each individual bit operating as a flag for a specific type of interrupt.

As the flowchart in Figure 5.03 shows, the existence of an interrupt is only detected at the
end of a fetch-execute cycle. This allows the current program to be interrupted and left in a
defined state which can be returned to later. The first step in handling the interrupt is to store
the contents of the program counter and any other registers somewhere safe in memory.

Following this, the appropriate interrupt handler or interrupt service routine (ISR) program
is initiated by loading its start address into the program counter. When the ISR program
has been executed there needs to be an immediate check to see if further interrupts need
handling. If there are none, the safely stored contents of the registers are restored to the
CPU
and the originally running program is resumed.

• The von Neumann architecture for a computer system is based on the stored program
concept.

• The CPU contains a control unit, an arithmetic and logic unit, and registers.

• Registers can be special purpose or general purpose.

• The status register has individual bits acting as condition flags.

• The system bus contains the data, address and control buses.

• A universal serial bus (USB) port can be used to attach peripheral devices.

• Instructions are handled by the fetch-execute cycle.

• Register transfer notation is used to describe data transfers.

• If an interrupt is detected, control passes to an interrupt-handling routine.

Exam-style Questions

la A processor has just one general-purpose register. Give the name of this register.

[1]

b The memory address register (MAR) is a special-purpose register. State:

i its function

ii the type of data stored in it

iii the register that supplies this data at the start of the fetch stage of the fetch-execute cycle.

[3]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

c The current instruction register (CIR) is another special-purpose register. State:

its function

i the type of data stored in it

ii the register that supplies this data at the end of the fetch stage of the fetch-execute cycle.

[3]

d Explain three differences between the memory address register and the memory data
register.

[5]

2 The system bus comprises three individual buses: the data bus, the address bus and the
control bus.
a For each bus give a brief explanation of its use.
b Each bus has a defined bus width.

State what determines the width of a bus.

[1]

[2]

[3]

i Explain which bus will have the least width.

ii Explain the effect of changing the address bus from a 32-bit bus to a 64-bit bus.
3 The fetch stage of the fetch-decode-execute cycle can be represented by the following
statements using register
transfer notation:

mar «- [PC]

PC <- [PC] + 1; MDR <- MAR

CIR <- [MDR]

a Explain the meaning of each statement. The explanation must include definitions of the
following items:

MAR, PC, [],+-, MDR, [[]], CIR.

b Explain the use of the address bus and the data bus for two of the statements.

[ 10 ]

[4]

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding that the set of instructions are

grouped into instructions for:

• data movement

• input and output of data

• arithmetic operations

• unconditional and conditional jump instructions

• compare instructions

• modes of addressing

■ show understanding of the relationship between

assembly language and machine code

■ trace a given simple assembly language program

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

6.01 Machine code instructions

The only language that the CPU recognises is machine code. Therefore, when a program is
running and an instruction is fetched from memory this has to be in the format of a binary
code that matches the specific machine code that the CPU uses.
Different processors have different instruction sets associated with them. Even if two
different processors have the same instruction, the machine codes for them will be different
but the structure of the code for an instruction will be similar for different processors.

For a particular processor, the following components are defined for an individual machine
code instruction:

• the total number of bits or bytes for the whole instruction

• the number of bits that define the opcode

• the number of operands that are defined in the remaining bits

• whether the opcode occupies the most significant or the least significant bits.

In general, there can be anything up to three operands for an instruction. However, following
on from the approach in Chapter 5, we consider a simple system where there is either one
or
zero operands.

KEY TERMS

Machine code instruction: a binary code with a defined number of bits that comprises an
opcode
and, most often, one operand

The number of bits needed for the opcode depends on the number of different opcodes in
the instruction set for the processor. The opcode is structured with the first few bits defining
the operation and the remaining bits associated with addressing. A sensible instruction
format for our simple processor is shown in Figure 6.01.

Operation

Opcode
Address mode

Register addressing

Operand

4 bits

2 bits

2 bits

16 bits

Figure 6.01 A simple instruction format

This has an eight-bit opcode consisting of four bits for the operation, two bits for the address
mode (discussed in Section 6.03) and the remaining two bits for addressing registers. This
allows 16 different operations each with one of four addressing modes. This opcode will
occupy the most significant bits in the instruction. Because in some circumstances the
operand will be a memory address it is sensible to allocate 16 bits for it. This is in keeping
with the 16-bit address bus.

Because an instruction has two components, a slight modification to register transfer

notation (see Section 5.05) is needed. As an example the first step in the decode stage of
the
fetch-execute cycle could be written as:

CU <- [CIR(23:16)]

Indicating that only bits 16 to 23 from the contents of the CIR have been transferred to the
control unit; bits 0 to 15 are not needed in this first step.

Parti

Chapter 6: Assembly Language Programming

6.02 Assembly language

A programmer might wish to write a program where the actions taken by the processor
are directly controlled. It is argued that this can produce optimum efficiency in a program.
However, writing a program as a sequence of machine code instructions would be a very
time-consuming and error-prone process. The solution for this type of programming is to
use assembly language. As well as having a uniquely defined machine code language each
processor has its own assembly language.

The essence of assembly language is that for each machine code instruction there is an
equivalent assembly language instruction which comprises:

• a mnemonic (a symbolic abbreviation) for the opcode

• a character representation for the operand.

If a program has been written in assembly language it has to be translated into machine
code before it can be executed by the processor. The translation program is called an
'assembler’, of which some details will be discussed in Chapter 7 (Section 7.05). The fact
that an assembler is to be used allows a programmer to include some special features in an
assembly language program. Examples of these are:

comments

symbolic names for constants

labels for addresses
macros
subroutines
directives
system calls.

The first three items on this list are there to directly assist the programmer in writing the
program. Of these, comments are removed by the assembler and symbolic names and
labels
require a conversion to binary code by the assembler. A macro or a subroutine contains a
sequence of instructions that is to be used more than once in a program.

Directives and system calls are instructions to the assembler as to how it should construct
the final executable machine code. They can involve directing how memory should be used
or defining files or procedures that will be used. They do not have to be converted into binary
code.

KEY TERMS

Directive: an instruction to the assembler program

6.03 Addressing modes

When an instruction requires a value to be loaded into a register there are different ways
of identifying the value. These different ways are described as the ‘addressing modes’. In
Section 6.01, it was stated that, for our simple processor, two bits of the opcode in a
machine
code instruction would be used to define the addressing mode. This allows four different
modes which are described in Table 6.01.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Addressing mode

Operand

Immediate

The value to be used in the instruction

Direct

An address which holds the value to be used in the

instruction

Indirect

An address which holds the address which holds the value

to be used in the instruction

Indexed
An address to which must be added what is currently in the
index register (IX) to get the address which holds the value
in the instruction

Table 6.01 Addressing modes

6.04 Assembly language instructions

The examples described here do not correspond directly to those found in the assembly
language for any specific processor. Individual instructions will have a match in more than
one real-life set. The important point is that these examples are representative. In particular,
there are examples of the most common categories of instruction.

72

Data movement

These types of instruction can involve loading data into a register or storing data in memory.
Table 6.02 contains a few examples of the format of the instructions with explanations.

It should be understood that an actual instance of an instruction would have an actual

address where

is shown, a register abbreviation where is shown

and a denary value for n where #n is shown. The explanations use ACC to indicate the
accumulator.

Instruction opcode

Instruction operand

Explanation

LDM

#n

Immediate addressing loading n to ACC

LDR

#n

Immediate addressing loading n to IX

LDD

Direct addressing, loading to ACC

LDI
Indirect addressing, loading to ACC

LDX

Indexed addressing, loading to ACC

STO

Storing the contents of ACC

Table 6.02 Some instruction formats for data movement

The important point to notice is that the mnemonic defines the instruction type including
which register is involved and, where appropriate, the addressing mode. It is important to
read the mnemonic carefully! The explanations for LDD, LDI and LDX need reference back
to
Table 6.01.

It is possible to use register transfer notation to describe the execution of an instruction. For
example, the LDD instruction is described by:

ACC <- CIR(15:0)

Parti

Chapter 6: Assembly Language Programming

The instruction is in the CIR and only the 16-bit address needs to be examined to identify
the location of the data in memory. The contents of that location are transferred into the
accumulator.

TASK 6.01

Use register transfer notation to describe the execution of an LDI instruction.

Arithmetic operations

Table 6.03 contains a few examples of instruction formats used for arithmetic operations.

Instruction opcode

Instruction operand

Explanation

ADD

Add the address content to the

content in the ACC
INC

Add 1 to the value stored in the

specified register

DEC

Subtract 1 from the value stored in

the specified register

Table 6.03 Some instruction formats for arithmetic operations

Question 6.01

' What would you need to do if, for example, you wanted to add 5 to the content in the

' accumulator?

f Comparisons and jumps

A program might require an unconditional jump or might only need a jump if a condition

r is met. In the latter case, a compare instruction is executed first and the result of the

comparison is recorded by a flag in the status register. The execution of the conditional jump
instruction begins by checking whether or not the flag bit has been set. Table 6.04 shows the
f format for these types of instruction.

Instruction

opcode

Instruction operand

Explanation

JMP

Jump to the address specified

CMP

Compare the ACC content with the

address content

CMP
 #n

Compare the ACC content with n

JPE

Jump to the address if the result of the previous

comparison was TRUE

JPN

Jump to the address if the result of the previous

comparison was FALSE

Table 6.04 Some jump and compare instruction formats

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Note that the two compare instructions have the same opcode. For the second one, the
immediate addressing is identified by the # symbol preceding the number. In the absence of
the # the operand is interpreted as an address. Note also that the comparison is restricted to
asking if two values are equal.

The other point to note is that a jump instruction does not cause an actual immediate
jump. Rather, it causes a new value to be supplied to the program counter so that the next
instruction is fetched from this newly specified address. The incrementing of the program
counter that took place automatically when the instruction was fetched is overwritten.

74

Input and output

The two examples here are instructions for a single character to be input or output. In each
case the instruction has only an opcode; there is no operand:

• The instruction with opcode in is used to store in the ACC the ASCII value of a character
typed at the keyboard.

• The instruction with opcode out is used to display on the screen the character for which
the ASCII code is stored in the ACC.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.01

Tracing an assembly language program

Consider some program instructions are contained in memory locations from 100 and
some eight-bit binary data values are contained in memory locations 200 and onwards,
For illustrative purposes the instructions are shown in assembly language form. At the
start of a part of the program, the memory contents are as shown in Figure 6.02.
Address

Contents

Address

Contents

100

LDD 201

200

0000 0000

101

INC ACC

201

0000 0001

102

ADD 203

202

0000 0010

103

CMP 205

203

0000 0011

104

JPE 106

204

0000 0100

105

DEC ACC
205

0000 0101

106

INC ACC

206

0000 0111

107

STO 206

207

0000 0000

Figure 6.02 The contents of memory addresses before execution of the program begins

The values stored in the program counter and in the accumulator as the program
instructions are executed are shown in Figure 6.03.

At the start of the execution

After the instruction in 100 has been executed
After the instruction in 101 has been executed
After the instruction in 102 has been executed
After the instruction in 103 has been executed
After the instruction in 104 has been executed
After the instruction in 106 has been executed
After the instruction in 107 has been executed

Figure 6.03 The contents of the program counter and accumulator

during program execution

Program counter

Accumulator

100

0000 0000

101

0000 0001

102
0000 0010

103

0000 0101

104

0000 0101

106

0000 0101

107

0000 0110

108

0000 0110

Question 6.02

Can you follow through the changes in the values in the two registers in Worked Example
6.01? Are there any changes to the contents of memory locations 100 to 107 or 200 to 207
while the program is executing?

75

Summary

• A machine code instruction consists of an opcode and an operand.

• An assembly language program contains assembly language instructions plus directives

that
provide information to the assembler.

• Processor addressing modes can be: immediate, direct, indirect or indexed.

• Assembly language instructions can be categorised as: data movement, arithmetic,

compare,
jump and input/output.

Exam-style Questions

1 Three instructions for a processor with an accumulator as the single general purpose
register are:
ldd
for direct addressing
ldi
for indirect addressing
ldx
for indexed addressing

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

In the diagrams below, the instruction operands, the register content, memory addresses
and the memory contents
are all shown as denary values.

a Consider the instruction ldd 103 .

i Draw arrows on a copy of the diagram below to explain execution of the instruction. [2]

Memory
address

100
101
102

Accumulator 103

104

105

106
107

ii Show the contents of the accumulator as a denary value after execution of the instruction.
[1]

b Consider the instruction ldi ioi .

i Draw arrows on a copy of the diagram below to explain execution of the instruction. [3]

Memory Memory

address content

100
101
102

Accumulator 103
104

105

106
107

Index register

Index register

Memory

content

ii Show the contents of the accumulator as a denary value after execution of the instruction.

c i Draw arrows on a copy of the diagram below to explain the execution of the instruction
ldx 103 .

Memory Memory

address content

100
101
102

Accumulator 103

104

105

106
107

ii Show the contents of the accumulator as a denary value after the execution.

Index register

[1]

[3]
[1]

Chapter 6: Assembly Language Programming

Every machine code instruction has an equivalent in assembly language. An assembly

language program will
contain assembly language instructions. An assembly language program also contains
components not directly
transformed into machine code instructions when the program is assembled.

a Name three types of component of an assembly language program that are not intended
to be directly
transformed into machine code by the assembler. For one component, state its purpose.

b Trace the following assembly language program using a copy of the trace table provided.
Note that the

LDI instruction uses indirect addressing.

Assembly language program

Memory address Memory content

100

LDD 201

101

INC ACC

102

STO 202

103

LDI 203

104

DEC ACC

105

STO 201

105
ADD 204

107

STO 201

108

END

201

10

202

203

204

204

[4]

[6]

Memory addresses

201

202

203

204

10

204

Chapter 7
System Software

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ describe why a computer system requires an operating

system

■ explain the key management tasks carried out by the

operating system

■ show an understanding of the need for typical utility

software used by a PC computer system

■ show an understanding that software under development

is often constructed using existing code from program
libraries

■ describe the benefits to the developer of software

constructed using library files, including Dynamic Link
Library (DLL) files

■ draw on experience of the writing of programs which

include library routines

■ show an understanding of the need for assembler

software, a compiler and an interpreter

■ describe the different stages of the assembly process for a

‘two-pass’assembler

■ explain the benefits and drawbacks of using either a

compiler or an interpreter

■ show awareness that high-level language programs may

be partially compiled and partially interpreted, such as
those written in Java.

Pa

7.01 System software

In the 1960s, the likely scenario for using a computer would be something like this:

1 Enter machine room with deck of punched cards and a punched paper tape reel.

2 Switch on computer.
3 Put deck of cards into card reader and press button.

4 Put paper tape into tape reader and press button.

5 Press button to run the program, entered into memory from the punched cards, which
uses the data entered into memory from the paper tape.

6 Press button to get output printed on the line-printer.

7 Switch off computer.

8 Leave machine room with deck of cards, paper tape and line-printer output.

What happened is that the user controlled the computer hardware by pressing buttons. Just
try to imagine how many buttons would be needed if you had to control a computer in the
same way today.

The missing component from the 1960s computer was, of course, an operating system; in
other words some software to control the hardware. An operating system is an example of
a type of software called ‘system software’. This distinguishes it from application software
which is created to perform a specific task for a computer user rather than just helping to run

the system.

Operating system: a software platform that provides facilities for programs to be run which
are of

benefit to a user

7.02 Operating system activities

Operating systems are extremely complex and it is not possible to give an all-embracing
description of what an operating system is. However, what an operating system does can be
generalised by saying that it provides an environment within which programs can be run that
are of benefit to a user.

The activities of an operating system can be sub-divided into different categories. There is
overlap between many of these but the classification is worthwhile. The following account
provides a very brief explanation of each of the various tasks carried out by the operating
system. Details of how some of them are carried out are discussed in Chapter 20 (Sections
20.01,20.02 and 20.03).

User-system interface

A user interface is needed to allow the user to get the software and hardware to do
something useful. An operating system should provide at least the following for user input
and output:

• a command-line interface
• a graphical user interface (GUI).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Discussion Point:

Have you any experience of using a command-line interface?

Program-hardware interface

Programmers write software and users run this software. The software uses the hardware.
The operating system has to ensure that the hardware does what the software wants it to
do.
Program development tools associated with a programming language allow a programmer
to write a program without needing to know the details of how the hardware, particularly the
processor, actually works. The operating system then has to provide the mechanism for the
execution of the developed program.

Resource management

When the execution of a program has begun it is described as a process. In a modern

computer system, a process will not be able to run to completion without interruption. At
any time there will be many processes running on the computer system. Each process
needs
access to the resources provided by the computer system.

KEY TERMS

Process: a program that has begun execution

The resource management provided by the operating system aims to achieve optimum
efficiency in computer system use. The two most important aspects of this are:

• scheduling of processes

• resolution of conflicts when two processes require the same resource.

Memory management

There are three important aspects of memory management:

• Memory protection ensures that one program does not try to use the same memory
locations’as another program.

• The memory organisation scheme is chosen to achieve optimum usage of a limited

memory size, for example, virtual memory involving paging or segmentation.

• Memory usage optimisation involves decisions about which processes should be in main
memory at any one time and where they are stored in this memory.
Device management

Every computer system has a variety of components that are categorised as ‘devices’.
Examples include the monitor screen, the keyboard, the printer and the webcam. The
management of these requires:

• installation of the appropriate device driver software

• control of usage by processes.

File management

Three major features here are the provision of:

• file naming conventions

• directory (folder) structures

• access control mechanisms.

Security management

Chapters 8 (Section 8.02) and 21 (Section 21.04) discuss details of security issues. There
are
several aspects of security management which include:

• provision for recovery when data is lost

• prevention of intrusion

• ensuring data privacy.

Error detection and recovery

Errors can arise in the execution of a program either because it was badly written or
because
it has been supplied with inappropriate data. Other errors are associated with devices not
working correctly. Whatever the cause of an error, the operating system should have the
capability to interrupt a running process and provide error diagnostics where appropriate.

In extreme cases, the operating system needs to be able to shut down the system in an
organised fashion without loss of data.

81

For each of the above categories of operating system task, the individual points mentioned
could often be mentioned in a different category. Make an abbreviated list of these
categories
and add arrows to indicate alternative places where items could be placed.
Question 7.01

It is useful to describe the management tasks carried out by an operating system as being
primarily one of the following types:

• those assisting the user of the system

• those concerned with the running of the system.

Considering the management tasks that have already been categorised, can you identify
them as belonging to one or other of the above types? Are there any problems in doing this?

7.03 Utility programs used by a PC

A utility program is one that might be provided by the operating system but it might also be
one that is installed as a separate entity. It is a program that is not executed as part of the
normal routine of operating system utilisation. Rather it is a program that the user can decide
to run when needed or possibly a program that the operating system might decide to run in
certain circumstances. Some utility programs are associated with hard disk usage.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Hard disk formatter and checker

A disk formatter will typically carry out the following tasks:

• removing existing data from a disk that has been used previously

• setting up the file system on the disk, based on a table of contents that allows a file
recognised by the operating system to be associated with a specific physical part of the
disk

• partitioning the disk into logical drives if this is required.

Another utility program, which might be a component of a disk formatter, performs disk
contents analysis and, if possible, disk repair when needed. The program first checks for
errors on the disk. Some errors arise from a physical defect resulting in what is called a ‘bad
sector’. There are a number of possible causes of bad sectors. However, they usually arise
either during manufacture or from mishandling of the system. An example is moving the
computer without ensuring that the disk heads are secured away from the disk surface.

Other errors arise from some abnormal event such as a loss of power or an error causing
sudden system shutdown. Asa result some of the files stored on the disk might no longer be
in an identifiable state. A disk repair utility program can mark bad sectors as such and
ensure
that the file system no longer tries to use them. When the integrity of files has been affected,
the utility might be able to recover some of the data but otherwise it has to delete the files
from the file system.
82

Hard disk defragmenter

A disk defragmenter utility could possibly be part of a disk repair utility program but it is
not primarily concerned with errors. A perfectly functioning disk will, while in use, gradually
become less efficient because the constant creation, editing and deletion of files leaves
them in
a fragmented state. The cause of this is the logical arrangement of data in sectors as
discussed
in Chapter 3 (Section 3.03), which does not allow a file to be stored as a contiguous entity.

A simple illustration of the problem is shown in Figure 7.01. Initially file A occupies three
sectors fully and part of a fourth one. File B is small so occupies only part of a sector.

File C occupies two sectors fully and part of a third. When File B is deleted, the sector
remains unfilled because it would require too much system overhead to rearrange the file
organisation every time there is a change. When File A is extended it completely fills the first
four sectors and the remainder of the extended file is stored in all of Sector 8 and part of
Sector 9. Sector 4 will only be used again if a small file is created or if the disk fills up, when
it
m ight store the first part of a lo nger file.

Initlial position

Sectors 0-3

Sector 4

Sectors 5-7

Sectors 8-9

File A

File B

FileC

File B is deleted

File A

FileC

File A is extended | File A | 1 FileC 1 l File A [ |

Figure 7.01 File fragmentation on a hard disk

A defragmenter utility program reorganises the file storage to return it to a state where
alt files are stored in contiguous sectors. For a large disk this will take some time. It will be
impossible if the disk is too full because of the lack of working space for the rearrangement.

ria■■

► Part 1

Chapter 7: System Software

TASK 7.02

it

If you have never used a disk defragmenter or disk repair utility program can you get access
to
a system where you can use one? If so, note the changes that are carried out and recorded
by
f the utility program.

Backup software

It is quite likely that you perform a manual backup every now and then using a flash memory
stick. However, a safer and more reliable approach is to have a backup utility program do
this for you. You can still use the memory stick to store the backed-up data but the utility
program will control the process. In particular it can do two things:

• establish a schedule for backups

• only create a new backup file when there has been a change.

File compression

A file compression utility program can be used as a matter of routine by an operating system
to minimise hard disk storage requirements. If the operating system does not do this, a user
can still choose to implement a suitable program. However, as was discussed in Chapter 1
(Section 1.07), file compression is most important when transmitting data. In particular, it
makes sense to compress (or‘zip’) a file before attaching it to an email.

r Virus checker

A virus-checking program should be installed as a permanent facility to protect a computer

i system. In an ideal world, it would only need to be used to scan a file when the file initially
entered the system. Unfortunately this ideal state can never be realised. When a new virus
comes along there is a delay before it is recognised and a further delay before a virus
checker
has been updated to deal with it. As a result it is necessary for a virus checker to be
regularly
updated and for it to scan all files on a computer system as a matter of routine.

[ 7.04 Library programs

A library program can be defined as a program contained in a program library but both
r ‘library program’ and ‘program library’ are misleading terms. There may be programs in

t a program library but more often they are subroutines that programmers can use in their

L programs.

There is no advantage to a programmer in ‘reinventing the wheel’. If a routine exists in a

library a programmer would be very unwise to write his or her own routine. Existing library
routines will have been extensively tested before release. Even if some residual bugs did
exist following testing, the regular use of the routines would almost inevitably lead to their
detection.

The most obvious examples of library routines are the built-in functions available for use

r when programming in a particular language. Examples of these are discussed in Chapter

13

, (Section 13.08). Another example is the collection of over 1600 procedures for
mathematical

and statistics processing available from the Numerical Algorithms Group (NAG) library. This
organisation has been creating routines since 1971 and they are universally accepted as
being as reliable as software ever can be.

83

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

In Section 7.05, the methods available for translation of source code are discussed. For
the purpose of the discussion here you just need an overview of what happens. The
source code is written in a programming language of choice. If a compiler is used forthe
translation and no errors are found, the compiler produces object code (machine code).
This code cannot be executed by itself. Instead it has to be linked with the code for any
subroutines used by it. It is possible to carry out the linking before loading the composite
code into memory and running it.
By contrast, dynamic linking has the routines from a dynamic link library (DLL) already in
memory. While the code is running, it links to the DLL routine that it needs. A DLL is created
so that its routines can be shared. More than one process can dynamically link to a DLL file
at
any one time.

84

7.05 Language translators

As with much of this chapter, the discussion will contain few details of how translators work
because they are dealt with in Chapter 20 (Section 20.05). The need for a language
translator
is easy to explain and, indeed, is explained in Chapter 6 (Section 6.02). Writing a program
directly in machine code would take a very long time and undoubtedly would lead to a
multitude of errors.

Assemblers

If a programmer has decided to write a program, or perhaps a procedure, in assembly

language there is a need for a program to translate this into machine code. The program
needed is called an assembler. If the program was written in a very simple form the
conversion would require straightforward conversion of the instructions written in
mnemonic form to the machine code version. However, in most instances more is required.

A ‘two-pass’ assembler is not an essential requirement but it does clearly differentiate

between the two stages that are required in translation. As was discussed in Chapter 6, an
assembly language program will contain features that are used to help the programmer
and others that are used to inform the assembler program. In the first pass of a two-pass
assembler all of these features are either removed or acted upon. Typical actions are:

• removal of comments

• creation of a symbol table containing the binary codes for symbolic names and labels

• creation of a literal table if the programmer has used constants in the program

• expansion of macros

• identification of system calls and subroutines used.

If errors are not found, the second pass of the assembler generates the object code. This
involves replacing symbolic addresses with absolute addresses.

As noted above, object code is not an executable code. The creation of executable code
requires a linker to be used to ensure that the object code forthe program and the object
codes for associated procedures are transferrable into memory with mutually consistent
memory locations. The actual transfer into memory is carried out by a loader or the loader
element of a link-loader. This carries out any final adjustment of memory addresses that
might be necessary.

Chapter 7: System Software

—-----

Compilers and interpreters

The starting point for using either a compiler or an interpreter is a file containing source
code,
which is a program written in a high-level language.

For an interpreter the following steps apply:

1 The interpreter program, the source code file and the data to be used by the source code
program are all made available.

2 The interpreter program begins execution.

3 The first line of the source code is read.

4 The line is analysed.

5 If an error is found this is reported and the interpreter program halts execution.

6 If no error is found the line of source code is converted to an intermediate code.

7 The interpreter program uses this intermediate code to execute the required action.

8 The next line of source code is read and Steps 4-8 are repeated. .

For a compiler the following steps apply:

1 The compiler program and the source code file are made available but no data is needed.

2 The compiler program begins execution.

3 The first line of the source code is read.

4 The tine is analysed.

5 If an error is found this is recorded.

6 If no error is found the line of source code is converted to an intermediate code.

7 The next line of source code is read and Steps 4-7 are repeated.

8 when the whole of the source code has been dealt with one of the following happens:
o If no error is found in the whole source code the complete intermediate code is
converted into object code.

o If any errors are found a list of these is output and no object code is produced.
Execution of the program can only begin when the compilation has shown no errors. This
can take place automatically under the control of the compiler program if data for the
program is available. Alternatively the object code is stored and the program is executed
later
with no involvement of the compiler.

Discussion Point:

What type of facility for language translation are you being provided with? Does your
experience of using it match what has been described here?

For a programmer, the following statements can be made about the advantages and
disadvantages of creating interpreted or compiled programs:

• An interpreter has advantages when a program is being developed because errors can be
identified as they occur and corrected immediately without having to wait for the whole
of the source code to be read and analysed.

• An interpreter has a disadvantage in that during a particular execution of the program,

parts of the code which contain syntax errors may not be accessed so if errors are still
present they are not discovered until later.

• An interpreter has a disadvantage when a program is error free and is distributed to users
because the source code has to be sent to each user.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

• A compiler has the advantage that an executable file can be distributed to users so the
users have no access to the source code.

For a user, the following statements can be made about the advantages and disadvantages
of using interpreted or compiled programs:

• For an interpreted program, the interpreter and the source code have to be available each
time that an error-free program is run.

• For a compiled program, only the object code has to be available each time that an error-
free program is run.

• Compiled object code will provide faster execution than is possible for an interpreted
program.

• Compiled object code is less secure because it could contain a virus.

Whether an interpreter or a compiler is going to be used, a program can only be run on a
particular computer with a particular processor if the interpreter or compiler program has
been written for that processor.

Java

When the programming language Java was created, a different philosophy was applied to
how it should be used. Each different type of computer has to have a Java Virtual Machine
created for it. Then when a programmer writes a Java program this is compiled first of all to
create what is called Java Byte Code. When the program is run, this code is interpreted by
the
Java Virtual Machine. The Java Byte Code can be transferred to any computer that has a
Java
Virtual Machine installed.

Summary

• Operating system tasks can be categorised in more than one way, for example, some are
for helping the user,
others are for running the system.

• Utility programs for a PC include hard disk utilities, backup programs, virus checkers and
file compression utilities.

• Library programs, including Dynamic Link Library (DLL) files, are available to be
incorporated into programs;
they are usually subroutines and are very reliable.

• For a two-pass assembler, typical activities in the first pass are creation of a symbol table
and expansion of
macros; object code is generated in the second pass.

• A high-level language can be translated using an interpreter or a compiler.

• A Java compiler produces Java Byte Code which is interpreted by a Java Virtual Machine.

Exam-style Questions

1 a One of the reasons for having an operating system is to provide a user interface to a

computer system.

i Name two different types of interface that an operating system should provide. [2]

ii Identify for each type of interface a device that could be used to enter data. [2]

b Identify and explain briefly three other management tasks carried out by an operating
system. [6]
2 a A PC operating system will make available to a user a number of utility programs.

i Identify two utility programs that might be used to deal with a hard disk problem. [2]

ii For each of these utility programs explain why it might be needed and explain

what it does. [5]

iii Identify two other utility programs for a PC user. [2]

b Library programs are made available for programmers.

i Explain why a programmer should use library programs. [3]

ii Identify two examples of a library program. [2]

3 a Assemblers, compilers and interpreters are examples of translation programs.

i State the difference between an assembler and a compiler or interpreter. [1]

ii A ‘two-pass’ assembler is usually used. Give two examples of what will be done in the first
pass. [2]

iii State what will be produced in the second pass. [1]

b A programmer can choose to use an interpreter or a compiler.

i State three differences between how an interpreter works and how a compiler works. [3]

ii Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an interpreter compared to a compiler. [4]

iii If a programmer chooses Java, a special approach is used. Identify one feature of

this special approach. [1]

88

Chapter 8

Data Security, Privacy and Integrity

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ explain the difference between the terms security, privacy

and integrity of data

■ show appreciation of the need for both the security of

data and the security of the computer system
■ describe security measures designed to protect computer
systems, ranging from the stand-alone PC to a network
of computers, including user accounts, firewalls and
authentication techniques

■ describe security measures designed to protect the

security of data

■ show awareness of what kind of data errors can occur and

what can be done about them

■ describe error detection and correction measures

designed to protect the integrity of data including: data
validation, data verification for data entry and data
verification during data transfer.

Parti

Chapter 8: Data Security, Privacy and Integrity

8.01 Definitions of data integrity, privacy and security

It is easy to define integrity of data but far less easy to ensure it. Only accurate and up-to-
date data has data integrity. Any person or organisation that stores data needs it to have
integrity. Methods that can be used to give the best chance of achieving data integrity are
discussed in this chapter and also in Chapter 10 (Section 10.01).

KEYTERMS

Data integrity: a requirement for data to be accurate and up to date

Data privacy: a requirement for data to be available only to authorised users
Data security: a requirement for data to be recoverable if lost or corrupted

Data privacy is about keeping data private rather than allowing it to be available in the
public domain. The term ‘data privacy’ may be applied to a person or an organisation. Each
individual has an almost limitless amount of data associated with their existence. Assuming
that an individual is not engaged in criminal or subversive activities, he or she should be in
control of which data about himself or herself is made public and which data remains private.
An organisation can have data that is private to the organisation, such as the minutes of
management meetings, but this will not be discussed further here.

For an individual there is little chance of data privacy if there is not a legal framework in
place
to penalise offenders who breach this privacy. Such laws are referred to as data protection
laws. The major aspects of data protection laws relate to personal, therefore private, data
that an individual supplies to an organisation. The data is supplied to allow the organisation
to use it but only for purposes understood and agreed by the individual. Data protection laws
oblige organisations to ensure the privacy and the integrity of this data. Unfortunately having
laws does not guarantee adherence to them but they do act as a deterrent if wrong-doers
can be subject to legal proceedings.

KEY TERMS

Data protection law: a taw that relates to data privacy

Discussion Point:

What data protection laws are in place in your country? Are you familiar with any details of
these laws?

Data protection normally applies to data stored in computer systems with the consent of the
individual. Should these laws be extended to cover storage of data obtained from telephone
calls or search engine usage?

Data can be said to be ‘secure’ if it is available for use when needed and the data made
available is the data that was stored originally. The security of data has been breached if the
data has been lost or corrupted.

It should be clear that data security is a prerequisite for ensuring data integrity and data
privacy. However, by itself it cannot guarantee either.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

90

8.02 Security measures for protecting computer systems

One of the requirements for protection of data is the security of the system used to store the
data. However, system security is not needed just to protect data. There are two primary
aims of system security measures. The first is to ensure system functionality. The second is
to
ensure that only authorised users have access to the system.

The threats to the security of a system can be categorised as being one of the following
types:

• internal mismanagement

• natural disasters

• unauthorised intrusion into the system by an individual

• malicious software entering the system.

Continuity of operation is vital for large computer installations that are an integral part of the
day-to-day operations of an organisation. Measures are needed to ensure that the system
remains functional whatever event occurs or, if there has to be a system shut-down, at the
very least to guarantee resumption of service within a very short time. Such measures come
under the general heading of disaster recovery contingency planning. The contingency plan
should be based on a risk assessment. The plan will have provision for an alternative
system
to be brought into action. If an organisation has a full system always ready to replace the
normally operational one, it is referred to as a 'hot site’. By definition such a system has to
be
remote from the original system to allow recovery from natural disasters such as earthquake
or flood.

A special case of system vulnerability arises when there is a major update of hardware and/
or software. Traditionally, organisations had the luxury of installing and testing a new system
over a weekend when no service was being provided. In the modern era, globally available
systems are the norm: a company is never closed for business. As a result, organisations
may need to have the original system and its replacement running in parallel for a period to
ensure continuity of service.

Discussion Point:

Major failings of large computer systems are well documented. You could carry out research
to find some examples. Find an example of where the crisis was caused by technology
failure
and a different example where some natural disaster was the cause.

Even if a PC is used by only one person there should be a user account set up. User
accounts
are, of course, essential for a multi-user (timesharing) system. The main security feature
of a user account is the authentication of the user. The normal method is to associate a
password with each account. In order for this to be effective the password needs a large
number of characters including a variety of those provided in the ASCII scheme.

KEYTERMS

Authentication: verification of a user’s identity

TASK 8.01

1 Create an example of a secure password using eight characters (but not one you are
going
to use).

2 Assuming that each character is taken from the ASCII set of graphic characters how many
different possible passwords could be defined by eight characters?

3 Do you think this is a sufficient number of characters to assume that the password would
not be encountered by someone trying all possible passwords in turn to access the
system?

Alternative methods of authentication include biometric methods and security tokens. A

biometric method might require examination of a fingerprint or the face or the eye. A security
token can be a small item of hardware provided for each individual user that confirms their
identity. Similar protection can be provided by software with the user required to provide
further input after the password has been entered. Normal practice is to combine one of
these alternative methods with the password system.

General good practice that helps to keep a personal computer secure includes not leaving
the computer switched on when unattended, not allowing someone else to observe you
accessing the computer and not writing down details of how you access it.

A computer system is not only accessed by users logging in. One potential problem arises
from users attaching portable storage devices which can contain a virus. The safest practice
is for an organisation to have a policy banning the use of such devices. Unfortunately this is
not possible if normal business processes require portability of data.

The threat that is virtually unavoidable arises because of the connection of an organisation’s
systems to the Internet. The major potential problem is that transmissions into the system
from the Internet may contain malicious software. However, a further consequence of
Internet connection is that sensitive data from the system might be exported out to some
other system.

The primary defence to such problems is to install a firewall. Ideally a firewall will be a
hardware device that acts like a security gate at an international airport. Nothing is allowed
through without it being inspected. Alternatively, a firewall might be implemented as
software. The transmission must then enter the system but it can be inspected immediately.
The action of a firewall might be to concentrate solely on the addresses identified in any
transmission. However, in addition, a firewall might examine the data within the transmission
to check for anything inappropriate.

If an incoming transmission is an email, there can be a concern about authenticating the

identity of the sender. The solution is to insist on the sender attaching a digital certificate to
the email. Some details of this are discussed in Chapter 21 (Section 21.02).

Security measures restricting access to a system do not guarantee success in removing all
threats. It is therefore necessary to have, in addition, programs running on a system to
check
for problems. Options for this are:

• a virus checker which carries out regular system scans to detect any viruses and remove
them or deactivate them

• an intrusion detection system that will take as input an audit record of system use and
look for anomalous use.
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

It hardly needs saying that individuals intent on causing damage to systems are using
methods that are becoming ever more sophisticated. The defence methods have to be
improved continually to counter these threats.

8.03 Security measures for protecting data

There are a number of scenarios which require security methods for protecting data. The
three discussed here are data loss, access to data and protection of data content.

Recovering from data loss

In addition to problems arising from malicious activity there are a variety of reasons for
accidental loss of data:

• a disk or tape gets corrupted

• a disk or tape is destroyed

• the system crashes

• the file is erased or overwritten by mistake

• the location of the file is forgotten.

A system therefore needs a backup procedure to be implemented. The system administrator

has to decide on the details of the procedure. The principles for the procedure traditionally
followed are straightforward:

• a full backup is made at regular intervals, perhaps weekly

• at least two generations of full backup are kept in storage

• incremental backups are made on a daily basis.

For maximum security the backup disks or tapes are stored away from the system in a fire¬
proof and flood-proof location.

This worked well when an incremental backup was done overnight with the full backup
handled at the weekend. With systems running 24/7 and therefore with data potentially
changing at any time, such a simple approach to backup will leave data in an inconsistent
state. One solution is to have a backup program that effectively freezes the file store
while data is being copied but also records elsewhere within the system changes that are
happening due to ongoing system use. The changes can then be made to the system files
when the backup copy has been stored.

An alternative approach is to use a disk-mirroring strategy. In this case, data is

simultaneously
stored on two disk systems during the normal operation of the system. The individual disk
systems might be at remote locations as part of a disaster recovery plan.

Restricting access to data

If a user has logged in they have been authorised to use the computer system but not
necessarily all of it. In particular, the system administrator may recognise different categories
of user with different needs with respect to the data they are allowed to see and use. The
typical trivial example usually quoted is that one employee should be able to use the system
to look up another employee’s internal phone number. This should not allow the employee at
the same time to check the salary paid to the other employee.

The solution is to have an authorisation policy which in general gives different access
rights to different files for different individuals. For a particular file, a particular individual
might have no access at all or possibly read access but not write access. In another case,
an
individual might have read and append access but not unrestricted write access.

Chapter 8: Data Security, Privacy and Integrity

KEY TERMS

Authorisation: definition of a user’s access rights to system components

Protecting data content

Even with appropriate security measures in place it can happen that there is unauthorised
access to a system or interception of data transmission. This can be made a futile activity
for the perpetrator if the data cannot be read. Data can be encrypted to ensure this. Some
details of encryption methods are discussed in Chapter 21 (Section 21.01).

8.04 Data validation and verification

Data integrity can never be absolutely guaranteed but the chances are improved if
appropriate measures are taken when data originally enters a system or when it is
transmitted from one system to another.

Validation and verification of data entry

The term validation is a somewhat misleading one. It seems to imply that data is accurate if
it has been validated. This is far from the truth. If entry of a name is expected but the wrong
name is entered, it will be recognised as a name and therefore accepted as valid. Validation
can only prevent incorrect data if there is an attempt to input data that is of the wrong type,
in the wrong format or out of range.

Data validation is implemented by software associated with a data entry interface. There are
a number of different types of check that can be made. Typical examples are:
• a presence check to ensure that an entry field is not left blank

• a format check, for example a date has to be dd/mm/yyyy

• a length check, for example with a telephone number

• a range check, for example the month in a date must not exceed 12

• a type check, for example only a numeric value for the month in a date.

Verification of data means confirming what has been entered. The most common example
is when a user is asked to supply a new password. There will always be a request for the
password to be re-entered. Clearly, if the user entered a password but did not enter it as
intended, subsequent attempts at access would fail. Verification is usually an effective
process but in general it does not ensure data accuracy because the wrong data could be
entered initially and in the re-entry.

Validation: a check that data entered is of the correct type and format; it does not guarantee
that data
is accurate

Verification: confirmation of data received by a system

Verification during data transfer

It is possible for data to be corrupted during transmission. Typically this applies at the bit
level with an individual bit being flipped from 1 to 0 or vice versa. Verification techniques
need to check on some property associated with the bit pattern.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The simplest approach is to use a simple one-bit parity check. This is particularly easy to
implement if data is transferred in bytes using a seven-bit code. Either even or odd parity
can
be implemented in the eighth bit of the byte. Assuming even parity, the procedure is:

1 At the transmitting end, the number of Is in the seven -bit code is counted.

2 If the count gives an even number, the parity bit is set to 0.

3 If the count gives an odd number, the parity bit is set to 1.

4 This is repeated for every byte in the transmission.

5 At the receiving end, the number of Is in the eight-bit code is counted.

6 If the count gives an even number, the byte is accepted.

7 This is repeated for every byte in the transmission.

If no errors are found, the transmission is accepted. However, the transmission cannot be
guaranteed to be error free. It is possible for two bits to be flipped in an individual byte.
Fortunately this is rather unlikely so it is a sensible assumption to assume no error. The
limitation of the method is that it can only detect the presence of an error. It cannot identify
the actual bit that is in error. If an error is detected, re-transmission has to be requested.

An alternative approach is to use the checksum method. In this case at the transmitting end
a block is defined as a number of bytes. Then, irrespective of what the bytes represent, the
bits in each byte are interpreted as a binary number. The sum of these binary numbers in a
block is calculated and supplied as a checksum value in the transmission. This is repeated
for each block. The receiver does the same calculation and checks the summation value
with
the checksum value transmitted for each block in turn. Once again an error can be detected
but its position in the transmission cannot be determined.

For a method to detect the exact position of an error and therefore be able to correct an
error it has to be considerably more complex. A simple approach to this is the parity block
check method. Like the checksum method this is a longitudinal parity check; it is used to
check a serial sequence of binary digits contained in a number of bytes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.01

Using a parity block check

At the transmitting end, a program reads a group of seven bytes as illustrated in Figure
8.01. The data is represented by seven bits for each byte. The most significant bit in each
byte, bit 7, is undefined so we have left it blank.

Seven-bit codes

1
0

0
1

Figure 8.01 Seven bytes to be transmitted

Part 1

Chapter 8: Data Security, Privacy and Integrity

The parity bit is set for each of the bytes, as in Figure 8.02. The most significant bit is set to
achieve even parity.

Parity

bits

Seven-bit codes

0
1

0
1

Figure 8.02 Bytes with the parity bit set

An additional byte is then created and each bit is set as a parity bit for the bits at that bit
position. This includes counting the parity bits in the seven bytes containing data. This is
illustrated in Figure 8.03.

Parity

bits

Seven-bit codes

0
0

1
1

Parity byte

Figure 8.03 Parity byte added

The program then transmits the eight bytes in sequence.

At the receiving end, a program takes the eight bytes as input and checks the parity sums
for the individual bytes and for the bit positions.

Note that the method is handling a serial transmission so it includes longitudinal checking
but the actual checking algorithm is working on a matrix of bit values. If there is just one
error in the seven bytes this method will allow the program at the receiving end to identify
the position of the error. It can therefore correct the error so the transmission can be
accepted.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Question 8.01
1 Assume that the seven bytes shown in Figure 8.04 contain data. The most significant bit
is undefined because a seven-bit ASCII code is being used to represent character data.
Choose a parity and create the appropriate parity bit for each byte, then create the eighth
byte that would be used for transmission in a parity block check method.

01001000

01000101

01110010

01100011

00101100

01010101

00110010

Figure 8.04 Seven bytes to be transmitted

2 The eight bytes shown in Figure 8.05 have been received in a transmission using the
parity
block method. The first seven bytes contain the data and the last byte contains the parity
check bits.

01001000

11000101

11110001

01100011

01001010

01010101

01110010

01110010

Figure 8.05 Eight bytes received in a transmission

a Identify what has gone wrong during the transmission,

b What would happen after the.transmission is checked?

• Important considerations for the storage of data are: data integrity, data privacy and data
security.
• Data protection laws relate to data privacy.

• Security measures for computer systems include authentication of users, prevention of

unauthorised access, protection from malware and methods for recovery following system
failure.

• Security methods for data include backup procedures, user authorisation and access
control.

• Data entry to a system should be subject to data validation and data verification.

• Verification for data transmission may be carried out using: a parity check, a checksum or a
parity
block check method.

Part 1

Chapter 8: Data Security, Privacy and Integrity

Exam-style Questions

la It is important that data has integrity.

i Identify the missing word in the sentence ‘Concerns about the integrity of data are concerns
about its.

ii Validation and verification are techniques that help to ensure data integrity when data is
entered into a system.
Explain the difference between validation and verification.

iii Define a type of validation and give an example.

iv Even after validation has been correctly applied data may lack integrity when it comes to
be used. Explain
why that might happen.

b Data should be protected from being read by unauthorised individuals.

Explain two policies that can be used to provide the protection.

2 a Security of data is an important concern for a system administrator.

i Identify three reasons why data might not be available when a user needs it.

ii Describe what could be features of a policy for ensuring data security.

b It is important for mission-critical systems that there is a disaster recovery contingency

plan in place.

i Define what type of disaster is under consideration here.

ii Define what will be a majorfeature of the contingency plan.

c Measures to ensure security of a computer system need to be in place on a daily basis if

the system is connected
to the Internet.

Describe two measures that could betaken to ensure security of the system.

3 a When data is transmitted measures need to be applied to check whether the data

has been transmitted correctly.

i If data consists of seven-bit codes transmitted in bytes, describe how a simple parity check
system would
be used. Your account should include a description of what happens at the transmitting end
and what
happens at the receiving end.

ii An alternative approach is to use a checksum method. Describe how this works.

b For either of these two methods there are limitations as to what can be achieved by them.

[1]

[3]
[2]

[2]

[4]

[3]

[3]

[2]

[2]

[4]

[5]

[3]

Identify two of these limitations.

[2]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

c A different method which does not have all of these limitations is the parity block check
method.

The following diagram represents eight bytes received where the parity block method has
been applied at the
transmitting end. The first seven bytes contain the data and the last byte contains parity bits.

Byte 1

Byte 2

Byte 3

Byte 4

Byte 5

1
1

Byte 6

Byte 7

Byte 8
1

Identify the problem with this received data and what would be done with it by the program
used by the receiver.

Chapter 9
Ethics and Ownership

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

show a basic understanding of ethics

explain how ethics may impact on the job role of the
computing professional

show understanding of the eight principles listed in the

ACM/IEEE Software Engineering Code of Ethics
demonstrate the relevance of these principles to some
typical software developer workplace scenarios

■ show understanding of the need for a professional code

of conduct for a computer system developer

■ show understanding of the concept of ownership and

copyright

■ describe the need for legislation to protect ownership,

usage and copyright

■ discuss measures to restrict access to data made

available through the Internet and World Wide Web

■ show understanding of the implications of different types

of software licensing.

$C2

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

9.01 Ethics

You can find a number of definitions of what we might mean when we talk about ‘ethics’. The
following three sentences are representative:

• Ethics is the field of moral science.

• Ethics are the moral principles by which any person is guided.

• Ethics are the rules of conduct recognised in a particular profession or area of human life.

For present purposes we can ignore the first of these definitions. The third definition is the
focus of this chapter. However, the rules of conduct must inevitably reflect, at least in part,
the moral principles that are the foundation of the second definition. The following are some
observations that come to mind when considering moral principles.
Moral principles concern right or wrong. The concept of virtue is often linked to what
is considered to be right. What is right and wrong might be considered from one of the
following viewpoints: philosophical, religious, legal or pragmatic.

Philosophical debate has been going on for well over 2000 years. Early thinkers frequently
quoted in this context are Aristotle and Confucius but there are many more. Religions have
sometimes incorporated philosophies already existing or have introduced their own. Laws
should reflect what is right and wrong. Pragmatism could be defined as applying common
sense.

100

This chapter is not an appropriate place to discuss religious beliefs other than to make
the obvious statement that religious beliefs do have to be considered in the working
environment. Legal issues clearly impact on working practices but they are rarely the
primary
focus in rules of conduct. What remains as the foundation for rules of conduct are the
philosophical views of right and wrong and the pragmatic views of what is common sense.
These will constitute a frame of reference for what follows in this chapter.

9.02 The ACM/IEEE Software Engineering Code of Ethics

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) are both based in the USA but have a global perspective and
global influence. It is therefore appropriate to consider the code of ethics that they have
proposed but this does not signify that codes of practice published in other countries are not
important.

In presenting the code, the authors make it clear that it in no way does the code represent
a look-up table that will prescribe an action to be taken given a defined circumstance.

They stress that the public interest is the central focus for the code. The code presents a
set of fundamental principles. They advocate that a professional should make an ethical
judgement based on thoughtful consideration of these fundamental principles.

The code defines eight principles. For each principle there is a one-sentence definition in the
preamble. In the full version of the code, each principle is expanded into clauses. Each
clause
refers to a specific aspect that should be considered in the context of that principle. This is a
form of checklist that gives a framework for an ethical judgement.

Chapter 9: Ethics and Ownership

The eight principles are presented as follows in the preamble:

1 PUBLIC - Software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.
2 CLIENT AND EMPLOYER - Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best
interests of their client and employer consistent with the public interest.

3 PRODUCT - Software engineers shall ensure that their products and related modifications
meet the highest professional standards possible.

4 JUDGMENT - Software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their

professional judgment.

5 MANAGEMENT - Software engineering managers and leaders shall subscribe to and

promote an ethical approach to the management of software development and
maintenance.

6 PROFESSION - Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of the
profession consistent with the public interest.

7 COLLEAGUES - Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues.

8 SELF - Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of
their profession and shall promote an ethical approach to the practice of the profession.

In total there are 80 clauses for these eight principles (numbered from 1.01 through to 8.09).
There is little to be gained from including all of them in this book. However, you should have
a copy readily available when you are studying this chapter (see https://www.acm.org/about/
se-code).

Examination of some of the clauses soon makes it clearthat many do not contain specific
reference to software engineering but rather, relate to proper behaviour for any group of
professionals. This can be illustrated by the following examples:

2.03 Use the property of a client or employer only in ways properly authorized, and with the
client’s or employer’s knowledge and consent.

5.04 Assign work only after taking into account appropriate contributions of education and
experience tempered with a desire to further that education and experience.

5.05 Ensure realistic quantitative estimates of cost, scheduling, personnel, quality and
outcomes on any project on which they work or propose to work, and provide an
uncertainty assessment of these estimates.

6.06 Obey all laws governing their work, unless, in exceptional circumstances, such
compliance is inconsistent with the public interest.

Clauses 5.04 and 6.06 illustrate a general tendency for the clauses to be more wordy than
they might have been because many of them have a qualifier. The same qualifier appears
more than once. Clause 5.05 is somewhat unusual with regard to the amount of detail. You
would expect a mention of realistic quantitative estimates but probably not the insistence on
an uncertainty assessment.
Discussion Point:

Should clause 5.05 include an insistence on an uncertainty assessment? Are there

alternative
suggestions that might have been included?

Clause 6.06 advocates law-breaking to serve the public interest. Can you think of
circumstances when you could agree that such action would be ethical? You might wish to
consider ‘whistle-blowing’.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

102

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.01

Applying ethics to a software engineering scenario

In a real-life scenario there might be many individual clauses that should be considered
when a judgement is to be made. For example, let’s consider the following scenario.

You are working on a software engineering project. One day the project manager states
that the project is running behind schedule. As a result, the time allocated for testing of
the software will be limited to one week rather than the one month that was stated in the
project plan.

You could approach your thinking by adopting a step-by-step approach.

1 You would rule out any immediate need to consider public interest.

2 You would identify the primary cause of concern as being directly addressed by
clause 3.10: Ensure adequate testing, debugging, and review of software and related
documents on which they work.

3 You would identify the secondary cause of concern as being one of poor management
with clauses 5.01 and 5.11 being the most relevant: Ensure good management for any
project on which they work, including effective procedures for promotion of quality and
reduction of risk. Not ask a software engineer to do anything inconsistent with this Code.

4 You would now consider what action to take and would refer to clauses 6.11,6.12 and
6.13: Recognize that violations of this Code are inconsistent with being a professional
software engineer. Express concerns to the people involved when significant violations
of this Code are detected unless this is impossible, counter-productive, or dangerous.
Report significant violations of this Code to appropriate authorities when it is clear that
consultation with people involved in these significant violations is impossible, counter¬
productive or dangerous.

Question 9.01
There are several other clauses that might be considered as relevant. Flave a look at
clauses
3.02,3.05 and 7.01. Do you consider that any of these offer anything new in helping to judge
what should be done?

Discussion Point:

Search the clauses for all eight principles and identify the ones that mention documentation.
Why is documentation mentioned so many times?

9.03 The public good

What has been considered so far relates directly to professional working practices and
therefore revolves around the third definition of ethics presented in Section 9.01. When the
question of public good arises, consideration has to relate to the second definition as well. In
different parts of the code there is reference to:

• the health, safety and welfare of the public

• the public interest

• the public good

• public concern.

Parti

Chapter 9: Ethics and Ownership

There is no further indication of how these should be interpreted. It will be helpful to consider
some individual cases to illustrate what might be considered.

Fortunately, there are very few examples which have involved loss of life and certainly
none where large numbers of deaths were caused. However, there have been a number of
incidents where extremely large sums of money were wasted because of rather simplistic
errors.

The first example that could be mentioned is the Ariane 5 rocket which exploded 40 seconds
after blast-off in 1996. To the detriment of the public good, approximately 500 million dollars
were spent for no benefit at all. The problem was caused by a line of code that tried to
convert a 64-bit floating point number into a 16-bit integer. The resulting overflow crashed
the program and as a result also the rocket.

The second example also relates to space exploration. The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter
project centred on a space probe that was due to orbit Mars to study the climate. The probe
got to Mars but unfortunately failed to get into orbit. The cause of the problem was that all
of the software was supposed to use the SI system of units for all calculations. One group of
software engineers used the Imperial system of units. This mismatch only caused a problem
at the stage when the calculations concerned with achieving orbit around Mars were
executed. This time the loss to the public purse was a mere 125 million dollars.

These examples can be said to illustrate the public interest in successful software
engineering. There is a strong argument that the correct application of the code of ethics
with respect to specification and testing of software could have saved a lot of money.

A different type of disaster is the system that never gets built. In 2011 the UK government
scrapped the National Programme for IT in the NHS (National Health Service), which had
been commissioned in 2002. The project failed to produce a workable system. The
estimated
amount spent on the program was 12 billion pounds. The initial estimated cost was less than
three billion pounds. In examples like this the software engineers are not to blame, but if
correctly applied, the part of the code of ethics specifically targeted at project management
would not have allowed this type of fiasco to occur.

In the three examples outlined above the public concern was solely related to the costs
associated with a failed project. There was no public concern relating to the ethics of the
endeavour itself. In contrast there are many areas associated with computer-based systems
where there is public concern about the nature of the endeavour or at least about what it has
led to. The following examples can be considered in this context:

• powerful commercial companies being able to exert pressure on less powerful

companies to ensure that the powerful company’s products are used when alternatives
might be more suitable or less costly

• companies providing systems that do not guarantee security against unauthorised access

• organisations that try to conceal information about a security breach that has occurred in
their systems

• private data transmitted by individuals to other individuals being stored and made
available to security services

• social media sites allowing abusive or subversive content to be transmitted

• search engines providing search results with no concern about the quality of the content.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

There is by no means a consistent public attitude to concerns like this. This makes it difficult
for an individual software engineer to make a judgement with respect to public good. Even if
the judgement is that a company is not acting in the public good it will always be difficult for
an individual to exert any influence. There are recent examples where individuals have taken
action which has resulted in their life being severely affected.

Discussion Point:
This section has deliberately been presented in generalisations. You should carry out a
search for some individual examples and then consider actions that could be taken and
justified as being for the public good.

9.04 Ownership and copyright

Copyright is a formal recognition of ownership. If an individual creates and publishes

some work that has an element of originality, the individual becomes the owner and can
therefore claim copyright. An exception is if the individual is working for an organisation.

An organisation can claim copyright for a published work if it is created by one or more
individuals that work for the organisation. Copyright cannot apply to an idea and it cannot
apply to a component of a published work.

KEYTERMS

Copyright: a formal recognition of ownership of a created and published work

Copyright can apply to any of:

• a literary work

• a musical composition

• a film

• a music recording

• a radio or TV broadcast

• a work of art

• a computer program.

The justification for the existence of copyright has two components. The first is that the
creation takes time and effort and requires original thinking. There should, therefore, be
opportunity for the copyright holder to be rewarded financially for this endeavour. The
second is that it is unfair for some other individual or organisation to reproduce the work and
to make money from it without any compensation to the original creator.

As with the case of data protection discussed in Chapter 8 (Section 8.01), there is a need
for legislation to try to deter abuses of copyright. The similarity continues in that legislation
cannot ensure that no abuses occur. Different countries have different details in their
legislation but there is an international agreement that copyright laws cannot be evaded by
reproducing the work in a different country from where the work was created.

Typical copyright legislation will include:

• a requirement for registration recording the date of creation of the work

• a defined period when copyright will apply

• a policy to be applied if an individual holding copyright dies

• an agreed method for indicating the copyright, for example the use of the © symbol.

When copyright is in place there will be implications for how the work can be used. The
copyright owner can include a statement concerning how the work might be used. For
instance, the ACM has the following statement relating to the code of ethics discussed in
Section 9.02:

This Code may be published without permission as long as it is not changed in any way and
it
carries the copyright notice. Copyright © 1999 by the Association for Computing Machinery,
Inc. and the Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

This is one of several possible variations referring to permissions that are granted when the
work has not been sold. If someone has bought a copy of a copyrighted product there is no
restriction on copies being made provided that these are solely for the use of the individual.

A general regulation relates to books in a library, where a library user can photocopy part of
a
book.

9.05 The consequences of the development of the

Internet and World Wide Web

Before the Internet came to be a dominant feature of people’s lives, breaches of copyright
were routinely happening in two ways. Individuals with a music system that included a tape
cassette recorder could record a radio broadcast. It also allowed a copy to be made of a
friend’s vinyl record. Individuals also often had unrestricted access to a photocopier in their
place of work and could copy printed material.

In the modern world, the cinema, broadcast and music industries are attempting to sell their
products as CDs, DVDs or Blu-ray discs. Illegal copying (known as ‘piracy’) now takes place
through using the Internet to download or stream data that was originally released for sale
on one of these optical media. As well as the change in approach, there is the significant
difference that illegal copying is now happening on a major scale and thus seriously affecting
the profitability of the creators.

In order for an individual or an organisation to make an illegal copy of a product available

for downloading or streaming the data has to be ‘ripped’ from an original product. This is
the process of converting the product into a form that can be stored as a computer file.

The producers of the original product can use digital rights management (DRM) to attempt
to counter such activity. Originally DRM was simply used to make a CD playable on a CD
player but to prevent it being played on a computer system. Now DRM has to be used to
prevent ripping. This might involve encryption or deliberate inclusion of damaged sectors.
Unfortunately these techniques do not guarantee the prevention of piracy.

The major mechanism for piracy of media content is the widespread use of peer-to-peer file
sharing, a technology discussed in Chapter 17 (Section 17.07). As a result, there are moves
afoot to force ISPs to monitor the usage of this technology and to report usage to interested
parties. Naturally enough there is considerable resistance to such action in that it amounts to
a breach of privacy.

105

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

9.06 Software licensing

Commercial software

Commercial software almost always has to be paid for but there are a number of different
options that might be available:

• A fee is paid for each individual copy of the software.

• A company might have the option of buying a site licence which allows a defined number
of copies to be running at any one time.

• Special rates might be available for educational use.

• Earlier versions or limited versions might be offered free or at reduced price.

106

Open or free licensing

For open licensing there are two major operations under way. Both are global non-profit
organisations.

The Open Source Initiative makes open source software, including the source code,
available for free. The aim is for collaborative development of software to take place. The
user
of the software is free to use it, modify it, copy it or distribute it according to need.

The Free Software Foundation has similar objectives but has also incorporated what it has
called ‘copyleft’. This is the condition that if the software is modified the source code for the
modified version must be made available under the same conditions of usage.

The two organisations are not in competition but there are some subtle differences in their
philosophy. There is a different raft of products made available by each of them.
Both these organisations offer free products. Another form of free software is termed
freeware. This is software that is distributed for free but without the source code.

Discussion Point:

Flow often do you think that open licence software is being used? Should it be used more
often?

TASK 9.01

Carry out a search to investigate some of the software available under an open licence.

KEY TERMS

Open source software: software free with unlimited use allowed and access to source code
Shareware: software free for use for a limited period but no source code provided
Freeware: software free with unlimited use allowed but no source code provided

Shareware licensing

Shareware is commercial software which is made available on a trial basis. It might be a

limited version of a full package or free to use for a trial period. A beta test version of new
software might be considered to come in the shareware category.

• There are different definitions of ethics.

• The ARM/IEEE Code of Ethics has a focus on the public good.

• There is a history of software disasters that might have been prevented if sound software
engineering practice had been employed.

• Copyright is formal recognition of ownership.

• Illegal copying using the Internet is a serious concern.

• Commercial software has to be paid for; alternatives are open licence or shareware which
are free.

Exam-style Questions

1 The ACM and IEEE set out eight principles for ethics and professional practice. The
categories, with a short explanation,
are shown in this diagram.

Act consistently in the public interest

Act in the best interests of the client

Act in the best interests of their employer

Statement 1/2/3 (Circle the correct number.)

Maintain integrity and independence in

their professional judgement

Statement 1/2/3 (Circle the correct number.)

Software engineers shall advance the

integrity and reputation of the profession

Software engineers shall be fair to and

supportive of their colleagues

Statement 1/2/3 (Circle the correct number.)

Statement 1: Team leaders should subscribe to and promote an ethical approach to the
management of software
development and maintenance.

Statement 2: Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice
of the profession.
Statement 3: Software and related modifications meet the highest possible standards.

( Code of Et "X-

a These three statements need to be added to the diagram. Circle the correct numbers on
the diagram to indicate
the positions for Statement 1, Statement 2 and Statement 3.

[2]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

b For each of these three workplace scenarios, unethical behaviour is demonstrated. Explain
the principle(s) which

are not being met.

i Workplace scenario 1

A large project is devolved to project teams, each led by a project leader. One project leader
fails to inform his
manager that he has major concerns that:

• their team’s software contribution is taking much longer to write and test than anticipated

• they are consequently at risk of spending over their allocated budget. [3]

ii Workplace scenario 2
The software house is about to train a number of programmers in a new programming
language. Two
employees are refusing to attend the training. [2]

iii The company is developing some monitoring software which requires sensors placed in a
nature reserve.

One employee considers the sensors will be a danger to some of the wildlife, but is told by
his manager that

the matter is none of his concern. [2]

Cambridge International /IS and A Level Computer Science 9608 Specimen Paper 1 Q6
2 a Copyright is an important consideration when something is created.

i State what copyright primarily defines. [1]

ii When copyright is registered, some data will be recorded. Identify two examples of the
type of data that

would be recorded.

[2]

iii Copyright legislation defines two conditions that will apply to the copyrighted work. Identify
one of these. [1]

iv When copyright has been established there are options for how usage will be controlled.
Give two alternatives
for the instructions that could be included in the copyright statement for the created item.

[2]

b When software is obtained there will be an associated license defining how it can be used.

i For commercial software, describe two different ways in which the license might be applied
and explain the
benefits to the customer of one of these.

[4]

ii Define the difference between freeware and shareware.

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

show understanding of the limitations of using a file-

based approach for the storage and retrieval of data
describe the features of a relational database which
address the limitations of a file-based approach
show understanding of the features provided by a
DBMS to address the issues of: data management, data
modelling, logical schema, data integrity, data security
show understanding of how software tools found within a
DBMS are used in practice
show awareness that high-level languages provide
accessing facilities for data stored in a database

show understanding of, and use, the terminology

associated with a relational database model
produce a relational design from a given description of a
system

use an entity-relationship diagram to document a

database design

■ show understanding of the normalisation process

■ explain why a given set of database tables are, or are not,

in 3NF and make the changes to a given set of tables to
produce a solution in 3NF

■ show understanding that DBMS software carries out:

• all creation/modification of the database structure using

its DDL

• query and maintenance of data using its DML

■ show understanding that the industry standard for both

DDL and DML is Structured Query Language (SQL)

■ show understanding of a given SQL script

■ write simple SQL (DDL) commands for: creating a

database, creating or changing a table definition, adding
a primary or foreign keytoatable

■ write a SQL script for querying or modifying data (DML)

which are stored in (at most two) database tables

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

10.01 Limitations of a file-based approach

Data integrity and data privacy concerns

Let’s consider a simple scenario. A theatrical agency makes bookings for bands and is
setting
up a computerised system. Text files are to be used. One of these text files is to store data
about individual band members. Each line of the file is to contain the following data for one
band member:

Name, contact details, banking details, band name, band agent name,
band agent contact details

The intention is that this file could be used if the agency needed to contact the band member
directly or through the band’s agent. It could also be used after a gig when the band member
has to be paid. Ignoring what would constitute contact details or banking details, we can
look at a snapshot of some of the data that might be stored for the member’s given name,
the member’s family name and the band name. The file might have a thousand or more lines
of text. The following is a selection of some of the data that might be contained in various
lines in the file:

Xiangfei

Jha

ComputerKidz

Mahesh

Ravuru

ITWizz

Dylan

Stoddart

Graham

Vandana

ITWizz

Vandana

Graham

ITWizz

Mahesh

Ravuru

ITWizz
Precious

Olsen

ComputerKidz

Precious

Olsen

ITWizz

It is clear that there are problems with this data. It would appear that when the data for
Vandana Graham was first entered her names were inserted in the wrong order. A later
correct entry was made without deletion of the original incorrect data. This type of problem
is not unique to a file-based system. There is no validation technique that could detect the
original error. By contrast, validation should have led to the correction of the missing band
name for Dylan Stoddart. The Precious Olsen data are examples of duplication of data and
inconsistent data.

There is also possibly an error that is not evident from looking at the file contents. A band
name could be entered here when that band doesn’t exist. This shows how a file-based
approach can lead to data integrity problems in an individual file. The reason is the lack of
in-built control when data is entered. The database approach can prevent such problems or,
at least, minimise the chances of them happening.

A different problem is a lack of data privacy. The file above was designed so that the finance
section could find the banking details and the recruitment section could find contact details.
The problem is that there cannot be any control of access to part of a file so staff in the
recruitment section would be able to access the banking details of band members. Data
privacy would be properly handled by a database system.

Mindful of this privacy problem the agency decides to store data in different files for different
departments of the organisation. Table 10.01 summarises the main data to be stored in each
department’s file.

Chapter 10: Database and Data Modelling

Department

Data items in the section’s file

Contract

Member names

Band name

Gig details
Finance

Member names

Bank details

Gig details

Publicity

Band name

Gig details

Recruitment

Member names

Band name

Agent details

Table 10.01 Data to be held in the department files

There is now data duplication across the files. This is commonly referred to as data
redundancy which doesn’t mean that the data is no longer of use but rather that once data
has been stored there is no need for it to be stored again. This can lead to data
inconsistency
because of errors in the original entry or errors in subsequent editing. This is a different
cause
of data lacking integrity. One of the primary aims of the database approach is the elimination
of data redundancy.

KEYTERMS

Data redundancy: the same data stored more than once

Data dependency concerns

The above account has focussed on the problems associated with data storage in files. We
now need to consider the problems that might occur when programs access the files.

Traditionally a programmer wrote a program and at the same time defined the data files that
the program would need. For the agency each department would have its own programs
which would access the department’s data files. When a programmer creates a program for
a
department the programmer has to know how the data is organised in these files, for
example,
that the fourth item on a line in the file is a band name. This is an example of ‘data
dependency’.

It is very likely that the files used by one department might have some data which is the
same
as the data in the files of other departments. However, in the scenario presented above
there
is no plan for file sharing. A further issue is that the agency might decide that there is a need
for a change in the data stored. For instance, they might see an increasing trend for bands
to perform with additional session musicians. Their data will need to be entered into some
files. This will require the existing files to be re-written. In turn, this will require the programs
to be re-written so that the new files are read correctly. In a database scenario the existing
programs could still be run even though additional data was added. The only programming
change needed would be the writing of additional programs which used this additional data.

The other aspect of data dependency is that when file structures have been defined to suit
specific programs they will not be suited to supporting new applications. The agency might
feel
the need for an information system to analyse the success or otherwise of the gigs they
have
organised over a number of years. Extracting the data for this from the sort of file-based
system
described here would be a complex task which would take considerable time to complete.

10.02 The database approach

It is vital to understand that a database is not just a collection of data. A database is an

implementation according to the rules of a theoretical model. The basic concept was
proposed some 40 years ago by ANSI (American National Standards Institute) in its three-
level model. The three levels are:

111

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

• the external level

• the conceptual level

• the internal level.

The architecture is illustrated in Figure 10.01 in the context of a database to beset up for our
theatrical agency.

storage (the internal schema) are known only at the internal level, the lowest level in the
ANSI
architecture. This is controlled by the database management system (DBMS) software.
The programmers who wrote this software are the only ones who know the structure for
the storage of the data on disk. The software will accommodate any changes that might be
needed in the storage medium.

At the next level, the conceptual level, there is a single universal view of the database. This
is
controlled by the database administrator (DBA) who has access to the DBMS. In the ANSI
architecture the conceptual level has a conceptual schema describing the organisation of the
data as perceived by a user or programmer. However, this is often described as a logical
schema.

At the external level there are individual user and programmer views. Each view has an
external schema describing which parts of the database are accessible. A view can support
a
number of user programs. The DBA is responsible for setting up these views and for defining
the appropriate, specific access rights. The DBMS provides facilities for a programmer to
develop a user interface for a program. It also provides a query processor. The query is the
mechanism for extracting and manipulating data from the database. A programmer will
incorporate access to queries in a user interface. The other feature provided by the DBMS is
the capability for creating a report to present formatted output.

KEY TERMS

Data management system (DBMS): software that controls access to data in a database

Database administrator (DBA): a person who uses the DBMS to customise the database to
suit user
and programmer requirements

r~

Discussion Point:

How many of the above concepts are recognisable in your experience of using a database?

10.03 The relational database

In the relational database model each item of data is stored in a relation which is a special
type of table. The strange choice of name has its origin in a mathematical theory. A relational
database is a collection of relational tables.

When a table is created in a relational database it is first given a name and then the
attributes
are named. In a database design, a table would be given a name with the attribute names
listed in brackets after the table name. For example, a database for the theatrical agency
may
contain the following tables:
Member fMemberlD. MemberGivenName, MemberFamilyName, BandName,...)
Band fBandName. AgentID,...)

The logical view of the data in these tables is given in Table 10.02 and Table 10.03. Each
attribute is associated with one column in the table and is in effect a column header. The
column itself contains attribute values.

MemberlD

Member

GivenName

Member

FamilyName

Band

Name

...

0005

Xiangfei

Jha

ComputerKidz

0009

Mahesh

Ravuru

ITWizz

0001

Dylan

Stoddart

ComputerKidz

0025

Vandana
Graham

ITWizz

Table 10.02 Logical view of Member table in a relational database

BandName

AgentID

...

ComputerKidz

01

ITWizz

07

Table 10.03 Logical view of Band table in a relational database

Although some database products do allow a direct view of a table this is not the norm
hence
the use of the term ‘logical view’ here. If a user wishes to inspect all of the data in a table a
query should be used.

KEY TERMS

Relation: the special type of table which is used in a relational database

Attribute: a column in a relation that contains values

A row in a relation should be referred to as a tuple but this strict nomenclature is not
always used. Often a row is called a ‘record’ and the attribute values ‘fields’. The tuple is the
collection of data stored for one ‘instance’ of the relation. In Table 10.02, each tuple relates
to
one individual band member. A fundamental principle of a relational database is that a tuple
is a set of atomic values; each attribute has one value or no value.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The most important feature of the relational database concept is the primary key. A primary
key may be a single attribute or a combination of attributes. Every table must have a primary
key and each tuple in the table must have a value for the primary key and that value must
be unique. Once a table and its attributes have been defined the next task is to choose the
primary key. In some cases there may be more than one attribute for which unique values
are
guaranteed. In this case, each one is a candidate key and one will be selected as the
primary
key. More often there is no candidate key and so a primary key has to be created. Table
10.02
shows an example of this with the introduction of the attribute MemberlD as the primary key
(the primary key is underlined in the logical view).

The primary key ensures ‘entity integrity 1 . The DBMS will not allow an attempt to insert a
value for a primary key when that value already exists. Therefore each tuple must be unique.
This is one of the features of the relational model that helps to ensure data integrity. The
primary key also provides a unique reference to any attribute value that a query is selecting.

Although it is possible for a database to contain stand-alone tables it is usually true that each
table will have some relationship with another table. This relationship is implemented by
using a foreign key.

KEYTERMS

Primary key: an attribute or a combination of attributes for which there is a value in each
tuple and
that value is unique

Foreign key: an attribute in one table that refers to the primary key in another table

The use of a foreign key can be discussed on the basis of the two database tables
represented in Table 10.02 and Table 10.03. When the database is being created, the Band
table is created first. BandName is chosen as the primary key because unique names for
bands can be guaranteed. Then the Member table is created. MemberlD is defined as the
primary key and the attribute BandName is identified as a foreign key referencing the
primary
key in the Band table. Once this relationship between primary and foreign keys has been
established, the DBMS will prevent any entry for BandName in the Member table being
made
if the corresponding value does not exist in the Band table. This provides referential integrity
which is another reason why the relational database model helps to ensure data integrity.

Question 10.01

BandName is a primary key for the Band table. Does this mean that as a foreign key in the
Member table it must have unique values? Explain your reasoning.

10.04 Entity-relationship modelling

The top-down, stepwise refinement (see Chapter 12, Section 12.01) approach to database
design uses an entity-relationship (ER) diagram. This might be initially created and used by
a systems analyst before being passed on to the database designer. Otherwise the designer
has to create it. The term ‘relationship’ (not to be confused with a relation!) was introduced
earlier in connection with the use of a foreign key. An entity (strictly speaking an entity
type) could be a thing, a type of person, an event, a transaction or an organisation. Most
importantly, there must be a number of‘instances’ of the entity. An entity is something that
will become a table in a relational database.

Parti

Chapter 10: Database and Data Modelling

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.01

Creating an entity-relationship diagram for the theatrical agency

Let’s consider a scenario for the theatrical agency which will be sufficient to model a
part of the final database they would need. The starting point for a top-down design is a
statement of the requirement:

The agency needs a database to handle bookings for bands. Each band has a number of
members. Each booking is for a venue. Each booking might be for one or more bands.

Step 1: Choose the entities

You look for the nouns. You ignore ‘agency’ because there is only the one. You choose
Booking, Band, Member and Venue. For each of these there will be more than one
instance. You are aware that each booking is for a gig at a venue but you ignore this
because you think that the Booking entity will be sufficient to hold the required data
about a gig.

Step 2: Identify the relationships

This requires experience but the aim is not to define too many. You choose the following
three:

• Booking with Venue

• Booking with Band

• Band with Member.

You ignore the fact that there will be, for example, a relationship between Member and
Venue because you think that this will be handled through the other relationships that
indirectly link them. You can now draw a preliminary ER diagram as shown in Figure 10.02.

Member

Band

Booking

Venue
Figure 10.02 A preliminary entity-relationship diagram

Step 3: Decide the cardinalities of the relationships

Now comes the crucial stage of deciding on what are known as the ‘cardinalities’ of the
relationships. At present we have a single line connecting each pair of entities. This line
actually defines two relationships which might be described as the ‘forward’ one and
the ‘backward’ one on the diagram as drawn. However, this only becomes apparent at
the final stage of drawing the relationship. First we have to choose one of the following
descriptions for the cardinality of each relation:

• one-to-one or 1:1

• one-to-many or 1:M

• many-to-one or M:1

• many-to-many or M:M.

This can be illustrated by considering the relationship between Member and Band. We
argue that one Member is a member of only one Band. (This needs to be confirmed as a
fact by the agency.) We then argue that one Band has more than one Member so it has

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

many. Therefore the relationship between Member and Band is M:l. In its simplest form,
this relationship can be drawn as shown in Figure 10.03.

Member

Band

Figure 10.03 The M:1 relationship between Member and Band

This can be given more detail by including the fact that a member must belong to a Band
and a Band must have more than one Member. To reflect this, the relationship can be
drawn as shown in Figure 10.04.

Member

Band

Figure 10.04 The M:1 relationship with more detail

At each end of the relationship there are two symbols. One of the symbols shows the
minimum cardinality and the other the maximum cardinality. In thisparticularcase the
minimum and maximum values just happen to be the same. Flowever, using the diagram
to document that a Member must belong to a Band is important. It indicates that when
the database is created it must not be possible to create a new entry in the Member table
unless there is a valid entry for BandName in that table.

For the relationship between Booking and Venue we argue that one Booking is for one
Venue (there must be a venue and there cannot be more than one) and that one Venue
can be used for many Bookings so the relationship between Booking and Venue is M:l.
Flowever, a Venue might exist that has so far never had a booking so the relationship can
be drawn as shown in Figure 10.05.

Booking

Venue

Figure 10.05 The M:1 relationship between Booking and Venue

Finally for the relationship between Band and Booking we argue that one Booking can
be for many Bands and that one Band has many Bookings (hopefully!) so the relationship
is M:M. Flowever, a new band might not yet have a booking. Also there might be only one
Band for a booking so the relationship can be drawn as shown in Figure 10.06.

Band

-o<^ Booking

Figure 10.06 The M:M relationship between Band and Booking

Step 4: Create the full ER diagram

At this stage we should name each relationship. The full ER diagram for the limited
scenario that has been considered is as shown in Figure 10.07.

Member

belongs to

has

Band >

is booked for

is for

is made at

Booking >~o-

is booked for

Venue
Figure 10.07 The ER diagram for the theatrical agency’s booking database

To illustrate how the information should be read from such a diagram we can look at the
part shown in Figure 10.08. Despite the fact that there is a many-to-many relationship,
a reading of a relationship always considers just one entity to begin the sentence. So,
reading forwards and then backwards, we say that:

Parti

Chapter 10: Database and Data Modelling

One Band is booked for zero or many Bookings

One Booking is for one or many Bands

is booked for

Band

►-< Booking

is for

Figure 10.08 Part of the annotated ER diagram

10.05 A logical entity-relationship model

A fully annotated ER diagram of the type developed in Section 10.04 holds all of the
information about the relationships that exist for the data that is to be stored in a system.

It can be defined as a conceptual model because it does not relate to any specific way of
implementing a system. If the system is to be implemented as a relational database the ER
diagram has to be converted to a logical model. To do this we can start with a simplified ER
diagram that just identifies cardinalities.

If a relationship is 1:M, no further refinement is needed. The relationship shows that the
entity at
the many end needs to have a foreign key referencing the primary key of the entity at the
one end.

If there were a 1:1 relationship there are options for implementation. However, such
relationships are extremely rare and will not be considered further.

The problem relationship is the M:M, where a foreign key cannot be used. A foreign key
attribute can only have a single value so it cannot handle the many references required. The
solution for the M:M relationship is to create a link entity. For Band and Booking, the logical
entity model will contain the link entity shown in Figure 10.09.

Band
Band-Booking

Booking

Figure 10.09 A link entity inserted to resolve a M:M relationship

117

Extension Question 10.01

Is it possible to annotate these relationships?

With the link entity in the model it is now possible to have two foreign keys in the link entity;
one referencing the primary key of Band and one referencing the primary key of Booking.

Each entity in the logical ER diagram will become a table in the relational database. It is
therefore possible to choose primary keys and foreign keys for the tables. These can be
summarised in a key table. Table 10.04 shows sensible choices for the theatrical agency’s
booking database.

Table name

Primary key

Foreign key

Member

MemberlD

BandName

Band

BandName

Band-Booking

BandName & BookingID

BandName, BookingID

Booking

BookingID

VenueName

Venue

VenueName
Table 10.04 A key table for the agency booking database

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

118

The decisions about the primary keys are determined by the uniqueness requirement. The
link entity cannot use either BandName or BookingID alone but the combination of the two
in a compound primary key will work.

TASK 10.01

Consider the following scenario. An organisation books cruises for passengers. Each cruise
visits a number of ports. Create a conceptual ER diagram and convert it to a logical ER
diagram. Create a key table for the database that could be implemented from the design.

10.06 Normalisation

Normalisation is a design technique for constructing a set of table designs from a list of data
items. It can also be used to improve on existing table designs.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.02

Normalising data for the theatrical agency

To illustrate the technique let’s consider the document shown in Figure 10.10. This is a
booking data sheet that the theatrical company might use.

Booking data sheet: 2016/023

Venue:

Cambridge International Theatre

Camside

CA1

Booking data: 23.06.2016

Bands booked Number of band members

Headlining

ComputerKidz

ITWizz
3

Figure 10.10 Example booking data sheet

The data items on this sheet (ignoring headings) can be listed as a set of attributes:

(BookingID, VenueName.VenueAddressl, VenueAddress2, Date,

(BandName, NumberOfMembers, Headlining))

The list is put inside brackets because we are starting a process of table design. The
extra set of brackets around BandName, NumberOfMembers, Headlining is because they
represent a repeating group. If there is a repeating group, the attributes cannot sensibly
be put into one relational table. A table must have single rows and atomic attribute
values so the only possibility would be to include tuples such as those shown in Table
10.05. There is now data redundancy here with the duplication of the bookingID, venue
data and the date.

Booking

ID

Venue

Name

Venue

Addressl

Venue

Address2

Date

Band

Name

Number

Of Members

Headlining

2016/023

Cambridge International Theatre

Camside

CA1

23.06.2016

ComputerKidz

2016/023

Cambridge International Theatre

Camside

CA1

23.06.2016

ITWizz

Table 10.05 Data stored in an unnormalised table

Part 1

Chapter 10: Database and Data Modelling

Step 1: Conversion to first normal form (INF)

The conversion to first normal form (INF) requires splitting the data into two groups. At this
stage we represent the data as table definitions. Therefore we have to choose table names
and identify a primary key for each table. One table contains the non-repeating group
attributes the other the repeating group attributes. For the first table a sensible design is:

Booking fBookinglD. VenueName, VenueAddressl, VenueAddress2, Date)

The table with the repeating group is not so straightforward. It needs a compound
primary key and a foreign key to give a reference to the first table. The sensible design is:

Band-Booking (BandName. BookinglD(fk). NumberOfMembers, Headlining)

Again the primary key is underlined but also the foreign key has been identified, with
(fk). Because the repeating groups have been moved to a second table, these two tables
could be implemented with no data redundancy in either. This is one aspect of INF. Also
it can be said that for each table the attributes are dependent on the primary key.

Step 2: Conversion to second normal form (2NF)

The Booking table is automatically in 2NF; only tables with repeating group attributes
have to be converted. For conversion to second normal form (2NF), the process is
to examine each non-key attribute and ask if it is dependent on both parts of the
compound key. Any attributes that are dependent on only one of the attributes in the
compound key must be moved out into a new table. In this case, NumberOfMembers is
only dependent on BandName. In 2NF there are now three table definitions:

Booking fBookinglD. VenueName, VenueAddressl, VenueAddress2, Date)

Band-Booking fBandNameffk). BookinglD(fk). Headlining)
Band fBandName. NumberOfMembers)

Note that the Booking table is unchanged from INF. The Band-Booking table now has
two foreign keys to provide reference to data in the other two tables. The characteristics
of a table in 2NF is that it either has a single primary key or it has a compound primary
key with any non-key attribute dependent on both components.

Step 3: Conversion to third normal form (3NF)

For conversion to third normal form (3NF) each table has to be examined to see if there
are any non-key dependencies; that means we must look for any non-key attribute that is
dependent on another non-key attribute. If there is, a new table must be defined.

In our example, VenueAddressl and VenueAddress2 are dependent on VenueName. With

the addition of the fourth table we have the following 3NF definitions:

Band fBandName. NumberOfMembers)

Band-Booking fBandNameffk). BookingIDffk). Headlining)

Booking fBookinglD. Date, VenueName(fk))

Venue fVenueName. VenueAddressl, VenueAddress2)

Note that once again a new foreign key has been identified to keep a reference to data in the
newly created table. These four table definitions match four of the entities in the logical ER
model for which the keys were identified in Table 10.04. This will not always happen. A
logical
ER diagram will describe a 2NF set of entities but not necessarily a 3NF set.

119
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

KEY TERMS

Repeating group: a set of attributes that have more than one set of values when the other
attributes
each have a single value

To summarise, if a set of tables are in 3NF it can be said that each non-key attribute is
dependent on the key, the whole key and nothing but the key.

Question 10.02

In Step 2 of Worked Example 10.02, why is the Headlining attribute not placed in the Band
table?

TASK 10.02

Normalise the data shown in Figure 10.11.

Order no: Date:

07845 25-06-2016

Customer no: Customer name: CUP

056 Address: Cambridge square Cambridge

Sales rep no: 2 Sales Rep name: Dylan Stoddart

Product

no

Description

Quantity

Price /
unit

Total

327

Inkjet cartridges

24

$30
$720

563

Laser toner

$25

$125

Total Price

$835

Figure 10.11 An order form

10.07 Structured Query Language (SQL)

SQL is the programming language provided by a DBMS to support all of the operations
associated with a relational database. Even when a database package offers high-level
facilities for user interaction, they use SQL.

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Data Definition Language (DDL) is the part of SQL provided for creating or altering tables.
These commands only create the structure. They do not put any data into the database.

The following are some examples of DDL that could be used in creating the database for the
theatrical agency:

CREATE DATABASE BandBooking;

CREATE TABLE Band (

BandName varchar2 (25),

NumberOfMembers number (1));

ALTER TABLE Band ADD PRIMARY KEY (BandName);

ALTER TABLE Band-Booking ADD FOREIGN KEY (BandName REFERENCES

Band (BandName) ;

These examples show that once the database has been created the tables can be created
and the attributes defined. It is possible to define a primary key and a foreign key within the
create table command but the alter table command can be used as shown (it can
also be used to add extra attributes).
Part 1

Chapter 10: Database and Data Modelling

TASK 10.03

For the database defined in Worked Example 10.02, complete the DDL for creating the four

tables. Use varchar2(5) for BookingID, number(l) for NumberOfMembers, date for Date,

I varchar2(l) for Headlining and varchar2(25) for all other data.

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

. Data Manipulation Language (DML) is used when a database is first created, to populate
the

tables with data. It can then be used for ongoing maintenance. The following code shows a
selection of the use of the commands:

INSERT INTO Band ('ComputerKidz', 5);

INSERT INTO Band-Booking (BandName, BookingID)

VALUES ('ComputerKidz', '2016/023') ;

UPDATE Band

SET NumberOfMembers =6;

DELETE FROM BandName

k WHERE BandName = 'ITWizz';

The above code shows the two methods of inserting data. The first, simpler version can be
used if the order of the attributes is known. The second is the safer method: the attributes
are defined then the values are listed. The next two statements show a change of data and
\ the removal of data.

I The main use of DML is to obtain data from a database using a query. A query always
starts

i with the select command. Some examples are:

l SELECT BandName

!
I FROM Band

ORDER BY BandName;

l SELECT BandName

[ FROM Band-Booking

^ WHERE Headlining = 'Y'

f GROUP BY BandName;

Both of these examples select data from a single table. The first produces an ordered list of
all the bands. The second produces a list of bands that have headlined a gig. The group by
b restriction ensures that the band names are not repeated.

f A query can be based on a ‘join condition’ between data in two tables. The most frequently

r used is an inner join which is illustrated by:

SELECT VenueName, Date

FROM Booking

WHERE Band-Booking.BookingID = Booking.BookingID

AND Band-Booking.BandName = 'ComputerKidz';

121

Note the use of the full names of attributes, which include the table name. This query will
find
the venue and date of bookings for the band ComputerKidz.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Accessing SQL commands using a different language

Although a database can be accessed directly using SQL there is often a need to control
access to a database using a different language. This makes sense because a program can
access data in a file so why not in a database? Programming languages therefore have a
mechanism for embedding an SQL command into a program.

A special case arises in a client-server web application as mentioned in Chapter 2 (Section

2.09). Server-side scripting using PHP can access a database associated with the server.
The
following is an example of some code that could be included in an HTML file:

This code assumes that you have created a MYSQL database on a server located on your
own
computer.
10.08 DBMS features

There are a few important features of a DBMS which have not been mentioned. The first and
most important is the data dictionary which is part of the database that is hidden from view
from everyone except the DBA. It contains metadata about the data. This includes details
of all the definitions of tables, attributes and so on but also of how the physical storage is
organised.

There are a number of features to improve performance. Of special note is the capability
to create an index for a table. This is needed if the table contains a lot of data. An index is a
secondary table which is associated with an attribute that has unique values. The index table
contains the attribute values and pointers to the corresponding tuple in the original table.

The index can be on the primary key or on a secondary key which was a candidate key
when
the choice of primary key was made. Searching an index table is much quicker than
searching
the full table.

Finally, the DBMS controls security issues which include:

• setting access rights for users

• implementing backup procedures

• ensuring that an interrupted database transaction cannot leave the database in an

undefined state.

Part 1

Chapter 10: Database and Data Modelling

Summary

• A database offers improved methods for ensuring data integrity compared to a file-based
approach.

• A database architecture provides, for the user, a conceptual level interface to the stored
data.

• A relational database comprises tables of a special type; each table has a primary key and
may
contain foreign keys.

• Entity-relationship modelling is a top-down approach to database design.

• Normalisation is a database design method which starts with a collection of attributes and
converts them into first normal form then into second normal form and, finally, into third
normal
form.

• Structured Query Language (SQL) includes data definition language (DDL) commands for
establishing a database and data manipulation language (DML) commands for creating
queries.

• Features provided by a database management system (DBMS) include: a data dictionary,

indexing
capability, control of user access rights and backup procedures.

Exam-style Questions

la A relational database has been created to store data about subjects that students are
studying. The following is a

selection of some data stored in one of the tables. The data represents the student’s name,
the personal tutor group,
the personal tutor, the subject studied, the level of study and the subject teacher but there is
some data missing:

Xiangfei

MUB

Computing

DER

Xiangfei

MUB

Maths

BNN

Xiangfei

MUB
Physics

AS

DAB

Mahesh

BAR

History

AS

IJM

Mahesh

BAR

Geography

AS

CAB

i Define the terms used to describe the components in a relational database table using
examples from

this table. [2]

ii If this represented all of the data, it would have been impossible to create this table.

What is it that has not been shown here and must have been defined to allow the creation as
a relational
database table? Explain your answer and suggest examples of the missing data. [4]

iii Is this table in first normal form (INF)? Explain your reason. [2]

b It has been suggested that the database design could be improved. The design suggested
contains the following
two tables:

Student(StudentName, TutorGroup, Tutor)

StudentSubject(StudentName, Subject,
Level, SubjectTeacher)
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

i Identify features of this design which are characteristic of a relational database. [3]

ii Explain why the use of StudentName here is a potential problem. [2]

iii Explain why the Student table is notin third normal form (3NF). [2]

2 Consider the following scenario:

A company provides catering services for clients who need special-occasion, celebratory
dinners. For
each dinner, a number of dishes are to be offered. The dinner will be held at a venue. The
company will
provide staff to serve the meals at the venue.

The company needs a database to store data related to this business activity.

a An entity-relationship model is to be created as the first step in a database design. Identify

a list of entities. [4]

b Identify pairs of entities where there is a direct relationship between them. [4]

c For each pair of entities, draw the relationship and justify the choice of cardinality
illustrated by the

representation. [6]

3 Consider the following booking form used by a travel agency.

124

Booking Number 00453

Hotel: Esplanade Rating: ***

Colwyn Bay
North Wales

Date

Room type

Number of

rooms

Room rate

23/06/2016
Front-facing double

$80

23/06/2016

Rear-facing double

$65

24/06/2016

Front-facing double

$80

a Create an unnormalised list of attributes using the data shown in this form. Make sure that
you distinguish

between the repeating and non-repeating attributes. El

b Convert the data to first normal form (INF). Present this as designs for two tables with

keys identified. P]

c Choose the appropriate table and convert it to two tables in second normal form (2NF).
Explain your choice

oftableto modify. Explain your identification ofthe keys for these two new tables. [5]

d Identify which part of your design is not in Third Normal Form (3NF). [2]

Chapter 11

i Algorithm Design and Problem-Solving

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding that an algorithm is a solution to a

problem expressed as a sequence of defined steps
■ use suitable identifiers for the representation of data
used by a problem and summarise identifiers using an
identifiertable

■ show understanding that many algorithms are expressed

using the four basic constructs of assignment, sequence,
selection and repetition

■ show understanding that simple algorithms consist of

input, process, output at various stages

■ document a simple algorithm using: structured English,

pseudocode, program flowchart

■ derive pseudocode or a program flowchart from a

structured English description of a problem

■ derive pseudocode from a given program flowchart

■ show an appreciation of why logic statements are used to

define parts of an algorithm solution

■ use logic statements to define parts of an algorithm

solution

■ use the technical terms associated with arrays including

upper and lower bound

■ select a suitable data structure (ID or 2D array) to use for

a given task

■ write algorithms to process array data including sorting

using a bubble sort and searching using a linear search.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

11.01 What is an algorithm?

KEYTERMS

Algorithm: a sequence of steps that can be carried out to perform a task

126

We use algorithms in everyday life. If you need to change a wheel on a car, you might need
to
follow instructions (the algorithm) from a manual:

1 Take a spanner and loosen the wheel nuts.

2 Position a jack in an appropriate place.

3 Raise the car.

4 Take off the wheel nuts and the wheel.

5 Lift replacement wheel into position.

6 Replace wheel nuts and tighten by hand.

7 Lower the car.

8 Fully tighten wheel nuts.

This might sound all very straightforward. However, if the instructions are not followed in the
correct logical sequence, the process might become much more difficult or even impossible.
For example, if you tried to do Step 1 after Step 3, the wheel may spin and you can’t loosen
the wheel nuts. You can’t do Step 4 before Step 3.

If you want to bake a cake, you follow a recipe:

1 Measure the following ingredients: 200g sugar, 200g butter, 4 eggs, 200g flour, 2
teaspoons
baking powder and 2 tablespoons of milk.

2 Mix the ingredients together in a large bowl, until the consistency of the mixture is
smooth.

3 Pour the mixture into a cake tin.

4 Bake in the oven at 190° C for 20 minutes.

5 Check it is fully cooked.

6 Turn cake out of the tin and cool on a wire rack.

The recipe is an algorithm. The ingredients are the input and the cake is the output. The
process is mixing the ingredients and cooking the mixture in the oven.

Sometimes a step might need breaking down into smaller steps. For example Step 2 can be
more detailed:

2.1 Beat the sugar and butter together until fluffy.

2.2 Add the eggs, one at a time, mixing constantly.

2.3 Sieve the flour and baking powder and stir slowly into the egg mixture.

2.4 Add milk and mix to give a creamy consistency.

Part 2

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Sometimes there might be different steps depending on some other conditions. For
example,
consider how to get from one place to another using the map of the London Underground
system in Figure 11.01.

Old Str«

Piccadilly

Victoria

Jubilee

Figure 11.01 Underground map of London, UK

To travel from King’s Cross St. Pancras to Westminster, we consider two routes:

• Route A: Take the Victoria Line to Green Park (4 stations); then take the Jubilee Line to
Westminster (1 station).

• Route B: Take the Piccadilly Line to Green Park (6 stations); then take the Jubilee Line to
Westminster (1 station).

Route A looks like the best route. If there are engineering works on the Victoria Line and
trains are delayed, Route B might turn out to be the quicker route.

The directions on how to get from King’s Cross St. Pancras to Westminster can be written
as:
IF there are engineering works on the Victoria Line
THEN

Take the Piccadilly Line to Green Park (6 stations)

Take the Jubilee Line to Westminster (1 station)

ELSE

Take the Victoria Line to Green Park (4 stations)

Take the Jubilee Line to Westminster (1 station)

127

TASK 11.01

Write the steps to be followed to:

• make a sandwich

• walk from your school/college to the nearest shop

• log on to your computer.

Many problems have more than one solution. Sometimes it is a personal preference which
solution to choose. Sometimes one solution will be better than another.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

11.02 Expressing algorithms

TIP

Computer scientists are interested in finding good solutions. A good solution gives the
correct
results, takes up as little computer memory as possible and executes as fast as possible.
The
solution should be concise, elegant and easy to understand.

In computer science, when we design a solution to a problem we express the solution

(the algorithm) using sequences of steps written in structured English or pseudocode.
Structured English is a subset of the English language and consists of command
statements.
Pseudocode resembles a programming language without following the syntax of a particular
programming language. A flowchart is an alternative method of representing an algorithm. A
flowchart consists of specific shapes, linked together.

An algorithm consists of a sequence of steps. Under certain conditions we may wish not to

KEY TERMS

Structured English: a subset of the English language that consists of command statements
used to
describe an algorithm

Pseudocode: a way of using keywords and identifiers to describe an algorithm without

following the
syntax of a particular programming language

Flowchart: shapes linked together to represent the sequential steps of an algorithm

perform some steps. We may wish to repeat a number of steps. In computer science, when
writing algorithms, we use four basic types of construct:

• Assignment:
a value is given a name (identifier) or the value associated with a given identifier is
changed.

• Sequence:

a number of steps are performed, one after the other.

• Selection:

under certain conditions some steps are performed, otherwise different (or no) steps are
performed.

• Repetition:

a sequence of steps is performed a number of times. This is also known as iteration or

looping.

Many problems we try to solve with a computer involve data. The solution involves inputting
data to the computer, processing the data and outputting results (as shown in Figure 11.02).

Figure 11.02 Input-process-output

We therefore also need input and output statements.

We need to know the constructs so we know how detailed our design has to be.

These constructs are represented in each of the three notations as shown in Table 11.01.

Bjli Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Table 11.01 Constructs for computing algorithms

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In this book, algorithms and program code are typed using the courier font.

11.03 Variables

When we input data for a process, individual values need to be stored in memory. We need
to be able to refer to a specific memory location so that we can write statements of what to
do with the value stored there. We refer to these named memory locations as variables. You
can imagine these variables like boxes with name labels on them. When a value is input, it is
stored in the box with the specified name (identifier) on it.

KEY TERMS

Variable: a storage location for a data value that has an identifier

For example, the variable used to store a count of how many guesses have been made
might
be given the identifier NumberofGuesses and the player’s name might be stored in a
variable
called ThisPlayer, as shown in Figure 11.03.

Variable identifiers should not contain spaces, only letters, digits and _ (the underscore
symbol). To make algorithms easier to understand, the naming of a variable should reflect
the variable’s use. This means often that more than one word is used as an identifier. The
formatting convention used here is known asCamelCaps. It makes an identifier easier to
read.

11.04 Assignments

Assigning a value

The following pseudocode stores the value

that is input (for example 15) in a variable with
the identifier Number (see Figure 11.04(a)).

INPUT Number

The following pseudocode stores the

value 1 in the variable with the identifier
NumberofGuesses (see Figure 11.04(b)).

NumberofGuesses 1

Figure 11.04 Variables being assigned a value

9j

» Part 2

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Updating a value

The following pseudocode takes the value stored in NumberofGuesses (see Figure 11.05
(a)),
adds 1 to that value and then stores the new value back into the variable NumberofGuesses
(see Figure 11.05 (b)).

NumberofGuesses NumberofGuesses + 1

(a) (b)
Figure 11.05 Updating the value of a variable

[ Copying a value

Values can be copied from one variable to another.

| The following pseudocode takes the value stored in vaiuei and copies it to value2

I (see Figure 11.06).

b Value2 <- Valuel

Figure 11.06 Copying the value of a variable

The value in vaiuei remains the same until it is assigned a different value.

131

Swapping two values

If we want to swap the contents of two variables, we need to store one of the values in
another variable temporarily. Otherwise the second value to be moved will be overwritten by
the first value to be moved.

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Using pseudocode we write:

Temp Value 1
Value 1 Value2

Value2 Temp

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.01

Using input, output, assignment and sequence constructs

The problem to be solved: Convert a distance in miles and output the equivalent distance in
km.
Step 1: Write the problem as a series of structured English statements:

INPUT number of miles

Calculate number of km
OUTPUT calculated result as km

Step 2: Analyse the data values that are needed.

We need a variable to store the original distance in miles and a variable to store the result
of multiplying the number of miles by 1.61. It is helpful to construct an identifier table to
list the variables.
Identifier

Explanation

Miles

Distance as a whole number of miles

Km

The result from using the given

formula: Km = Miles * 1.61

Table 11.02 Identifier table for miles to km conversion

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Step 3: Provide more detail by drawing a flowchart or writing pseudocode.

The detail given in a flowchart should be the same as the detail given in pseudocode. It
should use the basic constructs listed in Table 11.01.

Figure 11.08 represents our algorithm using a flowchart and the equivalent pseudocode.

INPUT "Enter miles:" Miles

Km «- Miles * 1.61
OUTPUT "km:" Km

Figure 11.08 Flowchart and pseudocode for miles to km conversion

KEY TERMS

ldentifiertable:atable

listing the variable identifiers required for the solution, with explanations

TASK 11.02

Consider the following algorithm steps:

1 Input a length in inches.

2 Calculate the equivalent in centimetres.

3 Output the result.

List the variables required in an identifier table.

Write pseudocode or draw a flowchart for the algorithm.

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134

11.05 Logic statements

In Section 11.01, we looked at an algorithm with different steps depending on some other
condition:

IF there are engineering works on the Victoria Line

THEN

Take the Piccadilly Line to Green Park (6 stations)

Take the Jubilee Line to Westminster (1 station)

ELSE

Take the Victoria Line to Green Park (4 stations)

Take the Jubilee Line to Westminster (1 station)

The selection construct in Table 11.01 uses a condition to follow either the first group of
steps
or the second group of steps (see Figure 11.09).

Simple condition

IF A < B
THEN

<statement(s)>
ELSE

<statement(s)>

END IF

Figure 11.09 Structured English for the selection construct

A condition consists of at least one logic proposition (see Chapter 4, Section 4.01). Logic
propositions use the relational (comparison) operators shown in Table 11.03.

Operator

Comparison

Is equal to

<
Is less than

Is greater than

<=

Is less than or equal to

Is greater than or equal to

<>

Is not equal to

Table 11.03 Relational operators

Conditions are either TRUE or FALSE. In pseudocode, we distinguish between the relational
operator = (which tests for equality) and the assignment symbol

A person is classed as a child if they are under 13 and as an adult if they are over 19. If they
are
between 13 and 19 inclusive they are classed as teenagers. We can write these statements
as
logic statements:

• If Age < 13 then person is a child

• If Age > 19 then person is an adult

• If Age >=13 AND Age <=19 then person is a teenager

Part 2

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

TASK 11.03

A town has a bus service where passengers under the age of 12 and over the age of 60 do
not
need to pay a fare. Write the logic statements for free fares.

A number-guessing game follows different steps depending on certain conditions. Here is a

description of the algorithm:

• The player inputs a number to guess the secret number stored.

• If the guess was correct, output a congratulations message.

• If the number input was larger than the secret number, output message “secret number is
smaller”.

• If the number input was smaller than the secret number, output message “secret number
is greater”.

We can re-write the number-guessing game steps as an algorithm imstructured English:

SET value for secret number

INPUT Guess

IF Guess = SecretNumber
THEN

OUTPUT "Well done. You have guessed the secret number"

ELSE

IF Guess > SecretNumber

THEN

OUTPUT "secret number is smaller"

ELSE

OUTPUT "secret number is greater"

ENDIF

ENDIF

More complex conditions can be formed by using the logical operators AND, OR and NOT.
For
example, the number-guessing game might allow the player multiple guesses; if the player
has not guessed the secret number after 10 guesses, a different message is output.

IF Guess = SecretNumber
THEN

OUTPUT "Well done. You have guessed the secret number"

ELSE

Complex condition

IF Guess <> SecretNumber AND NumberOfGuesses = 10

THEN

OUTPUT "You still have not guessed the secret number"

ELSE
IF Guess > SecretNumber
THEN

OUTPUT "The secret number is smaller"

ELSE

OUTPUT "The secret number is greater"

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

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WORKED EXAMPLE 11.02

Using selection constructs

The problem to be solved: Take three numbers as input and output the largest number.
There are several different methods (algorithms) to solve this problem. Here is one method:

1 Input all three numbers at the beginning.

2 Store each of the input values in a separate variable (the identifiers are shown in Table
11.04).

3 Compare the first number with the second number and then compare the bigger one
of these with the third number.

4 The bigger number of this second comparison is output.

See Worked Example 11.03 for another solution.

Identifier

Explanation

Numberl

The first number to be input

Number2

The second number to be input

Number3

The third number to be input

Table 11.04 Identifier table for biggest number problem

The algorithm can be expressed in the following pseudocode:

INPUT Numberl
INPUT Number2
INPUT Number3
IF Numberl > Number2

THEN // Numberl is bigger

IF Numberl > Number3
THEN

OUTPUT Numberl
ELSE

OUTPUT Number3

ENDIF

ELSE // Number2 is bigger

IF Number2 > Number3
THEN

OUTPUT Number2
ELSE

OUTPUT Number3

ENDIF

ENDIF

When an if statement contains another if statement, we refer to these as nested if

statements.

Nested if statements: conditional statements within conditional statements

Part 2

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Question: 11.01

What changes do you need to make to output the smallest number?

►
f

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.03

Using selection constructs (alternative method)

The problem to be solved: Take three numbers as input and output the largest number.
This is an alternative method to Worked Example 11.02.

1 Input the first number and store it in BiggestsoFar

2 Input the second number and compare it with the value in BiggestsoFar.

3 If the second number is bigger, assign its value to BiggestsoFar

4 Input the third number and compare it with the value in BiggestsoFar
5 If the third number is bigger, assign its value to BiggestsoFar

6 The value stored in BiggestsoFar is output.

The identifiers required for this solution are shown in Table 11.05.

Identifier

Explanation

BiggestsoFar

Stores the biggest number input so far

NextNumber

The next number to be input

Table 11.05 Identifier table for the alternative solution to the biggest number problem

The algorithm can be expressed in the following pseudocode:

INPUT BiggestsoFar
INPUT NextNumber
IF NextNumber > BiggestsoFar
THEN

BiggestsoFar <— NextNumber

ENDIF

INPUT NextNumber
IF NextNumber > BiggestsoFar
THEN

BiggestsoFar <— NextNumber

ENDIF

OUTPUT BiggestsoFar

Note that when we input the third number in this method the second number gets
overwritten as it is no longer needed.

There are several advantages of using the method in Worked Example 11.03 compared to
the
method in Worked Example 11.02:

• Only two variables are used.

• The conditional statements are not nested and do not have an else part. This makes
them easier to understand.

• This algorithm can be adapted more easily if further numbers are to be compared (see
Worked Example 11.04).

The disadvantage of the method in Worked Example 11.03 compared to the method in
Worked Example 11.02 is that there is more work involved with this algorithm. If the second
number is bigger than the first number, the value of BiggestsoFar has to be changed. If
the third number is biggerthan the value in BiggestsoFar then the value of BiggestsoFar

137

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has to be changed again. Depending on the input values, this could result in two extra
assignment instructions being carried out.

138

11.06 Loops

Look at the pseudocode algorithm in Worked Example 11.03. The two if statements are
identical. To compare 10 numbers we would need to write this statement nine times.
Moreover, if the problem changed to having to compare, for example, 100 numbers, our
algorithm would become very tedious. If we use a repetition construct (a loop) we can avoid
writing the same lines of pseudocode over and over again.

Question: 11.02

What changes do you need to make to the algorithm in Worked Example 11.04:

• to compare 100 numbers?

• to take as a first input the number of numbers to be compared?

There is another loop construct that does the counting for us: the for. . .endfor loop.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.05

Repetition using for. . .endfor

The problem to be solved: Take 10 numbers as input and output the largest number.

We can use the same identifiers as in Worked Example 11.04. Note that the purpose of
counter has changed.

Identifier

Explanation
BiggestSoFar

Stores the biggest number input so far

NextNumber

The next number to be input

Counter

Counts the number of times round the loop

Table 11.07 Identifier table for biggest number problem using a FOR loop

The algorithm can be expressed in the following pseudocode:

INPUT BiggestSoFar
FOR Counter <- 2 TO 10
INPUT NextNumber
IF NextNumber > BiggestSoFar
THEN

BiggestSoFar <— NextNumber

ENDIF

ENDFOR

OUTPUT BiggestSoFar

The first time round the loop, counter is set to 2. The next time round the loop,
counter has automatically increased to 3, and so on. The last time round the loop,
Counter has the value 10.

A rogue value is a value used to terminate a sequence of values. The rogue value is of the
same data type but outside the range of normal expected values.

KEYTERMS

Rogue value: a value used to terminate a sequence of values

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.06

Repetition using a rogue value

The problem to be solved: A sequence of non-zero numbers is terminated by 0. Take this

sequence as input and output the largest number.

Note: In this example the rogue value chosen is 0. It is very important to choose a rogue
value
that is of the same data type but outside the range of normal expected values. For example,
if
the input might normally include 0 then a negative value, such as -1, might be chosen.

Look at Worked Example 11.05. Instead of counting the numbers input, we need to check
whether the number input is 0 to terminate the loop. The identifiers are shown in Table
11.08.

Identifier

Explanation

BiggestSoFar

Stores the biggest number input so far

NextNumber

The next number to be input

Table 11.08 Identifier table for biggest number problem using a rogue value

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140

A possible pseudocode algorithm is:

INPUT BiggestSoFar
REPEAT

INPUT NextNumber
IF NextNumber > BiggestSoFar
THEN

BiggestSoFar NextNumber

ENDIF

UNTIL NextNumber = 0
OUTPUT BiggestSoFar

This algorithm works even if the sequence consists of only one non-zero input. However,
it will not work if the only input is 0. In that case, we don’t want to perform the statements
within the loop at all. We can use an alternative construct, the while... endwhile loop.

INPUT NextNumber
BiggestSoFar NextNumber
WHILE NextNumber <> 0 // sequence terminator not encountered
INPUT NextNumber
IF NextNumber > BiggestSoFar
THEN

BiggestSoFar NextNumber

ENDIF

ENDWHILE

OUTPUT BiggestSoFar

Before we enter the loop we check whether we have a non-zero number. To make this
work for the first number, we store it in NextNumber and also in BiggestSoFar. If this
first number is zero we don’t follow the instructions within the loop. For a non-zero first
number this algorithm has the same effect as the algorithm using repeat. . .until.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.07

Implementing the number-guessing game with a loop

Consider the number guessing game again, this time allowing repeated guesses:

1 The player repeatedly inputs a number to guess the secret number stored.

2 If the guess is correct, the number of guesses made is output and the game stops.

3 If the number input is larger than the secret number, the player is given the message to
input a smaller number.

4 If the number input is smaller than the secret number, the player is given the message
to input a larger number.

The algorithm is expressed in structured English, as a flowchart and in pseudocode.

Algorithm for the number-guessing game in structured English

SET value for secret number

REPEAT the following UNTIL correct guess
INPUT guess

COMPARE guess with secret number

OUTPUT comment

We need variables to store the following values:

• the secret number (to be set as a random number)

• the number input by the player as a guess

• the count of how many guesses the player has made so far.

Part 2

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

We represent this information in the identifier table shown in Table 11.09.

Identifier

Explanation

SecretNumber

The number to be guessed

NumberOfGuesses

The number of guesses the player has made

Guess

The number the player has input as a guess

Table 11.09 Identifier table for number-guessing game

Algorithm for the number-guessing game as a flowchart

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142

Pseudocode for the number-guessing game with a post-condition loop

SecretNumber Random
NumberOfGuesses «- 0
REPEAT

INPUT Guess

NumberOfGuesses <- NumberOfGuesses + 1

IF Guess > SecretNumber
THEN

the player is given the message to input a smaller number

ENDIF

IF Guess < SecretNumber

THEN
the player is given the message to input a larger number

ENDIF

UNTIL Guess = SecretNumber

Pseudocode for the number-guessing game with a pre-condition loop

The above solution uses a post-condition (repeat. . .until) loop. An alternative solution
uses a pre-condition (while...endwhile) loop:

SecretNumber Random
INPUT Guess
NumberOfGuesses <- 1
WHILE Guess <> SecretNumber
IF Guess > SecretNumber
THEN

the player is given the message to input a smaller number

ENDIF

IF Guess < SecretNumber

THEN

the player is given the message to input a larger number

ENDIF

INPUT Guess

NumberOfGuesses NumberOfGuesses + 1
ENDWHILE

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.08

Calculating running totals and averages

The problem to be solved: Take 10 numbers as input and output the sum of these
numbers and the average.

Identifier

Explanation

RunningTotal

Stores the sum of the numbers input so far

Counter
How many numbers have been input

NextNumber

The next number input

Average

The average of the numbers input

Table 11.10 Identifier table for running total and average algorithm

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

The following pseudocode gives a possible algorithm:

RunningTotal *- 0
FOR Counter ^ 1 TO 10
INPUT NextNumber

RunningTotal <- RunningTotal + NextNumber

ENDFOR

OUTPUT RunningTotal
Average RunningTotal / 10
OUTPUT Average

It is very important that the value stored in RunningTotal is initialised to zero before we
start adding the numbers being input.

TASK 11.04

Change the algorithm in Worked Example 11.08 so that the sequence of numbers is
terminated by a rogue value of 0.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.09

Using nested loops

The problem to be solved: Take as input two numbers and a symbol. Output a grid made
up entirely of the chosen symbol, with the number of rows matching the first number
input and the number of columns matching the second number input.

For example the three input values 3,7 and &, result in the output:

Sc. Sc Sc. Sc Sc Sc Sc
ScScScScScScSc
Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc
We need two variables to store the number of rows and the number of columns. We also
need a
variable to store the symbol. We need a counter for the rows and a counter for the columns.

Identifier

Explanation

NumberOfRows

Stores the number of rows of the grid

NumberOfColumns

Stores the number of columns of the grid

Symbol

Stores the chosen character symbol

RowCounter

Counts the number of rows

ColumnCounter

Counts the number of columns

Table 11.11 Identifier table for the nested loop example

INPUT NumberOfRows
INPUT NumberOfColumns
INPUT Symbol

FOR RowCounter <- 1 TO NumberOfRows

FOR ColumnCounter <- 1 TO NumberOfColumns

OUTPUT Symbol // without moving to next line

ENDFOR

OUTPUT Newline // move to the next line

ENDFOR

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Each time round the outer loop (counting the number of rows) we complete the inner loop,
outputting a symbol for each count of the number of columns. This type of construct is
called a nested loop.
KEYTERMS

Nested loop: loop containing another loop

11.07 Working with arrays

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.10

Working with a one-dimensional array

The problem to be solved: Take seven numbers as input and store them for later use.

We could use seven separate variables. However, if we wanted our algorithm to work with
70 numbers, for example, then this would become very tedious. We can make use of a
data structure, known as a ‘linear list’ or a one-dimensional (ID) array.

This array is given an identifier, for example MyList, and each element within the array
is referred to using this identifier and its position (index) within the array. For example,
MyList [4] refers to the fourth element in the MyList array.

We can use a loop to access each array element in turn. If the numbers input to the
pseudocode algorithm below are 25,34,98,7,41,19 and 5 then the algorithm will
produce the result in Figure 11.10.

FOR Index <- 1 TO 7

INPUT MyList [Index]

ENDFOR

Index

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

Figure 11.10 MyList array populated by a loop

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

TASK 11.05
Set up two arrays, one for your friends’ names and one fortheir ages as shown in Figure
11.11.

Name Age

[1]

Matt

[i]

15

[2]

Fred

[2]

16

[3]

Anna

[3]

14

'•

[20]

Xenios

[20]

17

Figure 11.11 Arrays for names and ages

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.11

Searching a ID array

The problem to be solved: Take a number as input. Search for this number in an existing
ID array of seven numbers (see Worked Example 11.10).
Start at the first element of the array and check each element in turn until the search
value is found or the end of the array is reached. This method is called a linear search.

Identifier

Explanation

MyList

Data structure (ID array) to store seven numbers

Maxlndex

The number of elements in the array

SearchValue

The value to be searched for

Found

true if the value has been found

false if the value has not been found

Index

Index of the array element currently being processed

Table 11.13 Identifier table for linear search algorithm

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146

Maxlndex 7
INPUT SearchValue
Found FALSE
Index «e- 0
REPEAT

Index Index + 1
IF MyList [Index] = SearchValue
THEN

Found TRUE

ENDIF
UNTIL FOUND = TRUE OR Index >= Maxlndex
IF Found = TRUE
THEN

OUTPUT "Value found at location:" Index

ELSE

OUTPUT "Value not found"

ENDIF

The complex condition to the repeat. . .until loop allows us to exit the loop when
the search value is found. Using the variable Found makes the algorithm easier to
understand. Found is initialised to false before entering the loop and set to true if the
value is found.

If the value is not in the array, the loop terminates when index is greater than or equal to
Maxlndex That means we have come to the end of the array. Note that using Maxlndex
in the logic statement to terminate the loop makes it much easier to adapt the algorithm
when the array consists of a different number of elements. The algorithm only needs to
be changed in the first line, where Maxlndex is given a value.

KEY TERMS

Linear search: checking each element of an array in turn for a required value

TASK 11.06

Use the algorithm in Worked Example 11.11 as a design pattern to search for a friend’s
name
and output their age.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.12

Sorting elements in a ID array

The simplest way to sort an unordered list of values is the following method:

1 Compare the first and second values. If the first value is larger than the second value,
swap them.

2 Compare the second and third values. If the second value is larger than the third value,
swap them.

3 Compare the third and fourth values. If the third value is larger than the fourth value,
swap them.

4 Keep on comparing adjacent values, swapping them if necessary, until the last two
values in the list have been processed.
r

Part 2

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Figure 11.12 shows what happens to the values as we work down the array, following this
algorithm.

Compare
1 st Pair

Compare
2 nd Pair

Compare
3 rd Pair

Compare
4 th Pair

Compare

Compare
6 th Pair

Sorted

list

25

No

25

25

25

25

25

25

34

swap

34
No

34

34

34

34

34

98

98

swap

98

swap

98

swap

41

41

41

41
41

41

41

98

swap

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

98

swap

98

Figure 11.12 Swapping values working down the array

When we have completed the first pass through the entire array, the largest value is in the
correct position at the end of the array. The other values may or may not be in the correct
order.

We need to work through the array again and again. After each pass through the array the
next largest value will be in its correct position, as shown in Figure 11.13.

Original

After

After

After

After

After

After

list

pass 1

pass 2

pass 3

pass 4

pass 5

pass 6

25

25

25

34

34

7
25

19

98

34

19

19

19

41

19

25

25

25

41

19

34

34

34

34

19
5

41

41

41

41

41

98

98

98

98

98

98

Figure 11.13 States of the array after each pass

In effect we perform a loop within a loop, a nested loop. This method is known as a
bubble sort. The name comes from the fact that smaller values slowly rise to the top, like
bubbles in a liquid.

The identifiers needed for the algorithm are listed in Table 11.13.

Identifier

Explanation

MyList [1. .7]

Data structure (ID array) to store seven numbers

Maxlndex

The number of elements in the array

The number of elements to compare in each pass

i
Counter for outer loop

Counter for inner loop

Temp

Variable for temporary storage while swapping values

Table 11.13 Identifier table for bubble sort algorithm

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148

The algorithm in pseudocode is:

n Maxlndex - 1
FOR i 1 TO Maxlndex - 1
FOR j 1 TO n

IF MyList[j] > MyList[j + 1]

THEN

Temp MyList[j]

MyList [j] MyList [j + 1]

MyList [j + 1] <- Temp

ENDIF

ENDFOR

n «- n - 1 // this means the next time round the inner loop, we don't
// look at the values already in the correct positions.

ENDFOR

The values to be sorted may already be in the correct order before the outer loop has
been through all its iterations. Look at the list of values in Figure 11.14. It is only slightly
different from the first list we sorted.

Original

After

After
After

After

After

After

list

pass 1

pass 2

pass 3

pass 4

pass 5

pass 6

34

34

98
7

34

19

19

19

19

41

19

25

25

25

25

41

19

25

34

34

34

34

19

25

41

41

41

41
41

25

98

98

98

98

98

98

Figure 11.14 States of the list after each pass

After the third pass the values are all in the correct order but our algorithm will carry on
with three further passes through the array. This means we are making comparisons when
no further comparisons need to be made.

If we have gone through the whole of the inner loop (one pass) without swapping any
values, we know that the array elements must be in the correct order. We can therefore
replace the outer loop with a conditional loop.

We can use a variable NoMoreSwaps to store whether or not a swap has taken place
during the current pass. We initialise the variable NoMoreSwaps to true When we swap a
pair of values we set NoMoreSwaps to false. At the end of the passthrough the array we
can check whether a swap has taken place.

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

The identifier table for this improved algorithm is shown in Table 11.14.

Identifier

Explanation

MyList[1..7]

Data structure (ID array) to store seven numbers

Maxlndex

The number of elements in the array

The number of elements to compare in each pass

NoMoreSwaps

true when no swaps have occurred in current pass

false when a swap has occurred

Counter for inner loop

Temp

Variable for temporary storage while swapping values

Table 11.14 Identifier table for improved bubble sort algorithm

This improved algorithm in pseudocode is:

n Maxlndex - 1
REPEAT

NoMoreSwaps TRUE
FOR j e 1 TO n

IF MyList [j] > MyList[j + 1]

THEN

Temp MyList[j]

MyList[j] MyList[j + 1]

MyList[j + 1] Temp
NoMoreSwaps FALSE

ENDIF
ENDFOR
nn-1

UNTIL NoMoreSwaps = TRUE

KEYTERMS

Bubble sort: a sort method where adjacent pairs of values are compared and swapped

Discussion Point:

What happens if the array elements are already in the correct order?

TASK 11.07
Rewrite the algorithm in Worked Example 11.12 to sort the array elements into descending
order.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11.13

Working with two-dimensional arrays and nested loops

A ID array is like a linear list. The nth element within the array MyList is referred to as

MyList [n].

A two-dimensional (2D) array is like a table or matrix. The element in rowxand columny
of ThisTable is referred to as ThisTable [x, y].

For example to store the value 5 in the element in the fourth row and second column, we
write:

ThisTable [4, 2] 5

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When we want to access each element of a ID array, we use a loop to access each element
in turn. When working with a 2D array, we need a loop to access each row. Within each row
we need to access each column. This means we use a loop within a loop (nested loops).

In structured English our algorithm is:

For each row

For each column

Assign the initial value to the element at the current position

We need the identifiers shown in Table 11.15.

Table 11.15 Identifier table for working with a table

Using pseudocode, the algorithm to set each element of array ThisTabie to zero is:

FOR Row 1 TO MaxRows

FOR Column <- 1 TO MaxColumns

ThisTabie [Row, Column] <- 0
ENDFOR
ENDFOR

When we want to output the contents of a 2D array, we again need nested loops. We want
to output all the values in one row of the array on the same line. At the end of the row, we
want to output a new line.
FOR Row <- 1 TO MaxRows

FOR Column <- 1 TO MaxColumns

OUTPUT ThisTabie [Row, Column] // stay on same line

ENDFOR

OUTPUT Newline // move to next line for next row

ENDFOR

Identifier

Explanation

ThisTabie[1..4, 1..6]

Table data structure (2D array) to store values

MaxRows

The number of rows in the table (4 in this example)

MaxColumns

The number of columns in the table (6 in this example)

Row

Counter for the row index

Column

Counter for the column index

Summary

• An algorithm is a sequence of steps that can be carried out to solve a problem.

• Algorithms are expressed using the four basic constructs of assignment, sequence,
selection and
repetition.

• Algorithms can be documented using structured English, pseudocode or a program

flowchart.

• Logic statements use the relational operators =, <, >, <>, <= and >= and the logic
operators AND,
OR and NOT.
• Selection constructs and conditional loops use conditions to determine the steps to be
followed.

Che

Chapter 11: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

Exam-style Questions

1 The Modulo-11 method of calculating a check digit for a sequence of nine digits is as
follows:

Each digit in the sequence is given a weight depending on its position in the sequence. The
leftmost digit has a weight of 10.
The next digit to the right has a weight of 9, the next one 8 and so on. Values are calculated
by multiplying each digit by its
weight. These values are added together and the sum is divided by 11. The remainder from
this division is subtracted from 11
and this value is the check digit. If this value is 10, then the check digit is X. Note that x mod
y gives the remainder from the
division of x by y.

Complete the flowchart using the statements in the table.

[9]

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2 Draw a flowchart for the following problem given in structured English.

REPEAT the following UNTIL the number input is zero

INPUT a number

Check whether number is positive or negative

Increment positive number count if the number is positive

Increment negative number count if the number is negative

3 Write pseudocode from the given flowchart. Use a while loop.

[7]

[8]

4 Alan uses two ID arrays, userList and PasswordList. For twenty users, he stores each user
ID in UserList and the corresponding password in PasswordList. For example, the person
with user ID Fredi2 has password rzt456.
UserList PasswordList

[1]

Matt05

[i]

pqklmn4

[2]

Fredl2

[2]

rzt456

[3]

Anna 9

[3]

j edd321

[20]

Xenios4

[20]

wkl@tmp6

Alan wants to write an algorithm to check whether a user ID and password, entered by a
user,
are correct. He designs the algorithm to search UserList for the user ID. If the user ID is
found, the password stored in PasswordList is to be compared to the entered password. If
the passwords match, the login is successful. In all other cases, login is unsuccessful.

a Complete the identifier table.

Identifier

Explanation

UserList [1..20]
ID array to store user IDs

ID array to store passwords

MaxIndex

Number of elements in each array

MyUserlD

User ID entered to login

MyPassword

UserldFound

false if user ID not found in

UserList

TRUE if .

LoginOK

FALSE if .

TRUE if .

Index

Pointer to current array element

[4]

153

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b Complete the pseudocode for Alan’s algorithm:

Maxlndex 20
INPUT MyUserlD
INPUT MyPassword
UserldFound <- FALSE

LoginOK <- .

Index 0
REPEAT
INDEX .

IF UserList[.] = .

THEN

UserldFound TRUE

ENDIF

UNTIL . OR .

IF UserldFound = TRUE
THEN

IF PasswordList [.] =

THEN

LoginOK TRUE

ENDIF

IF .

THEN

OUTPUT "Login successful"

ELSE

OUTPUT "

ii

154

ENDIF

'User ID and/or password incorrect

[ 10 ]

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ use the process of stepwise refinement to express an

algorithm to a level of detail from which the task may be
programmed
decompose a problem into sub-tasks leading to the
concept of a program module (procedure/function)

■ use a structure chart to express the parameters passed

between the various modules/procedures/functions
which are part of the algorithm design

■ describe the purpose of a structure chart

■ construct a structure chart for a given problem

■ derive equivalent pseudocode from a structure chart

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12.01 Stepwise refinement

Many problems that we want to solve are bigger than the ones we met in Chapter 11. To
make
it easier to solve a bigger problem, we break the problem down into smaller steps. These
might need breaking down further until the steps are small enough to solve easily.

For a solution to a problem to be programmable, we need to break down the steps of the
solution into the basic constructs of sequence, assignment, selection, repetition, input and
output.

We can use a method called stepwise refinement to break down the steps of our outline
solution into smaller steps until it is detailed enough. In Section 11.01 we looked at a recipe
fora cake. The step of mixing together all the ingredients was broken down into more
detailed steps.

KEY TERMS

Stepwise refinement: breaking down the steps of an outline solution into smaller and smaller
steps

156

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.01

Drawing a pyramid using stepwise refinement

The problem to be solved: Take as input a chosen symbol and an odd number. Output a
pyramid shape made up entirely of the chosen symbol, with the number of symbols in the
final row matching the number input.

For example the two input values A and 9 result in the following output:

A
AAA

AAAAA

AAAAAAA

AAAAAAAAA

This problem is similar to Worked Example 11.09 in Chapter 11, but the number of symbols
in each row starts with one and increases by two with each row. Each row starts with a
decreasing number of spaces, to create the slope effect.

Our first attempt at solving this problem using structured English is:

01 Set up initial values

02 REPEAT

03 Output number of spaces

04 Output number of symbols

05 Adjust number of spaces and number of symbols to be output in next row

06 UNTIL the required number of symbols have been output in one row

The steps are numbered to make it easier to refer to them later.

This is not enough detail to write a program in a high-level programming language. Exactly
what values do we need to set?

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

We need as input:

• the symbol character from which the pyramid is to be formed

• the number of symbols in the final row (for the pyramid to look symmetrical, this needs
to be an odd number).

We need to calculate how many spaces we need in the first row. So that the slope of the
pyramid is symmetrical, this number should be half of the final row’s symbols. We need
to set the number of symbols to be output in the first row to 1. We therefore need the
identifiers listed in Table 12.01.

Identifier

Explanation

Symbol
The character symbol to form the pyramid

MaxNumberOfSymbols

The number of symbols in the final row

NumberOfSpaces

The number of spaces to be output in the current row

NumberOfSymbols

The number of symbols to be output in the current row

Table 12.01 Identifier table for pyramid example

Using pseudocode, we now refine the steps of our first attempt. To show which step
we are refining, a numbering system is used as shown.

Step 01 can be broken down as follows:

01 // Set up initial values expands into:

01.1 INPUT symbol

01.2 INPUT MaxNumberOfSymbols

01.3 NumberOfSpaces «- (MaxNumberOfSymbols - 1) / 2

01.4 NumberOf Symbols «- 1

Remember we need an odd number for MaxNumberOf symbols. We need to make sure
the input is an odd number. So we further refine Step 01.2:

01.2 // INPUT MaxNumberOfSymbols expands into:

01.2.1 REPEAT

01.2.2 INPUT MaxNumberOfSymbols

01.2.3 UNTIL MaxNumberOf Symbols MOD 2 = 1

01.2.4 // MOD 2 gives the remainder after integer division by 2

We can now look to refine Steps 03 and 04:

03 // Output number of spaces expands into:

03.1 FOR i e l TO NumberOf Spaces

03.2 OUTPUT Space // without moving to next line

03.3 ENDFOR
04 // Output number of symbols expands into:

04.1 FOR i 1 TO NumberOf Symbols

04.2 OUTPUT Symbol // without moving to next line

04.3 ENDFOR

04.4 OUTPUT Newline // move to the next line

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158

In Step 05 we need to decrease the number of spaces by 1 and increase the number of
symbols by 2:

05 // Adjust values for next row expands into:

05.1 NumberOfSpaces «- NumberOfSpaces - 1

05.2 NumberOfSymbols NumberOfSymbols + 2

Step 06 essentially checks whether the number of symbols for the next row is now
greater than the value input at the beginning.

06 UNTIL NumberOfSymbols > MaxNumberOfSymbols

We can put together all the steps and end up with a solution.

01 // Set Values

01.1 INPUT symbol

01.2 // Input max number of symbols (an odd number)

01.2.1 REPEAT

01.2.2 INPUT MaxNumberOfSymbols

01.2.3 UNTIL MaxNumberOfSymbols MOD 2 = 1

01.3 NumberOf Spaces «- (MaxNumberOfSymbols - 1) / 2

01.4 NumberOfSymbols «- 1

02 REPEAT

03 // Output number of spaces

03.1 FOR i 1 TO NumberOf Spaces

03.2 OUTPUT Space // without moving to next line

03.3 ENDFOR

04 // Output number of symbols

04.1 FOR i <- 1 TO NumberOfSymbols

04.2 OUTPUT Symbol // without moving to next line

04.3 ENDFOR

04.4 OUTPUT Newline // move to the next line

05 // Adjust Values For Next Row

05.1 NumberOfSpaces +- NumberOfSpaces - 1

05.2 NumberOfSymbols <- NumberOfSymbols + 2

06 UNTIL NumberOfSymbols > MaxNumberOfSymbols

TASK 12.01

Use stepwise refinement to output a hollow triangle. For example the two input values A and
9 result in the following output:

AA
AA
AA

AAAAAAAAA

A first attempt at solving this problem using structured English is:

01 Set up initial values

02 REPEAT

03 Output leading number of spaces

04 Output symbol, middle spaces, symbol

05 Adjust number of spaces and number of symbols to be output in next row

06 UNTIL the required number of symbols have been output in one row

Part 2

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

12.02 Modules

Another method of developing a solution is to decompose the problem into sub-tasks. Each
sub-task can be considered as a ‘module’ that is refined separately. Modules are procedures
and functions.

A procedure groups together a number of steps and gives them a name (an identifier). We
can use this identifier when we want to refer to this group of steps. When we want to perform
the steps in a procedure we call the procedure by its name.

KEY TERMS

Procedure: a sequence of steps that is given an identifier and can be called to perform a
sub-task

CALL ProcedureXYZ

(a)

Figure 12.01 Representation of a procedure in (a) pseudocode and (b) a flowchart

The rules for module identifiers are the same as for variable identifiers (see Section 11.03)

159

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PROCEDURE InputMaxNumberOfSymbols
REPEAT

INPUT MaxNumberOfSymbols
UNTIL MaxNumberOfSymbols MOD 2=1
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE OutputSpaces

FOR Count <— 1 TO NumberOfSpaces

OUTPUT Space // without moving to next line

ENDFOR
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE OutputSymbols

FOR Count <— 1 TO NumberOfSymbols

OUTPUT Symbol // without moving to next line

ENDFOR
OUTPUT Newline // move to the next line
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE AdjustValuesForNextRow

NumberOfSpaces <— NumberOfSpaces - 1

NumberOfSymbols NumberOfSymbols + 2
ENDPROCEDURE

160

TASK 12.02

Amend your algorithm for Task 12.01 to use modules.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12.03

Creating a program to play Connect 4

Connect 4 is a game played by two players. In the commercial version shown in Figure
12.01, one player uses red tokens and the other uses black. Each player has 21 tokens.
The game board is a vertical grid of six rows and seven columns.

Figure 12.01 A Connect 4 board

Columns get filled with tokens from the bottom. The players take it in turns to choose
a column that is not full and drop a token into this column. The token will occupy the

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

lowest empty position in the chosen column. The winner is the player who is the first
to connect four of their own tokens in a horizontal, vertical or diagonal line. If all tokens
have been used and neither player has connected four tokens, the game ends in a draw.

If we want to write a program to play this game on a computer, we need to work out the
steps required to ‘solve the problem’, that means to let players take their turn in placing
tokens and checking for a winner. We will designate our players (and their tokens) by
‘O’ and ‘X’. The game board will be represented by a 2D array. To simplify the problem,
the winner is the player who is the first to connect four of their tokens horizontally or
vertically.

Our first attempt in structured English is:

Initialise board

Set up game

Display board
While game not finished

This Player makes a move

Display board

Check if this player has won

If game not finished, swap player

The top-level pseudocode version using modules is:

01 CALL InitialiseBoard

02 CALL SetUpGame

03 CALL OutputBoard

04 WHILE GameFinished = FALSE

05 CALL ThisPlayerMakesMove

06 CALL OutputBoard

07 CALL ChecklfThisPlayerHasWon

08 IF GameFinished = FALSE

09 THEN

10 CALL SwapThisPlayer

11 ENDIF

12 ENDWHILE

Note that Steps 03 and 06 are the same. This means that we can save ourselves some
effort. We only need to define this module once, but can call it from more than one place.
This is one of the advantages of using modules.

The identifier table for the program is shown in Table 12.03.

Identifier

Explanation

Board [1. .6, 1..7]

2D array to represent the board

InitialiseBoard

Procedure to initialise the board to all blanks

SetUpGame

Procedure to set initial values for GameFinished and

ThisPlayer

GameFinished

false if the game is not finished

true if the board is full or a player has won

ThisPlayer

'O' when it is Player O’s turn

'X 1 when it is Player X’s turn

OutputBoard

Procedure to output the current contents of the board

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ThisPlayerMakesMove

Procedure to place the current player’s token into the

chosen board location

ChecklfThisPlayerHasWon

Procedure to check if the token just placed makes the

current player a winner

SwapThisPlayer

Procedure to change player’s turn

Table 12.02 Initial identifier table for Connect 4 game

Now we can refine each procedure (module). This is likely to add some more identifiers to
our identifier table. The additional entries required are shown after each procedure.

PROCEDURE InitialiseBoard
FOR Row <s- 1 TO 6

FOR Column 1 TO 7

Board [Row, Column] <- BLANK // use a suitable value for blank
ENDFOR
ENDFOR
ENDPROCEDURE

Identifier

Explanation

Row

Loop counter for the rows

Column

Loop counter for the columns

BLANK

A value that represents an empty board location

Table 12.03 Additional identifiers for the InitialiseBoard procedure

PROCEDURE SetUpGame

ThisPlayer 'O' // Player O always starts

GameFinished FALSE
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE OutputBoard
FOR Row <- 1 TO 6

FOR Column e 1 TO 7

OUTPUT Board [Row, Column] // don't move to next line

ENDFOR

OUTPUT Newline // move to next line

ENDFOR
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE ThisPlayerMakesMove

ValidColumn ThisPlayerChoosesColumn // a module returns column number

ValidRow FindNextFreePositionlnColumn // a module returns row number
Board [ValidRow, ValidColumn] ThisPlayer
ENDPROCEDURE

Note that the modules ThisPlayerChoosesColumn and

FindNextFreePositionlnColumn are not procedures. These modules produce

and return a value that is used in the assignment statement. We call such a module a
function. Like a procedure, a function groups together a number of steps and gives them
Part 2

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

an identifier. But the steps of a function are to workout a single value that is returned
from the function. This value is used in an expression.

Identifier

Explanation

ValidColumn

The column number the player has chosen

ThisPlayerChoosesColumn

Function to get the current player’s valid choice

of column

ValidRow

The row number that represents the first free

location in the chosen column

FindNextFreePositionlnColumn

Function to find the next free location in the

chosen column

Table 12.04 Additional identifiers for the ThisPlayerMakesMove procedure

FUNCTION ThisPlayerChoosesColumn // returns a valid column number

OUTPUT "Player " ThisPlayer ,M s turn."

REPEAT

OUTPUT "Enter a valid column number:"

INPUT ColumnNumber

UNTIL ColumnNumberValid = TRUE // check whether the column number is valid

RETURN ColumnNumber
ENDFUNCTION

Identifier

Explanation

ColumnNumber
The column number chosen by the current player

ColumnNumberValid

Function to check whether the chosen column is valid

Table 12.05 Additional identifiers for ThisPlayerChoosesColumn function

Note that we need to define the function ColumnNumberValid. A column is valid if it is

within the range 1 to 7 inclusive and there is still at least one empty location in that column.

FUNCTION ColumnNumberValid // returns whether or not the column number is valid

Valid FALSE

IF ColumnNumber >= 1 AND ColumnNumber <= 7

THEN

IF Board[6, ColumnNumber] = BLANK // at least 1 empty space in column

THEN

Valid «- TRUE

ENDIF

ENDIF

RETURN Valid
ENDFUNCTION

Identifier

Explanation

Valid

false if column number is not valid

true if column number is valid

Table 12.06 Additional identifier for the ColumnNumberValid function

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FUNCTION FindNextFreePositionlnColumn // returns the next free position

ThisRow <- 1

WHILE Board [ThisRow, ValidColumn] <> BLANK // find first empty cell
ThisRow «- ThisRow + 1
ENDWHILE
RETURN ThisRow
ENDFUNCTION

Identifier

Explanation

ThisRow

Points to the next row to be checked

Table 12.07 Additional identifier for the FindNextFreePositionlnColumn function

PROCEDURE ChecklfThisPlayerHasWon
WinnerFound «- FALSE
CALL CheckHorizontalLinelnValidRow
IF WinnerFound = FALSE
THEN

CALL CheckVerticalLinelnValidColumn

ENDIF

IF WinnerFound = TRUE
THEN

GameFinished «- TRUE
OUTPUT ThisPlayer " is the winner"
ELSE

CALL CheckForFullBoard

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

Note that the ChecklfThisPlayerHasWon procedure uses three further procedures that
we need to define.

Identifier

Explanation

WinnerFound

false if no winning line

true if a winning line is found

CheckHorizontalLinelnValidRow
Procedure to check if there is a winning horizontal
line in the row the last token was placed in

CheckVerticalLinelnValidColumn

Procedure to check if there is a winning vertical

line in the column the last token was placed in

CheckForFullBoard

Procedure to check whether the board is full

Table 12.08 Additional identifiers for the ChecklfThisPlayerHasWon procedure

m Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

PROCEDURE CheckHorizontalLinelnValidRow
FOR i <- 1 TO 4

IF Board [ValidRow, i] = ThisPlayer AND

Board [ValidRow, i + 1] = ThisPlayer AND

Board [ValidRow, i + 2] = ThisPlayer AND

Board [ValidRow, i + 3] = ThisPlayer

THEN

WinnerFound «- TRUE

ENDIF

ENDFOR

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE CheckVerticalLinelnValidColumn

IF ValidRow = 4 OR ValidRow = 5 OR ValidRow = 6

THEN

IF Board [ValidRow, ValidColumn] = ThisPlayer AND

Board [ValidRow - 1, ValidColumn] = ThisPlayer AND

Board [ValidRow - 2, ValidColumn] = ThisPlayer AND
Board [ValidRow - 3, ValidColumn] = ThisPlayer
THEN

WinnerFound «- TRUE
ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE CheckForFullBoard
BlankFound «- FALSE
ThisRow «- 0
REPEAT

ThisColumn <- 0
ThisRow <- ThisRow + 1
REPEAT

ThisColumn «- ThisColumn + 1
IF Board [ThisRow, ThisColumn] = BLANK
THEN

BlankFound <- TRUE

ENDIF

UNTIL ThisColumn = 7 OR BlankFound = TRUE

UNTIL ThisRow = 6 OR BlankFound = TRUE
IF BlankFound = FALSE
THEN

OUTPUT "It is a draw"

GameFinished «- TRUE

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

Identifier

Explanation

BlankFound

false if no blank location found on the board

true if a blank location found on the board

ThisRow

Loop counter for rows

ThisColumn

Loop counter for columns

Table 12.09 Additional identifiers for the CheckForFullBoard procedure

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PROCEDURE SwapThisPlayer
IF ThisPlayer = 'O'
THEN

ThisPlayer «- 'X'
ELSE

ThisPlayer «- 'O'

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

The complete identifier table for the Connect 4 program is shown in Table 12.11.

Identifier

Explanation

Board[1..6, 1..7]

2D array to represent the board

InitialiseBoard

Procedure to initialise the board to all blanks

SetUpGame

Procedure to set initial values for

GameFinished and ThisPlayer

GameFinished

false if the game is not finished

true if the board is full ora player has won

ThisPlayer

■O' when it is Player 0’s turn

•X 1 when it is Player X’s turn
OutputBoard

Procedure to output the current contents of

the board

ThisPlayerMakesMove

Procedure to place the current player’s token

into the chosen board location

ChecklfThisPlayerHasWon

Procedure to check if the token just placed

makes the current player a winner

SwapThisPlayer

Procedure to change player’s turn

Row

Loop counter for the rows

Column

Loop counter for the columns

BLANK

A value that represents an empty board

location

ValidColumn

The column number the player has chosen

ThisPlayerChoosesColumn

Function to get the current player’s valid

choice of column

ValidRow

The row number that represents the first free

location in the chosen column

FindNextFreePositionlnColumn

Function to find the next free location in the

chosen column
ColumnNumber

The column number chosen by the current

player

ColumnNumberValid

Function to check whether the chosen

column is valid

Valid

false if column number is not valid

true if column number is valid

Part 2

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

ThisRow

Points to the next row to be checked

WinnerFound

false if no winning line

true if a winning line is found

CheckHorizontalLinelnValidRow

Procedure to check if there is a winning

horizontal line in the row the last token was
placed in

CheckVerticalLinelnValidColumn

Procedure to check if there is a winning

vertical line in the column the last token was
placed in

CheckForFullBoard

Procedure to check whether the board is full

BlankFound

false if no blank location is found on the

board
true if a blank location is found on the board

ThisRow

Loop counter for rows

ThisColumn

Loop counter for columns

Table 12.10 Complete identifier table for Connect 4 game

Function: a sequence of steps that is given an identifier and returns a single value; function
call is part
of an expression

Note that some of the identifiers in Table 12.10 are for variables that are used only within a
single module. We call such a variable a local variable (see Chapter 14, Section 14.03). In
Table
12.10, the local variables are highlighted. The other variables in Table 12.10 are used by
several
sub-tasks. Variables available to all modules are known as global variables (see Chapter 14,
Section 14.03).

KEY TERMS

Local variable: a variable that is only accessible within the module in which it is declared
Global variable: a variable that is accessible from all modules

12.03 Structure charts

An alternative approach to modular design is to choose the sub-tasks and then construct a
structure chart to show the interrelations between the modules. Each box of the structure
chart represents a module. Each level is a refinement of the level above.

A structure chart also shows the interface between modules, the variables. These variables
are referred to as ‘parameters’. A parameter supplying a value to a lower-level module is
shown as a downwards pointing arrow. A parameter supplying a new value to the module at
the next higher level is shown as an upward pointing arrow.

KEY TERMS

Structure chart: a graphical representation of the modular structure of a solution

Parameter: a value passed between modules

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168

Figure 12.02 shows a structure chart for a module that calculates the average of two
numbers. The top-level box is the name of the module, which is refined into the three sub¬
tasks of Level 1. The input numbers (parameters Numberl and Number2) are passed into
the ‘Calculate Average’ sub-task and then the Average parameter is passed into the
‘OUTPUT
Average’ sub-task. The arrows show how the parameters are passed between the modules.
This parameter passing is known as the ‘interface’.

Level 0

interface

Level 1

Figure 12.02 Structure chart for a module that calculates the average of two numbers

TASK 12.03

Draw a structure chart for the following module: Input a number of km, output the equivalent
number of miles.

Structure charts can also show control information: selection and repetition.

The simple number-guessing game that was introduced in Chapter 11 (Section 11.05) could
be modularised and presented as a structure chart, as shown in Figure 12.03.

Figure 12.03 Structure chart for number-guessing game with only one guess allowed

Amend the structure chart for the number-guessing game (Figure 12.03) to include repeated
guesses until the player guesses the secret number. The output should include the number
of
guesses made.

TASK 12.05

Draw a structure chart for the following problem: A user attempts to log on with a user ID.
User
IDs and passwords are stored in two ID arrays (lists). The algorithm searches the list of user
IDs and looks up the password in the password list. The user is given three chances to input
the correct password, if the correct password is entered, a suitable message is output. If the
third attempt is incorrect, a warning message is output.

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Structure charts help programmers to visualise how modules are interrelated and how
they interface with each other. When looking at a larger problem this becomes even more
important. Figure 12.05 shows a structure chart for the Connect 4 program. It uses the
following symbols:

• An arrow with a solid round end •-► shows that the value transferred is a flag (a

Boolean value).

• A double-headed arrow -o-► shows that the variable value is updated within

the module.

12.04 Deriving pseudocode from a structure chart

Let’s look at the pyramid problem again (Figure 12.04). In Worked Example 12.02, a
modular
solution was created without using a structure chart and all variables were global. Now
we are going use local variables and parameters. The reason for using local variables and
parameters is that modules are then self-contained and any changes to variables do not
have
accidental effects on a variable value elsewhere.

The top-level module, Pyramid, calls four modules. When a module is called, we supply
the parameters in parentheses after the module identifier. This gives the following
pseudocode:

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

MODULE Pyramid

CALL SetValues(NumberOfSymbols, NumberOfSpaces, Symbol, MaxNumberOfSymbols)

REPEAT

CALL OutputSpaces (NumberOfSpaces)

CALL OutputSymbols(NumberOfSymbols, Symbol)

CALL AdjustValuesForNextRow (NumberOf Spaces, NumberOf Symbols)

UNTIL NumberOfSymbols > MaxNumberOfSymbols

ENDMODULE

PROCEDURE SetValues (NumberOfSymbols, NumberOf Spaces, Symbol, MaxNumberOf

Symbols)
INPUT Symbol

CALL InputMaxNumberOfSymbols

NumberOfSpaces <- (MaxNumberOfSymbols - 1) / 2

NumberOfSymbols «- 1
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE InputMaxNumberOfSymbols (MaxNumberOfSymbols)

REPEAT

INPUT MaxNumberOfSymbols
UNTIL MaxNumberOfSymbols MOD 2=1
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE OutputSpaces (NumberOfSpaces)

FOR Count «- 1 TO NumberOfSpaces

OUTPUT Space // without moving to next line

ENDFOR
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE OutputSymbols (NumberOfSymbols, Symbol)

FOR Count <- 1 TO NumberOfSymbols

OUTPUT Symbol // without moving to next line

ENDFOR

OUTPUT Newline // move to the next line

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE AdjustValuesForNextRow (NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols)

NumberOfSpaces <- NumberOfSpaces - 1

NumberOfSymbols «- NumberOfSymbols + 2
ENDPROCEDURE

Discussion Point:

The full rules of Connect 4 are that a diagonal of four tokens also is a winning line. Where
in Figure 12.05 should the module to check for a diagonal be added? What parameters
are required for this module? Does this additional module require further stepwise
refinement?

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Summary

• Stepwise refinement involves breaking down the steps of an outline solution into smaller
and
smaller steps (sub-tasks).
• Stepwise refinement is used to produce a solution that can be stated in terms of the four
basic
constructs of sequence, assignment, selection and repetition.

• Each sub-task can be written as a module.

• Modules are either procedures or functions.

• A procedure is a sequence of steps that are given an identifier. A procedure can be called
whenever this sequence of steps should be followed.

• A function is a sequence of steps that are given an identifier. This sequence of steps
results in a single
value that is returned from the function. A function call is part of an expression or
assignment.

• Local variables are variables that are used within a single module.

• Global variables are variables that are used throughout the solution.

• Structure charts are graphical representations of the modular structure of solutions.

• A structure chart shows the interface between modules: parameters passed between the
calling
module and the module being called.

• Structure charts show selection, where a module is called only under certain conditions.

• Structure charts show repetition, where modules are called repeatedly.

Exam-style Questions

1 A random number generator is to be tested to see whether all numbers within the range 1
to
20 are generated equally frequently. The structured English version of the algorithm is

Initialise a tally for the numbers 1 to 20

Repeatedly generate numbers in range 1 to 20

For each number generated, increment the relevant count

Calculate how often each number should be generated (expected

frequency)

Output expected frequency

Output the list of numbers as a table with actual frequency

The identifiers required are:

Identifier

Explanation

Tallyfl. .20]

ID array to store the count of how many

times each number has been generated

RandomNumber

The random number generated

NumberOfTests

The number of times a random number is to

be generated (1000 in this example)

ExpectedFrequency

The number of times any one number would

be generated if all numbers are generated
equally frequently (1000/20 in this example)

Part 2

Chapter 12: Stepwise Refinement and Structure Charts

a Complete the structure chart below by naming the labels A to E:

b Produce pseudocode from the structure chart.

A game to test players’ memory is played as follows:

• There are 64 square cards with 32 different pictures.

• Each picture is on two different cards.

• The cards are placed face down in random order as an 8 x 8 grid pattern.

• Two players take turns.

• When it is a player’s turn, the player chooses two cards and turns them face up so the
pictures show.

• If the pictures are the same, the player takes the pair of cards, gains a point and has
another go.

• If the pictures are not the same, the cards are turned face down again.
• All players can see the up-turned pictures and memorise their grid positions.

• The game finishes when all cards have been paired.

• The player with the most points is the winner.

The problem is to design an algorithm that

• puts 64 cards into random positions into an 8 x 8 table

• after the input of two sets of co-ordinates shows the chosen cards for a short time

• removes the cards if there is a match

• updates the player’s points

• outputs the number of points for both players when there are no more cards (the game has
finished).
For the purpose of this algorithm:

• The pictures are to be represented by the numbers 1 to 32.

• A grid position with no card is to be represented by 0.

The identifiers required are:

Identifier

Explanation

Grid[1..8, 1..8]

Table to store the card values

Points [1. .2]

List to store the points for player 1 and player 2

ThisPlayer

The number of the current player (1 or 2)

GameEnd

false while there are cards left in the grid

true when all cards have been taken

xl, yl

The co-ordinate pairs of the two cards chosen by the current player
x2, y2

[5]

[ 12 ]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Top-level algorithm:

01 CALL SetUpEmptyGrid

02 CALL RandomlyDistributeCards

03 CALL SetUpPlayers

04 GameEnd <— FALSE

05 REPEAT

06 CALL GetPlayersCoordinates

07 CALL DisplayGrid

08 CALL TestForMatch

09 CALL TestForEndGame

10 UNTIL GameEnd = TRUE

11 CALL OutputResultS

a What is the name given to the method of breaking the above steps down into smaller
steps?

b Complete the following procedures:

PROCEDURE SetUpEmptyGrid
FOR i M TO 8
FOR j t 1 TO 8

. // assign grid elements

ENDFOR

ENDFOR

ENDPROCEDURE

174
PROCEDURE RandomlyDistributeCards
FOR Number f- 1 TO 32

CALL GetEmptyGridPosition

Grid[x, y] Number // place first card with this number

CALL GetEmptyGridPosition

. // place second card with this number

ENDFOR

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE GetEmptyGridPosition
REPEAT

x <— RandomNumber (1,8) // generate a random number between 1 and 8

y RandomNumber(1,8) // generate another random number

UNTIL . // find a grid position without a card

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE SetUpPlayers

Points [1] <— 0 // both players start with 0 points

ThisPlayer 1
ENDPROCEDURE

[i]

PROCEDURE GetPlayersCoordinates
REPEAT

INPUT xl, yl

UNTIL Grid[xl, yl] > 0 // check grid position has a card

CALL DisplayGrid

REPEAT

INPUT x2, y2

// check grid position has a card and is not in the same position as first card

UNTIL (.) AND (.)

ENDPROCEDURE

Part 2

PROCEDURE DisplayGrid
FOR i f- 1 TO 8
FOR j <— 1 TO 8

IF (i = xl) AND (j = yl) // it is the chosen card

THEN

OUTPUT .

ELSE

IF Grid[i, j] = 0 // the card in this position has been removed

THEN

OUTPUT .

ELSE // back of card to be shown as ' ? '

OUTPUT .

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDFOR

ENDFOR

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE TestForMatch

IF Grid[xl # yl] = Grid[x2, y2]

THEN

// match found, remove cards

Grid[xl, yl] .

Grid[x2, y2] <— .

// increment points
Points [ThisPlayer] <—

ELSE
CALL SwapPlayers

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE
PROCEDURE SwapPlayers

ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE TestForEndGame

IF Points [1] + Points [2] = 32

THEN

GameEnd .

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE
PROCEDURE OutputResults

ENDPROCEDURE [18]

c Draw a structure chart for this problem. [15]

Chapter 13

Programming and Data Representation

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ write a program in a high-level language (Python, Visual

Basic console mode, Pascal/Delphi console mode)

■ implement and write a program from a given design

presented as either a program flowchart or pseudocode

■ write program statements for:

• the declaration of variables and constants

• the assignment of values to variables and constants

• expressions involving any of the arithmetic or logical

operators

• input from the keyboard and output to the console

■ select appropriate data types for a problem solution
(integer, real, char, string, Boolean, date)

■ show understanding of how character and string data are

represented by software including the ASCII and Unicode
character sets

■ use an ‘IF’ structure including the ‘ELSE’ clause and

nested IF statements

■ use a ‘CASE’ structure

■ use a loop (‘count controlled’, ‘post-condition’, ‘pre¬

condition’)

■ justify why one loop structure may be better suited to a

problem than the others

■ select a suitable data structure (ID or 2D array) to use for

a given task

■ write program code to process array data (including

bubble sort and linear search)

■ recognise the basic control structures in a high-level

language other than the one chosen to be studied in depth

■ use a subset of the built-in functions and library routines

supported by the chosen programming language,
including those used for string/character manipulation,
formatting of numbers, random number generator

■ use the information provided in technical documentation

describing functions/procedures

■ show understanding of why files are needed and write

pseudocode and program code for simple file handling of
a text file, consisting of several lines of text.

Fart 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

13.01 Programming languages

Chapters 11 and 12 introduced the concept of solving a problem and representing a solution
using a flowchart, pseudocode or a structure chart. We expressed our solutions using the
basic constructs: assignment, sequence, selection, iteration, input and output.

To write a computer program, we need to know the syntax of these basic constructs in our
chosen programming language. This chapter introduces syntax for Python, Visual Basic
console mode and Pascal/Delphi console mode.

You only need learn to program in one of the three languages covered in this book.
However,
you should be able to recognise the basic control structures in a high-level language other
than the one chosen to be studied in depth. So do read the sections covering the other two
programming languages.

Python

Python was conceived by Guido van Rossum in the late 1980s. Python 2.0 was released in
2000 and Python 3.0 in 2008. Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. It fully
supports both object-oriented programming and structured programming. Many other
paradigms, including logic programming, are supported using extensions. These paradigms
are covered in Chapters 26,27 and 29.

The Python programs in this book have been prepared using Python 3 (see www.python.org
for a free download) and Python’s Integrated Development Environment (IDLE).

Key characteristics of Python are:

• Every statement must be on a separate line.

• Indentation is significant. This is known as the ‘off-side rule’.

• Keywords are written in lower case.

• Python is case sensitive: the identifier Numben is seen as different from numberi or

NUMBERl.

• Everything in Python is an object (see Chapter 27).

• Code makes extensive use of a concept called ‘slicing’ (see Section 13.08).

• Programs are interpreted (see Chapter 7, Section 7.05 for information on interpreted and
compiled programs).

You can type a statement into the Python Shell and the Python interpreter will run it
immediately (see Figure 13.01).

177

Figure 13.01 Running a statement in the Python Shell

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

You can also type program code into a Python editor (such as IDLE), save it with a .py
extension and then run the
program code from the Run menu in the editor window (see Figure 13.02).

Python Shell

-=JLB]-2S|

File Edit Shell Debug Options Windows

Help

Python 3.2.3 (default, Apr 11 2012, 07:12:16) [MSC v.1500 64 bit

Win32

Type "copyright", "credits" or "license()" for more information.

(AMD64)3 on

-—--——

»>

Hello World!

»>

|l n: 6 [colM

Figure 13.02 (a) A saved program in the Python editor window and (b) running in the Python
shell

178

Visual Basic Console Mode (VB.NET)

VB.NET is a multi-paradigm, high-level programming language, implemented on the .NET

Framework. Microsoft
launchedVB.NET in 2002 as the successor to its original Visual Basic language. Microsoft’s
integrated development
environment (IDE) for developing in VB.NET is Visual Studio. Visual Studio Express and
Visual Studio Community are
freeware.

The Visual Basic programs in this book have been prepared using Microsoft Visual Basic
2010 Express Console
Application. (Free download available from www.visualstudio.com/products/visual-studio-
express-vs)

Key characteristics ofVB.NET are:

• Every statement should be on a separate line. Statements can be typed on the same line
with a colon (:) as a separator. However, this is not recommended.

• Indentation is good practice.

• VB.NET is not case sensitive. Modern VB.NET editors will automatically copy the case
from the first definition of an identifier.

• The convention is to use CamelCaps (also known as PascalCaps) for identifiers and
keywords.

• Programs need to be compiled (see Chapter 7, Section 7.05 for information on interpreted
and compiled programs).

You type your program code into the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) as shown
in
Figure 13.03 (a), save the program code and then click on the Run button (). This invokes
the compiler. If there are no syntax errors the compiled program will then run. Output will be
shown in a separate console window (see Figure 13.03 (b)).

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

(a) .jsi x|

File Edit View Project Debug Data Tools Window Help

iiJ -dl ,Si STS ■ 4 • | ' J IT^I

I Q 0 Errors J^O Warnings jtj) 0 Messages

■al Immediate Window

3 Error List |

Ready Ln 7

Col 1

Ch l

INS ^
Figure 13.03 (a) A saved program in the VB.NET editor and (b) running in the program
execution (console) window

Note that the console window shuts when the program has finished execution. To keep it
open, so you can seethe output, the last statement of your program should be
Console.ReadLineO (see Figure 13.03(a)).

Pascal/Delphi Console Mode (Pascal)

Designed by Niklaus Wirth as a small and efficient language, Pascal was intended to
encourage good programming practice using structured programming. Pascal was
published in 1970. A derivative known as Object Pascal for object-oriented programming
was
developed in 1985. Delphi was originally developed by Borland and uses Object Pascal.
Since
2008, Delphi has been owned by Embarcadero Technologies.

The Pascal programs in this book have been prepared using Borland Delphi 7 Console
Application. Other Pascal/Delphi IDEs will work in a similar way (for example, the free
version
from www.lazarus.freepascal.org).

Key characteristics of Pascal are:

• Every statement ends with a semicolon (;). More than one statement can go on a single
line, but this is not recommended.

• Indentation is good practice.

• Pascal is not case sensitive.

• The convention is to use CamelCaps (also known as PascalCaps) for identifiers and lower
case for keywords.

• A compound statement consists of a sequence of statements enclosed between the

keywords begin and end.

• Whenever Pascal syntax requires a statement, a compound statement can be used. For
an example see Table 13.28.

• Programs need to be compiled (see Chapter 7, Section 7.05 for information on interpreted
and compiled programs).

You type your program statements into the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) as
shown in Figure 13.04 (a), save the program code and then click on the Run button
( !►! ). This invokes the compiler. If there are no syntax errors the compiled program code
will
then run. Output will be shown in a separate (console) window (see Figure 13.04 (b).
179

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

180

PIT

-JGl-X)

Project j

«- -

program Projects;

{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}

uses

SysUtils;

jlU

begin

WriteLnf Hello World’

ReadLn;

end.

r i: i r

j Insert |3

Figure 13.04 (a) A Pascal program in the Delphi editor and (b) running in the program
execution (console) window
Note that the console window shuts when the program has finished execution. To keep it
open, so you can see the output, the last statement of your program should be ReadLn; (see
Figure 13.04(a)).

13.02 Programming basics

Declaration of variables

Most programming languages require you to declare the type of data to be stored in a
variable, so the correct amount of memory space can be reserved by the compiler. A
variable
declared to store a whole number (integer) cannot then be used to store alphanumeric
characters (strings) or vice versa. Pascal and VB.NET require variables to be declared
before
they are used.

Python handles variables differently to most programming languages. It tags values. This is
why Python does not have variable declarations. However, it is good programming practice
to include a comment about the variables you are planning to use and the type of data you
will store in them.

In pseudocode, variable declarations are written as:

DECLARE :

For example, you may declare the following variables:

DECLARE Numberl : INTEGER // this declares Numberl to store a whole number

DECLARE YourName : STRING // this declares YourName to store a sequence of

// alphanumeric characters

DECLARE Nl, N2, N3 : INTEGER // declares 3 integer variables

DECLARE Namel, Name2 : STRING // declares 2 string variables

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Syntax definitions

The syntax of variable declarations in language code is as follows:

Python

Python does not have variable declarations

VB.NET
Dim [ / identifier] As

Each line of declarations must start with the keyword Dim.

Pascal

var [, cidentifier>] : ;

The keyword var starts declarations.

Code examples

Python

Numberl of type Integer

YourName of type String
Nl, N2, N3 of type integer;
Namel, Name2 of type string;
There are no declarations, but
comments should be made at
the beginning of a module (see
the section about comments
at the end of Section 13.02).

VB.NET

Dim Numberl As Integer

Dim YourName As String

Dim Nl, N2, N3 As Integer

Dim Namel, Name2 As String

You can group more than one

variable of the same type on
the same line.

Pascal

var Numberl : integer;

var YourName : string;
var Nl, N2, N3 : integer;
Namel, Name2 : string;

The keyword var can be

repeated on each line or
omitted for further lines of
declarations. You can group
more than one variable of the
same type on the same line.

Declaration and assignment of constants

Sometimes we use a value in a solution that never changes, for example, the value of the
mathematical constant pi (jt). Instead of using the actual value in program statements, it is
good practice and helps readability, if we give a constant value a name and declare it at the
beginning of the program.

In pseudocode, constant declarations are written as:

CONSTANT =

For example:

CONSTANT Pi = 3.14

Syntax definitions

Python

VB.NET

Const =

Each line of declarations must start with the keyword const.

Pascal

Const = ;

The keyword const must be used to start the declarations.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Code examples

Python

PI = 3.14
Python convention is to write constant
identifiers using all capital letters. The values
can be changed, although you should treat
constants as not changeable.

VB.NET

Const Pi = 3.14

The value of a constant in VB.NET cannot be

altered within the program.

Pascal

Const Pi = 3.14;

The value of a constant in Pascal cannot be

altered within the program.

Assignment of variables

Once we have declared a variable, we can assign a value to it (See Chapter 11, Section
11.04).
In pseudocode, assignment statements are written as:

<-

Syntax definitions and code examples

Python

cidentifier> =

A = 34

B=B+1

The assignment operator is =.

VB.NET

A = 34

B=B+1

The assignment operator

is=.
Pascal

:= ;

A := 34;

B := B + 1;

The assignment operator

is a combination of a colon
and an equals sign without
a space in between (:=).

VB.NET allows you to initialise a variable as part of the declaration statement, for example:

Dim Numberl As Integer = 0

VB.NET and Python allow increment statements such as b = b + 1 to be written as b += 1 .

Arithmetic operators

Assignments don’t just give initial values to variables. We also use an assignment when we
need to store the result of a calculation. The arithmetic operators used for calculations are
shown in Table 13.01.

Operation

Pseudocode

Python

VB.NET

Pascal

Addition

Subtraction
Multiplication

Division

Exponent

**

Not available

Integer division

DIV

//

Div

Modulus

MOD

Mod

Mod

Table 13.01 Arithmetic operators

When more than one operator appears in an expression, the order of evaluation depends
on the mathematical rules of precedence: parentheses, exponentiation, multiplication,
division, addition, subtraction.
Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

KEYTERMS

Rules of precedence: define the order of the calculations to be performed

Question 13.01

Evaluate each of the following expressions:

4*3-3A2

(43-3) A 2
4 (3 - 3) A 2
4 * (3 - 3 A 2)

I Outputting information to the screen

In pseudocode, output statements are written as:

I OUTPUT

OUTPUT cidentifier(s)>

When outputting text and data to the console screen, we can list a mixture of output strings
and variable values in the print list.

Syntax definitions

jj

Python

print ()
print(, end = ")

Print list items are separated

by commas (,). To avoid
moving onto the next line after
the Output, use end =

VB.NET
Console.WriteLine()
Console.Write ()

Print list items are joined using

&. Console.WriteLine will

move onto the next line after

the Output; Console. Write
will remain on the same line.

Pascal

WriteLn() ;

Write();

Print list items are separated

by Commas (,). WriteLn

will move onto the next line

after the output; write will
remain on the same line.

183

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Code examples

In the examples below, the print list consists of four separate items:

“Hello ” and Your number is ” are strings and

YourName and Numberl are variables, for which we print the value.

OUTPUT "Hello ", YourName, Your number is ", Numberl // newline

OUTPUT "Hello " // no new line

In pseudocode, we can indicate whether a new line should be output at the end by a
comment at the end of the statement.

Python

print("Hello ", YourName,

". Your number is ", Numberl)

print ("Hello ", end= ")
VB.NET

Console.WriteLine("Hello " & YourName &

". Your number is " & Numberl)

Console.Write ("Hello")

Pascal

WriteLnOHello ', YourName,

'. Your number is ', Numberl);

Write ('Hello ');

In the code examples above you can see how output statements can bespread over more
than
one line when they are very long. You must break the line between two print list items. You
cannot break in the middle of a string, unless you make the string into two separate strings.

In Python and VB.NET you can also use the placeholder method for output: the variables
to be printed are represented by sequential numbers in {} in the message string and the
variables are listed in the correct order after the string, separated by commas:

Python

print ("Hello {o}. Your number is {l}". format (YourName,

Numberl))

VB.NET

Console.WriteLine ("Hello {o}. Your number is {l}",

YourName, Numberl)

Getting input from the user

When coding an input statement, it is good practice to prompt the user as to what they are
meant to enter. For example, consider the pseudocode statement:

INPUT "Prompt: " A

Note the space between the colon and the closing quote. This is significant. It gives a space
before the user types their input.

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Python

A = input ("Prompt: ")

The prompt is provided as a

parameter to the input function.
Single quotes are also accepted.
All input is taken to be a string;
if you want to use the input as a
number the input string has to
be converted using a function
(see Section 13.03).

VB.NET

Console. Write ("Prompt: ")

A = Console. ReadLineO

The prompt has to be supplied

as an output statement
separately.

Pascal

Write ('Prompt: ');

ReadLn(A);

The prompt has to be supplied as

an output statement separately.
Note the single quotes around
the message text. The ReadLn
procedure returns as a parameter
the value entered by the user. An
alternative procedure, Read exists
but its use is very specialised as
it does not remove the new line
character from the input string.

Comments

It is good programming practice to add comments to explain code where necessary.

Python
this is a comment
this is another comment
VB.NET

// this is a comment
// this is another comment

Pascal

// this is a comment

U this is another comment

{this is a multi-line
comment}

TASK 13.01

Use the IDE of your chosen programming language (in future just referred to as ‘your
language’). Type the program statements equivalent to the following pseudocode (you may
need to declare the variable YourName first):

INPUT "What is your name? " YourName

OUTPUT "Have a nice day, " YourName

Save your program as Examplel and then run it. Is the output as you expected?

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

13.03 Data types

Every programming language has built-in data types. Table 13.02 gives a subset of those
available. The number of bytes of memory allocated to a variable of the given type is given
in
bracketsforVB.NET and Pascal.

Description of data

Pseudocode

Python

VB.NET

Pascal

Whole signed numbers

INTEGER

int

Integer (4 bytes)

Integer (4 bytes)

Signed numbers with a

decimal point

REAL

float

Single (4 bytes)

Double (8 bytes)

Real (8 bytes)

A single alphanumeric
character

CHAR

Not available

char (2 bytes -
Unicode)

Char (1 byte-ASCII)

A sequence of
alphanumeric
characters (a string)

STRING

Use single (') or double

(") quotation marks to
delimit a string.

str (stored as ASCII

but Unicode strings
are also available).

Use single ('), double

(") ortriple ("' or""")
quotation marks to
delimit a string.

string (2 bytes per

character)

Use double (")

quotation marks to
delimit a string.

string (1 byte per

character plus 1)

Use single (')

quotation marks to
delimit a string.

Logical values:

True (represented as 1)
and

False (represented as 0)

BOOLEAN

bool

Boolean (2 bytes)

Boolean (1 byte)

Table 13.02 Simple data types

In Python, a single alphanumeric character is represented as a string of length 1.

See Chapter 1 (Sections 1.02 and 1.03) on how integers and characters are represented
inside the computer. Chapter 16 (Section 16.03) covers the internal representation of real
(single, double, float) numbers.

The string data type is known as a structured type because it is essentially a sequence
of characters. A special case is the empty string: a value of data type string, but with no
characters stored in it. In VB.NET, each character in a string requires two bytes of memory
and each character is represented in memory as Unicode (in which, the values from 1 to
127 correspond to ASCII).

In Pascal, a string occupies as many bytes as its maximum length plus one. The first byte
contains the current length of the string and the following bytes contain the characters of the
string (stored as ASCII). Because the largest unsigned integer that can be stored in a byte is
255, the maximum length of a string is 255 characters.

Date and currency have various internal representations but are output in conventional
format (except in Pascal where you have to do a string conversion for dates).

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Description of
data

Pseudocode

Python

VB.NET

Pascal

Date value

DATE

Not available
as a built-in
data type

Date (8 bytes)

TDateTime (8 bytes)

Monetary value

CURRENCY

Not available

Decimal

(16 bytes)

Currency (8 bytes)

Table 13.03 Further data types

In Python, date and currency are not available as built-in data types. A date is stored as the
number of days after 1/1/0001, using the datetime class (see Section 13.08). For currency,
use float.
VB.NET stores dates and times from 1.1.0001 (0 hours) to 31.12.9999 (23:59:59 hours) with
a
resolution of 100 nanoseconds (this unit is called a ‘tick’). Floating-point (decimal) numbers
are stored in binary-coded decimal format (see Section 1.02).

Pascal stores dates and times internally as a real number: the whole number part represents
the days since 30/12/1899 and the fractional part represents the part of the day that has
elapsed (time). Currency values are stored internally as a scaled and signed 64-bit integer
with the least significant four digits implicitly representing four decimal places.

There are many more data types. Programmers can also design and declare their own data
types (see Chapter 16 (Section 16.01) and Chapter 26 (Section 26.02).

TASK 13.02

1 Look at the identifier tables in Chapter 11 (Tables 11.02 and 11.04 to 11.12). Decide which
data type from your language is appropriate for each variable listed.

2 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.01 in Chapter
11.

13.04 Boolean expressions

In Chapter 11 (Section 11.05), we covered logic statements. These were statements that
included a condition. Conditions are also known as Boolean expressions and evaluate to
eitherTrue or False. True and False are known as Boolean values.

Simple Boolean expressions involve comparison operators (Table 13.04). Complex Boolean
expressions also involve Boolean operators (Table 13.05).

Operation

Pseudocode

Python

VB.NET

Pascal

equal

==

=
not equal

<>

i=

<>

<>

greater than

less than

<

<

<

<

greater than or equal to

less than or equal to

<=

<=

<=

<=

Table 13.04 Comparison operators

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Operation

Pseudocode

Python
VB.NET

Pascal

AND (logical conjunction)

AND

and

And

AND

OR (logical inclusion)

OR

or

Or

OR

NOT (logical negation)

NOT

not

Not

NOT

Table 13.05 Boolean operators

13.05 Selection

IF...THEN statements

In pseudocode the IF...THEN construct is written as:

IF

THEN

<statement(s)>

ENDIF

Syntax definitions
Python

if <Boolean expressions
<statement (s)>

Note that the then keyword is replaced

by a colon (:). Indentation is used to
show which statements form part of the
conditional statement.

VB.NET

If Then
<statement (s) >

End If

Note the position of Then on the same

line as the Boolean expression. The

End if keywords should line up with

the if keyword.

Pascal

if

then

If more than one statement is required

as part of the conditional statement,
the statements must be put between
begin and end keywords.

Code examples

Pseudocode example:

if x < o
THEN

OUTPUT "Negative"

ENDIF

Python

if x < 0:
print ("Negative")

VB.NET

If x < 0 Then

Console .WriteLine ("Negative")

End If

Pascal

if x < 0

then

WriteLnC Negative');

Ch

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

TASK 13.03

Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.03 in Chapter
11.

IF...THEN...ELSE statements

In pseudocode, the IF...THEN...ELSE construct is written as:

IF

THEN

<statement (s)>

ELSE

<statement(s)>

Syntax definitions

Python

if <Boolean expressions
<statement (s)>

else:
<statement(s)>

Indentation's used to show which

statements form part of the
conditional statement the else
keyword must line up with the
corresponding if keyword.

VB.NET

If Then
<statement(s)>

Else

<statement(s)>

End If

The Else keyword is on its own

on a separate line. It is good
programming practice to line it up
with the corresponding if keyword
and indent the statements within
the conditional statement.

Pascal

if

then

else

If more than one statement is

required in the else part of the
statement, the statements must be
placed between begin and end.

Note the convention for indentation.

Do not include a semicolon before

the else.

I Code examples
I Pseudocode example:

f if x < o

THEN

OUTPUT "Negative"
ELSE

OUTPUT "Positive"

ENDIF

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

190

Python

if X < 0:

print ("Negative")

else:

print ("Positive")

VB.NET

If x < 0 Then

Console. WriteLine ("Negative")

Else

Console.WriteLine ("Positive")

End If

Pascal

if x < 0

then

Wr iteLn (' Negative')

else

WriteLn ( 1 Positive');

Nested IF statements
In pseudocode, the nested IF statement is written as:

IF

THEN

<statement (s) >

ELSE

IF

THEN

<statement(s)>

ELSE

<statement(s)>

ENDIF

ENDIF

Syntax definitions

Python

if <Boolean expressions
<statement(s)>
elif <Boolean expressions
<statement (s) >

else:

<statement (s) >

Note the keyword elif (an

abbreviation of else if). This
keyword must line up with the
corresponding if.

There can be as many elif parts

to this construct as required.

VB.NET

If Then
<statement(s)>
Elself

<statement (s) >

Else

<statement(s)>

End If

If Eiseif is used as one word,

only one End if is required at the
end of this construct.

There can be as many Eiseif

parts as required.

Pascal

if

then

else

if

then

else

Repeated indentation can make

nested if statements quite
awkward. However, without
careful indentation, the overview
can be lost. Whenever possible, a
CASE statement is preferable (see
the next section).

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Code examples

Pseudocode example:

if x < o
THEN
OUTPUT "Negative"

ELSE

IF x = 0
THEN

OUTPUT "Zero"
ELSE

OUTPUT "Positive"

ENDIF

ENDIF

Python

if x < 0:

print ("Negative ")

elif x = 0:

printp'Zero")

else:

print ("Positive")

VB.NET

If x < 0 Then

Console .WriteLine ("Negative")

Elself x = 0 Then

Console .WriteLine ("Zero")

Else

Console .WriteLine ("Positive")

End If

Pascal

if x < 0

then
WriteLn( 'Negative')

else

if x = 0

then

WriteLn( 'Zero')

else

WriteLn (' Positive');

TASK 13.04

Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.02 in Chapter
11.

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192

CASE statements

An alternative selection construct is the CASE statement. Each considered CASE condition
can be:

• a single value

• single values separated by commas

• a range.

In pseudocode, the CASE statement is written as:

CASE OF

: <statement(s)>

/ : <statement(s) >

TO : <statement(s) >

OTHERWISE <statement(s)>

ENDCASE

The value of determines which statements are executed. There can be as many
separate cases as required. The otherwise clause is optional and useful for error trapping.
Syntax definitions

Python

Python does not have a CASE statement. You need to use nested If
statements instead.

VB.NET

Select Case

Case valuel

<statement(s)>

Case value2,value3

<statement(s)>

Case value4 To value5

<statement(s)>

Case Else

<statement(s) >

End Select

Pascal

case of
valuel: ;

value2, value3: ;
value4..value5: ;

else

end;

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Code examples
In pseudocode, an example CASE statement is:

CASE OF Grade

"A" : OUTPUT "Top grade"

"F'V'U" : OUTPUT "Fail"

"B".."E" : OUTPUT "Pass"

OTHERWISE

OUTPUT "Invalid grade"

ENDCASE

Python

if Grade == "A":

print ("Top grade")

elif Grade == "F" or Grade == "U":
print ("Fail")

elif Grade in ("B" / "C" / "D" / "E"):

print("Pass")

else:

print ("Invalid grade")

VB.NET

Select Case Grade

Case "A"

Console. WriteLine("Top grade")

Case "F'V'U"

Console. WriteLine ("Fail")

Case "B" To "E"

Console. WriteLine ("Pass")

Case Else

Console. WriteLine ("Invalid grade")

End Select

Pascal

case Grade of

'A' : WriteLn('Top grade 1 );

'FVU* : WriteLn('Fail');

'B'.-'E' : WriteLn('Pass');

else

WriteLnCInvalid grade');

end;

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 13.05

The problem to be solved: the user enters the number of the month and year. The output
is the number of days in that month. The program has to check if the year is a leap year for
February.

The pseudocode solution is:

INPUT MonthNumber
INPUT Year
Days <- 0

CASE OF MonthNumber

CASE 1,3,5,7,8,10,12: Days <- 31

CASE 4,6,9,11: Days <- 30
CASE 2: Days <- 28

If Year MOD 400 = 0

THEN // it is a leap year

Days <-29

ENDIF

IF (Year MOD 4=0) AND (Year MOD 100 > 0)

THEN // it is a leap year

Days <- 29
ENDIF

OTHERWISE: OUTPUT "Invalid month number"

ENDCASE
OUTPUT Days

Write program code to implement the pseudocode above.

13.06 Iteration

Count-controlled (for) loops

In pseudocode, a count-controlled loop is written as:

FOR s TO e STEP i // STEP is optional

<statement (s) >

ENDFOR

The control variable starts with value s, increments by value i each time round the loop and
finishes when the control variable reaches the value e.

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Syntax definitions

Python

for ccontrol variable> in range(s, e, i):

<statement(s)>

The values s, e and i must

be of type integer.

The loop finishes when the

control variable is just below
e. The values for s and i can
be omitted and they default
to 0 and 1, respectively.

VB.NET

For ccontrol variable> = s To e Step i

<statement(s)>

Next

The values s, e and i can be

of type integer or float.
Pascal

for ccontrol variable> := s to e do

cstatement>;

The control variable can

beoftype integer or char.
Intervals other than 1 are not
available.

Code examples

Python

for x in range (5):

print (x, end=' ')

The start value of x is 0 and

it increases by 1 on each
iteration.

Output: 0 12 3 4

for x in range(2, 14, 3):

print (x, end=' ')

Output: 2 5 8 11

for x in range(5, 1, -1):

print(x, end=' ’)

The start value of x is 5 and

it decreases by 1 on each
iteration.

Output: 5 4 3 2

for x in ["a", "b", "c"]:

print(x, end= M )

The control variable takes

the value of each of the
group elements in turn.

Output: abc

VB.NET
For x = 1 To 5

Console .Write (x)

Next

Output: 1 2 3 4 5

For x = 2 To 14 Step 3

Console .Write (x)

Next

Output: 2 5 8 11 14

For x = 5 To 1 Step -1

Console .Write (x)

Next

Output: 5 4 3 2 1

For x = 1 To 2.5 Step 0.5

Console. WriteLine (x)

Next

Output:

1.5

2.5

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

For Each x In {"a", "b", "c"}

Console.Write (x)

Next

The control variable takes

the value of each of the
group elements in turn.
Output: abc

Pascal

for x := 1 to 5 do

write (x);

Output: 1 2 3 4 5

for x := 5 downto 1 do

write (x);

Output: 5 4 3 2 1

for x := 'a' to 'c' do

write (x);

Output: abc

TASK 13.06

1 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.05 in Chapter
11.

2 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.08 in Chapter
11.

3 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.09 in Chapter
11.

196

Post-condition loops

A post-condition loop, as the name suggests, executes the statements within the loop at
least once. When the condition is encountered, it is evaluated. As long as the condition
evaluates to False the statements within the loop are executed again. When the condition
evaluates to True, execution will go to the next statement after the loop.

When coding a post-condition loop, you must ensure that there is a statement within the
loop that will at some point change the end condition to True. Otherwise the loop will
execute forever.

In pseudocode, the post-condition loop is written as:

REPEAT
<statement(s)>

UNTIL

Syntax definitions

Python

Post-condition loops are not available in Python. Use a

pre-condition loop instead.

VB.NET

DO

<statement (s) >

Loop Until

Pascal

repeat

<statement(s)>;

until ;

Code examples

Pseudocode example:

REPEAT

INPUT "Enter Y or N: " Answer

UNTIL Answer = "Y"

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

VB.NET

Do

Console.Write ("Enter Y or N: ")

Answer = Console. ReadLine ()

Loop Until Answer = "Y"

Pascal
repeat

Write ('Enter Y or N: ');

ReadLn (Answer) ;

until Answer = 1 Y';

TASK 13.07

1 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.04 in Chapter
11.

2 Write program code to implement the first algorithm from Worked Example 11.06 in
Chapter 11.

Pre-condition loops

Pre-condition loops, as the name suggests, evaluate the condition before the statements
within the loop are executed. Pre-condition loops will execute the statements within the loop
as long as the condition evaluates to True. When the condition evaluates to False, execution
will go to the next statement after the loop. Note that any variable used in the condition must
not be undefined when the loop structure is first encountered.

When coding a pre-condition loop, you must ensure that there is a statement within the loop
that will at some point change the value of the controlling condition. Otherwise the loop will
execute forever.

In pseudocode the pre-condition loop is written as:

WHILE

<statement (s)>

ENDWHILE

Syntax definitions

Python

while :

<statement(s)>

Note that statements within the loop

must be indented by a set number of
spaces. The first statement after the loop
must be indented less.

VB.NET
Do While

<statement(s) >

Loop

Do Until

<statement (s) >

Loop

Note the keyword Loop indicates the end

of the loop.

VB.NET also has a pre-condition until

loop. This will execute the statements
within the loop as long as the condition
evaluates to False. If the condition
evaluates to True when the loop is first
encountered, the statements within the
loop are not executed at all.

Pascal

while do

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

198

Code examples

Pseudocode example,

Answer nu
WHILE Answer <> "Y"

INPUT "Enter Y or N: " Answer

ENDWHILE

Python

Answer = ''

while Answer != 'Y':

Answer = input ('Enter Y or N: ')

VB.NET

Dim Answer As String = ""

Do While Answer <> "Y"

Console.Write ("Enter Y or N: ")

Answer = Console. ReadLineO

Loop

Answer = ""

Do Until Answer = "Y"

Console.Write ("Enter Y or N: ")

Answer = Console. ReadLineO

Loop

Pascal

Answer :=

while Answer <> 'Y' do

begin

Write ('Enter Y or N: ');

ReadLn (Answer) ;

end;

Note the use of the compound

statement, enclosed between
the keywords begin and
end. These keywords are not
required if there is only a single
statement within the loop. For
example:

while x < 10 do

x := x + 1;

TASK 13.08

Write program code to implement the second algorithm from Worked Example 11.06 in
Chapter 11.
Which loop structure to use?

If you know how many times around the loop you need to go when the program execution
gets to the loop statements, use a count-controlled loop. If the termination of the loop
depends on some condition determined by what happens within the loop, then use a
conditional loop. A pre-condition loop has the added benefit that the loop may not be
entered at all, if the condition does not require it.

13.07 Arrays

Traditionally, an array is a static data structure. This means the array is declared with a
specified number of elements of one specified data type and this does not change after
compilation. However, many programming languages now allow an array to be dynamic.
This
means the array can grow in size if required.

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Creating ID arrays

When we write a list on a piece of paper and number the individual items, we would normally
start the numbering with 1. You can view a ID array like a numbered listofitems.VB.NET
and Python number array elements from 0 (the lower bound). Depending on the problem to
be solved, it might make sense to ignore element 0. Pascal allows you to choose your lower
bound to be any integer. The upper bound is the largest number used for numbering the
elements of an array.

In pseudocode, a ID array declaration is written as:

DECLARE : ARRAY [:] OF

Syntax definitions

Python

In Python, there are no arrays. The equivalent data structure is

called a list. A list is an ordered sequence of items that do not have
to be of the same data type. Python’s lists are dynamic.

VB.NET

Dim () As *

Pascal

var : array [lowerBound. .upperBound]

of ;
Code examples

Pseudocode example:

DECLARE Listl
DECLARE List2

ARRAY [1:3]
ARRAY [0:5]

OF STRING // 3
OF INTEGER // 6

elements in this list

elements in this list

DECLARE

DECLARE

List3 : ARRAY[1:100] OF INTEGER // 10C

List4 : ARRAY [0:25] OF STRING // 26

i elements in this list

elements in this list

Python

Listl = []

Listl. append ("Fred")

Listl. append ("Jack")

Listl. append ("Ali")

As there are no declarations, the

only way to generate a list is to
initialise one.

You can append elements to an

existing list.

List2 = [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]

You can enclose the elements

in (].

List3 = [0 for i in range(100)]

You can use a loop.

AList = [""] * 26

You can provide an initial

value, multiplied by number of
elements required.

VB.NET

Dim Listl As String () =

Dim List2 (5) As Integer

Dim List3(100) As Integer

Dim AList (0 To 25) As String

You can initialise an array

at declaration time (as with
Listl). Note that List3 has

101 elements. You can use a

range as an array dimension (as
with AList) however the lower
bound must beO.

Pascal

var Listl : array [1..3] of string;

var List2 : array [10..15] of integer;
var NList : array [1. .100] of integer;
var AList : array ['A'. .'Z'] of string;

The dimension can be an

integer range or a char range.
Ranges can start with any value.

199

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

200

Accessing ID arrays

A specific element in an array is accessed using an index value. In pseudocode, this is

written as:
[x]

Code examples

Pseudocode example:

NList[25] =0 // set 25th element to zero

AList [3] = "D" // set 4th element to letter D

Python

NList[24] = 0

AList [3] = "D"

VB.NET

NList (25) = 0

AList (3) = "D"

We ignore element 0, so the

25th element isNList(25).

Pascal

NList [24] := 0

AList['D'] := 'D'

In Python, you can print the whole contents of a list using print (List). In VB.NET and
Pascal, you need to use a loop to print one element of an array at a time.

TASK 13.09

1 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.10 in Chapter
11.

2 Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.11 in Chapter
11.

3 Write program code to implement the improved algorithm from Worked Example 11.12 in
Chapter 11.

Creating 2D arrays

When we write a table of data (a matrix) on a piece of paper and want to refer to individual
elements of the table, the convention is to give the row number first and then the column
number. When declaring a 2D array, the number of rows is given first, then the number of
columns. Again we have lower and upper bounds for each dimension. VB.NET and Python
number all elements from 0.

In pseudocode, a 2D array declaration is written as:

DECLARE : ARRAY [: /

:] OF

Syntax definitions

Python

In Python, there are no arrays. The equivalent data structure is a

list of lists.

VB.NET

Dim (<uBoundl / uBound2>) As

Pascal

var : array [lBoundl. .uBoundl,

lBound2. .uBound2] of ;

Code examples

To declare a 2D array to represent a game board of six rows and seven columns, the
pseudocode statement is:

Board[1:6, 1:7] OF INTEGER

■MM

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Python

VB.NET

Pascal

Board

[[ 0 ,

0,

0,
o,

0,

0,

0 ],

[0,

o.

0,

0,

0,

0,

0 ],

[0,

o,

0,

0,

o,

0,

0 ],

[0,

0,

0,

0,

0,

0,

0 ],

[0,
0,

o,

o,

0,

0,

0 ],

[0,

o,

0,

0,

0,

0,

0 ]]

Board = [[0 for i in range(7)]

for j in range (6)]

Board = [[0] 7] 6

Dim Boards 7) As Integer

var Board : array [1.. 6 , 1..7] of

integer;

2D lists can be initialised

in a similar way to ID lists.
Remember that elements are
numbered from 0.

These are alternative ways of

initialising a 6 x 7 list. The rows
are numbered 0 to 5 and the
columns 0 to 6.

The upper value of the range is

not included.
Elements are numbered from
0 to the given number. This
declaration has one row and one
column too many. However, the
algorithm may be such that it
is easier to convert to program
code if row 0 and column 0 are
ignored.

Similar to ID arrays, 2D array

ranges can start with any value
and can be of type integer or
char.

Accessing 2D arrays

A specific element in a table is accessed using an index pair. In pseudocode this is written
as:

[x, y]

Code examples

Pseudocode example:

Board [3,4] = 0 // sets the element in row 3 and column 4 to zero

The following code examples demonstrate howto access elements in each of the three
languages.

Python

Board [2] [3] = 0

Elements are numbered

from 0 in Python, so [3] gives
access to the fourth element.

VB.NET

Board(3, 4) = 0

We are ignoring row 0 and

column 0.

Pascal

Board[3, 4] := 0
When the array was
declared, the elements were
numbered from 1.

TASK 13.10

Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.13; first
initialise
the table and then output its contents.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

202

13.08 Built-in functions

Programming environments provide many built-in functions. Some of them are always
available to use; some need to be imported from specialist module libraries.

Discussion Point:

Investigate your own programming environment and research other library routines.

String manipulation functions

Table 13.06 contains some useful functions for manipulating strings.

Description

Pseudocode

Python

VB.NET

Pascal

Access a single
character using
its position P in a
string

ThisString[P]

Counts from 1

ThisString [P]
Counts from 0

ThisString(P)

Counts from 0

ThisString [P]

Counts from 1

Return the
character
associated with
the specified
character code

CHAR(i)

chr (i)

Chr (i)

Chr (i)

Return an
integer value
representing the
character code
of the specified
character

ASCII (ch)

ord(ch)

Asc(ch)

Ord(ch)

Return an integer
that contains
the number of
characters in
strings

LENGTH (S)

len(S)
len(S)

Length(S)

Return a substring
of length Lfrom
the left of strings

LEFT(S, L)

S [0 :L]

Seethe next
section, on
slicing

Left(S, L)

Uses the StrUtils library

LeftStr(S, L)

Return a substring
of length l from
the right of string
s

RIGHT (S, L)

S[-L:]

Seethe next
section, on
slicing

Right(S, L)

Uses the StrUtils library

RightStr(S, L)

Return a substring
of length Lfrom
position p in
strings

MID (S, P, L)

S[P : P + L]
See the next
section, on
slicing

mid(S, P, L)

Uses the StrUtils library

MidStr(S, P, L)

Join strings

CONCAT (SI, S2)

SI Sc S2

s = SI + S2

s = SI + S2

s = SI Sc S2

S := Concat (SI, S2);

S := SI + S2;

Table 13.06 Some useful string manipulation functions

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Slicing in Python

In Python a subsequence of any sequence type (e.g. lists and strings) can be created using
‘slicing’.

A slice is a substring of a string. For example, to get a substring of length Lfrom position P in
strings we write S[P: P + L].

Figure 13.05 shows a representation ofThisstring. If we want to return a slice of length 3

starting at position 3, we use Thisstringp : 6] to give‘DEF’. Position is counted from 0
and the position at the upper bound of the slice is not included in the substring.

[0]

[l]

[2]
ThisString
[3][4]

[5]

[6]

Figure 13.05 A representation ofThisstring

If you imagine the numbering of each element to start at the left-hand end (as shown in
Figure 13.05), then it is easier to see how the left element (the lower bound) is included, but
the right element (the upper bound) is excluded. Table 13.07 shows some other useful slices
in Python.

Expression

Result

Explanation

ThisString [2:]

CDEFG

If you do not state the upper bound, the slice

includes all characters to the end of the string.

ThisString [:2]

AB

If you do not state the lower bound, the slice

includes all characters from the beginning of
the string.

ThisString[-2:]
FG

A negative lower bound means that it takes the

slice starting from the end of the string.

ThisString [:-2]

ABODE

A negative upper bound means that it

terminates the string at that position.

Table 13.07 Some useful slices in Python

Rounding numbers

Sometimes we need to round numbers after a calculation involving real numbers. Rounding
is
done away from zero. This means that 0.5 is rounded to 1 and -0.5 is rounded to -1.0.

Python

round (x[, ndigits])

The floating-point value x is rounded to

ndigits after the decimal point. If ndigits
is omitted, it defaults to zero. The result is a
floating point number.

VB.NET

Math. Round (x)

The value of x is rounded to the nearest

whole number.

Pascal

Round (x)

The value of x is rounded to the nearest

whole number.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Truncating numbers

Instead of rounding, sometimes we just want the whole number part of a real number.
This is known as ‘truncation’.
Python

int (x)

If x is a floating-point number, the

conversion truncates towards zero.

VB.NET

Math .Truncate (x)

The whole number part of the real number x

is returned.

Pascal

Trunc(x)

The whole number part of the real numberx

is returned.

Converting a string to a number

Sometimes a whole number may be held as a string. To use such a number in a calculation,
we first need to convert it to an integer. For example, these functions return the integer value
5 from the string "5":

204

Python

int(S)

VB.NET

Clnt(S)

Pascal

StrToInt(S)

Sometimes a number with a decimal point may be held as a string. To use such a number in
a
calculation, we first need to convert it to a real (float). For example, these functions return
the
real number 75.43 from the string "75.43":

Python

float (x)
The returned value is a floating-point
number.

VB.NET

CDbl(S)

The returned value is of type double.

Pascal

StrToFloat (S)

The returned value is a floating-point

number.

Formatting numbers for output

When we want to present output in a tabulated way, we need to format the output
statement.

Python

print ("Nl: {0: >10} |N2: (l :^10} |N3 :{2:<10}|${

3:.2f}".format(Nl, N2, N3, Price))

When using the placeholder method for a

print statement in Python, you can format
the output. Within {}, you give the number of
the item in the print list, then a colon (:) and
then these codes:

A centres the value

< align the value on the left

aligns the value on the right

w a number giving the overall
character width ofthe value
xf wherex is the number of decimal
places for a floating point number

VB.NET

Dim N1 As Decimal = 21.457

Dim N2 As Double = 3.14159

Console.WriteLine("Price:{0:C}", Nl)
Console.WriteLine("Pi:{0:F}", N2)

:C outputs the value as currency: $21.46.

:F outputs a double as fixed point (with two

decimal places): 3.14.

Pascal

Write (:W:D) ;
WriteLn(Pi:5:2);

Print list items can be formatted using a

field width, W, and the number of decimal
places, D.

Random number generator

Random numbers are often required for simulations. Most programming languages have
various random number generators available. As the random numbers are generated
through a program, they are referred to as ‘pseudo-random’ numbers.

Python

in the random library:

randint(l, 6)

This code produces a random number

between 1 and 6 inclusive.

VB.NET

Dim RandomNumber As New Random

Dim x As Integer
x = RandomNumber. Next (1, 6)

You have to set up a RandomNumber object

(see Chapter 27). This code generates
an integer between 1 (inclusive) and 6
(exclusive).

Pascal

Random (6)
The simplest option returns a random
number between 0 (inclusive) and

6 (exclusive).

Randomize;

This code initialises the random number

generator.

RandSeed := cinteger value>

It can be useful, particularly during testing,

to produce the same sequence of random
numbers each time the program executes.

RandomRange(l, 6)

There is a function in the Math library

that returns a random number between
two values, in this case 1 (inclusive) and 6
(exclusive).

TASK13.il

1 Write program code to generate 20 random numbers in the range 1 to 10 inclusive.

2 Write program code to implement the pseudocode using a pre-condition loop from
Worked Example 11.07 in Chapter 11.

Date and time functions

Sometimes we want to work with the current time and date. The system clock can provide
this. There are many functions available to manipulate dates and times. Most are beyond the
scope of this book. Here are just a few basic functions.

205

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Python

from datetime import *

SomeDate = date (2015,3,15)

Import the library.

Convert the separate integers for year,

month and day into a date.
Today = date.today()

The system clock can be read.

print (SomeDate)
print (Today)

Date values con be output without

conversion.

SomeDate = SomeDate +

Adding timedelta(l) moves the date on by

timedelta(1)

1 day.

VB.NET

Dim SomeDate, Today As Date

Declare date variables.

SomeDate = #3/15/2015 #

The format of the string is MM/DD/YYYY.

Today = Now()

The system clock can be read. The value

returned is of type Date.

Console. WriteLine (SomeDate)

Console. WriteLine (Today)

Date type values can be output without

conversion.

SomeDate =

Add a value to a date to increment it by a

SomeDate. AddDays (1)

number of days.

Pascal

var SomeDate, Today :

Declare date variables.

TDateTime;

var DateString : String;

DateString := '15/03/2015';
SomeDate :=

StrToDate(DateString);

A date stored as a string can be converted

to store it in a variable of type TDateTime.

Today := Date();

The system clock can be read. The value

returned is of type TDateTime.

DateString :=

DateToStr (SomeDate) ;
WriteLn(DateString) ;

DateString := DateToStr(Today);
WriteLn (DateString);

A date must be converted to a string for

output.

SomeDate := SomeDate + 1;

Adding 1 to a date produces the next day’s

date.

TASK 13.12

Write program code to get today’s date from the system clock and output it with a suitable
message. Also output tomorrow’s date with a suitable message. Will your program give the
correct information, regardless of which day it is executed?

Extend your program to output yesterday’s date.

Discussion Point:

What other useful functions can you find? Which module libraries have you searched?

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

13.09 Text files

Data need to be stored permanently. One approach is to use a file. For example, any data
held in an array while your program is executing will be lost when the program stops. You
can save the data out to file and read it back in when your program requires it on
subsequent
executions.

A text file consists of a sequence of characters formatted into lines. Each line is terminated
by
an end-of-line marker. The text file is terminated by an end-of-file marker.

Note: you can check the contents of a text file (or even create a text file required by a
program) by using a text editor such as NotePad.

Writing to a text file

Writing to a text file usually means creating a text file.

The following pseudocode statements provide facilities for writing to a file:

OPENFILE FOR WRITE // open the file for writing

WRITEFILE , // write a line of text to the file

CLOSEFILE // close file

The following code examples demonstrate how to open, write to and close a file called
sampieFiie.TXT in each of the three languages. If the file already exists, it is overwritten as
soon as the file handle is assigned by the ‘open file’ command.

Python

FileHandle = open("SampleFile.TXT", "w")

FileHandle.write (LineOf Text)

FileHandle. close ()

You specify the filename and mode (W for

write) when you call the open function. The
line of text to be written to the file must
contain the newline character "\n" to move
to the next line of the text file.

VB.NET

Dim FileHandle As IO.StreamWriter

Dim LineOfText As String

FileHandle = New
IO.StreamWriter ("SampleFile.TXT")
FileHandle. WriteLine (LineOfText)

FileHandle.CloseO

The file is accessed through an object (see

Chapter 27) called a StreamWriter.

Pascal

var LineOfText : String;

var FileHandle : TextFile;

AssignFile (FileHandle, 'SampleFile.TXT’) ;

Rewrite (FileHandle) ;

WriteLn(FileHandle, LineOfText) ;

CloseFile (FileHandle);

The TextFile data type enables append

access to a file. Note that the AssignFile
procedure simply connects the variable
with the filename; the Rewrite procedure
opens the file.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

208

Reading from a text file

An existing file can be read by a program. The following pseudocode statements provide
facilities for reading from a file:

OPENFILE FOR READ // open file for reading

READFILE / // read a line of text from the file

CLOSEFILE // close file

The following code examples demonstrate how to open, read from and close a file called
SampieFiie.TXT in each of the three languages.

Python

FileHandle = open("SampleFile.TXT", "r")

LineOfText = FileHandle.readline()
FileHandle. close

You specify the filename and mode (V for

read) when you call the open function.

VB.NET

Dim LineOfText As String

Dim FileHandle As System.

1. StreamReader

FileHandle = New System.

1. StreamReader ("SampieFiie.TXT")
LineOfText = FileHandle.ReadLineO
FileHandle. Close ()

The file is accessed through an object (see

Chapter 27) called a StreamReader.

Pascal

var FileHandle : TextFile;

var LineOfText : String;

AssignFile (FileHandle, 'SampieFiie.TXT');

Reset (FileHandle) ;

ReadLn(FileHandle, LineOfText);

CloseFile (FileHandle);

The TextFile data type enables read

access to a file. Note that the Reset
procedure opens the file for reading.

Appending to a text file

Sometimes we may wish to add data to an existing file rather than creating a new file. This
can be done in Append mode. It adds the new data to the end of the existing file.

The following pseudocode statements provide facilities for appending to a file:

OPENFILE FOR APPEND // open file for append

WRITEFILE , // write a line of text to the file

CLOSEFILE // close file
The following code examples demonstrate how to open, append to and close a file called
SampieFiie.TXT in each of the three languages.

Part 2

Chapter 13 Programming and Data Representation

Python

FileHandle = openCSampleFile.TXT", "a")

FileHandle.write(LineOf Text)

FileHandle. close ()

You specify the filename and mode (‘a’ for

append) when you call the open function.

VB.NET

Dim FileHandle As IO.StreamWriter

FileHandle = New

IO.StreamWriter("SampleFile.TXT", True)

FileHandle. WriteLine (LineOf Text)

FileHandle.Close ()

The file is accessed through a

StreamWriter. The extra parameter, True,

tells the system to append to the object.

Pascal

var LineOfText : String;

var FileHandle : TextFile;

AssignFile(FileHandle, 'SampleFile.TXT') ;

Append (FileHandle) ;

WriteLn(FileHandle, LineOfText) ;

CloseFile (FileHandle);

The TextFile data type enables append

access to a file. Note that the Append
procedure opens the file for appending.
The end-of-file (EoF) marker

If we want to read a file from beginning to end we can use a conditional loop. Text files
contain a special marker at the end of the file that we can test for. Testing for this special
end-
of-file marker is a standard function in programming languages. Every time this function is
called it will test for this marker. The function will return FALSE if the end of the file is not yet
reached and will return TRUE if the end-of-file marker has been reached.

In pseudocode we call this function eof(). We can use the construct repeat. . .until eof().
If it is possible that the file contains no data, it is better to use the construct while not

EOF().

For example, the following pseudocode statements read a text file and output its contents:

OPENFILE "Test.txt" FOR READ

WHILE NOT EOF ("Test.txt")

READFILE "Test.txt", Textstring

OUTPUT Textstring
ENDWHILE

CLOSEFILE "Test.txt"

The following code examples demonstrate how to output the contents of a file in each of the
three languages.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Python

FileHandle = open( M Test.txt", "r")

LineOfText = FileHandle.readline()
while len(LineOfText) > 0:

LineOfText = FileHandle.readline()
print (LineOfText)

FileHandle. close

There is no explicit EOF function. However,

when a line of text has been read that only
consists of the end-of-file marker, the line of
text is of length 0.

VB.NET
Dim LineOfText As String

Dim FileHandle As System. 10.StreamReader

FileHandle = New

System. 10. StreamReader ("Test .txt")

Do Until FileHandle.EndOfStream

LineOfText = FileHandle. ReadLineO

Console .WriteLine (LineOfText)

Loop

FileHandle. Close ()

When the end-of-file marker is detected,

the Endof stream method returns the value
True and so the loop will end.

Pascal

var FileHandle : TextFile;

var LineOfText : String;

AssignFile (FileHandle, 'Test.txt') ;

Reset (FileHandle) ;
while not EoF(Filehandle) do
begin

ReadLn(FileHandle, LineOfText);

WriteLn (LineOfText) ;

end;

CloseFile (FileHandle);

The eof function returns the value True

when the end-of-file marker is detected.

Exam-style Questions

1 Matt wants a program to output a conversion table for ounces to grams (1 ounce is 28.35
grams). He writes an algorithm:

OUTPUT "Ounces Grams"

FOR Ounces ^ 1 TO 30

Grams «- Rounded (Ounces * 28.35) // whole number of grams only

OUTPUT Ounces, Grams
ENDFOR

Write program code to implement the algorithm. Include formatting, so that the output is
tabulated. [7]

2 Write program code to accept an input string UseriD. The program is to test the useriD
format. A valid format useriD
consists of three uppercase letters and four digits. The program is to output a message
whether UseriD is valid or not. [5]

Fred surveys the students at his college to find outtheirfavourite hobby. He wants to present
the data as a tally chart.

Fred plans to enter the data into the computer as he surveys the students. After data entry
is complete, he wants to output the total for each hobby.

1 Reading books

\\

2 Play computer games

vwww

3 Sport

\\\

4 Programming

5 Watching TV

vwwww

He starts by writing an algorithm:

Initialise Tally array

REPEAT

INPUT Choice // 1 for Reading, 2 for computer games,

// 3 for Sport, 4 for Programming, 5 for TV

// 0 to end input
Increment Tally [Choice]
UNTIL Choice = 0
FOR Index = 1 TO 5
OUTPUT Tally [Index]

ENDFOR

a Write program code to declare and initialise the array Tally [1:5] of integer. [5]

b Write program code to implement the algorithm above. [7]

c Write program code to declare an array to store the hobby titles and rewrite the for loop of
your program in

part (b) so that the hobby title is output before each tally. [4]

d Write program code to save the array data in a text file. [5]

e Write program code to read the data from the text file back into the initialised array. [5]

rylN "

ok> x .dO’ v rf e

\Av

fo v

V *V\C

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ use a procedure and explain where in the construction of

an algorithm it is appropriate to use a procedure

■ show understanding of passing parameters by reference

and by value

■ use a function and explain where in the construction of an

algorithm it is appropriate to use a function

■ use the terminology associated with procedures and

functions: procedure/function header, procedure/
function interface, parameter, argument, return value

■ show understanding that a function is used in an

expression
■ write programs containing several components and
showing good use of resources.

Part 2

Chapter 14: Structured Programming

14.01 Terminology

Different programming languages use different terminology for their subroutines, as listed
in Table 14.01.

Pseudocode

PROCEDURE

FUNCTION

Python

void function

fruitful function

VB

Subroutine

Function

Pascal

procedure

function

Table 14.01 Programming language terminology for subroutines

14.02 Procedures

In Chapter 12 (Section 12.02), we used procedures as a means of giving a group of

statements
a name. When we want to program a procedure we need to define it before the main
program. We call it in the main program when we want the statements in the procedure body
to be executed.

In pseudocode, a procedure definition is written as:

PROCEDURE () // this is the procedure header

<statement(s)> // these statements are the procedure body

ENDPROCEDURE

This procedure is called using the pseudocode statement:

CALL <procedure!dentifier>()

Syntax definitions

Python

def ():

<statement(s)>

VB.NET

Sub ()

<statement (s) >

End Sub

Pascal

procedure ;

begin

<statement (s) >;

end;

When programming a procedure, note where the definition is written and how the procedure
is called from the main program.

Code examples

Here is an example pseudocode procedure definition:

PROCEDURE InputOddNumberO
REPEAT

INPUT "Enter an odd number: " Number

UNTIL Number MOD 2=1
ENDPROCEDURE

This procedure is called using the call statement:

CALL InputOddNumber()

213
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

214

Python

Figure 14.01 The Python editor with a procedure

The Python editor colour-codes the different parts of a statement. This helps
when you are typing your own code. The indentation shows which statements
are part of the loop.

The built-in function input returns a string, which must be converted to an

integer before it can be used as a number.

Figure 14.02 The Visual Basic Express editor with a procedure

The Visual Basic Express editor colour-codes different parts of the statement,
so it is easy to see if syntax errors are made. The editor also auto-indents and
capitalises keywords.

Variables need to be declared before they are used. The editor will follow the
capitalisation of the variable declaration when you type an identifier without
followingyour original capitalisation.

The editor is predictive: pop-up lists will show when you type the first part of a
statement.

When you execute the Main program, consoie.ReadLineO keeps the

run-time window open.

Pascal

Figure 14.03 The Pascal editor with a procedure

The Pascal editor automatically emboldens keywords.

The procedure body is enclosed within begin and end statements.

There is no semicolon after the keywords begin or repeat.

Variables need to be declared before they are used.

When you execute the main program, ReadLn keeps the run-time window
open. The main program finishes with end. (note the full stop).

TASK 14.01

Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 12.02 in Chapter
12.
14.03 Functions

In Chapter 13 (Section 13.08), we used built-in functions. These are useful subroutines
written
by other programmers and made available in module libraries. The most-used ones are
usually in the system library, so are available without having to explicitly import them.

You can write your own functions. Any function you have written can be used in another
program if you build up your own module library.

A function is used as part of an expression. When program execution gets to the statement
that includes a function call as part of the expression, the function is executed. The value
returned from this function call is then used in the expression.

When writing your own function, ensure you always return a value as part of the statements
that make up the function (the function body). You can have more than one RETURN
statement if there are different paths through the function body.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

216

In pseudocode, a function definition is written as:

FUNCTION () RETURNS // function header

<statement (s) > // function body
RETURN

ENDPROCEDURE

Syntax definitions

Python

def ():

<statement(s)>

return

VB.NET

Function () As

<statement(s)>

= 'Return

End Function
Pascal

function () : ;

begin

<statement (s) ;

result := ; // := ;

end;

When programming a function, the definition is written in the same place as a procedure.
The
function is called from within an expression in the main program, or in a procedure.

Code example

We can write the example procedure from Section 14.02 as a function. In pseudocode, this
is:

FUNCTION InputOddNumberO RETURNS INTEGER

REPEAT

INPUT "Enter an odd number: " Number

UNTIL Number MOD 2=1
RETURN Number
ENDFUNCTION

Python

Figure 14.04 The Python editor with a function and local variable

The variable Number in Figure 14.04 is not accessible in the main program. Python's
variables are local
unless declared to be global.

Chapter 14: Structured Programming

Part 2

VB.NET

Pascal

Figure 14.05 The VB.NET editor with (a) global variables and (b) a local variable
The variable Number in Figure 14.05(a) is declared
as a global variable at the start of the module. This
is not good programming practice.

In Figure 14.05(b), the variable Number is declared

as a local variable within the function.

HE

Jaixi

(b)

■—— -1 □ 1 X|

Project2 j 4 . „ .4 ,.

Project j 4- - -

program Project2; ^

program Project2; *■

{SAFFTYPE CONSOLE)

{SAFFTYPE CONSOLE}

uses

uses

SysUtils;

SysOtils;

var Number, NewNumber : integer;

var NewNumber ; integer;

function InputOddNumber : integer;

function InputOddNumber : integer;

begin _

var Number : integer;

repeat
begin _

Write('Enter an odd number: ');

repeat

ReadLn(Number);

Write('Enter an odd number: ');

until Number MOD 2=1;

ReadLn(Number) ;

Result := Number;

until Number MOD 2=1;

end;

Result := Number;

// ** IKa in program starts hers *

end;

begin

// ** raa i n program starts here *

NewNumber := InputOddNumber;

begin

ReadLn;

NewNumber := InputOddNumber;
end. ▼]

j ±r

ReadLn;

uL

end. w 1

j ±r

23: 11 Insert \Code/

jlL

25: 1 Modified Insert \Code/

Figure 14.06 The Pascal editor with (a) global variable and (b) local variable

The variable Number in Figure 14.06(a) is declared

as a global variable, outside the function. This is
not good programming practice.

In Figure 14.06(b), the variable Number is declared

as a local variable within the function.

217

A global variable is available in any part of the program code. It is good programming
practice to declare a variable that is only used within a subroutine as a local variable.

In Python, every variable is local, unless it is overridden with a global declaration. In VB.NET
and Pascal, you need to write the declaration statement for a local variable within the
subroutine.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

218

TASK 14.02

Write program code to implement the pseudocode from Worked Example 12.03 in Chapter
12.
The global and local variables are listed in Table 12.11.
14.04 Passing parameters to subroutines

When a subroutine requires one or more values from the main program, we supply these as
arguments to the subroutine at call time. This is how we use built-in functions. We don’t
need
to know the identifiers used within the function when we call a built-in function.

When we define a subroutine that requires values to be passed to the subroutine body, we
use a parameter list in the subroutine header. When the subroutine is called, we supply
the arguments in brackets. The arguments supplied are assigned to the corresponding
parameter of the subroutine (note the order of the parameters in the parameter list must be
the same as the order in the list of arguments). This is known as the subroutine interface.

14.05 Passing parameters to functions

The function header is written in pseudocode as:

FUNCTION () RETURNS

where is a list of identifiers and their data types, separated by commas.

Here is an example pseudocode function definition that uses parameters:

FUNCTION SumRange (FirstValue : INTEGER, LastValue : INTEGER) : INTEGER

DECLARE Sum, ThisValue : INTEGER
Sum <- 0

FOR ThisValue FirstValue TO LastValue

Sum Sum + ThisValue
ENDFOR
RETURN Sum
ENDFUNCTION

ProcedureExampie.py - C: /Users/Syh/ia / My

File Edit Format Run Options Windows Help

def SumRange (FirstValue, LastValue):

Sum = 0

for ThisValue in range(FirstValue, LastValue + 1):

Sum = Sum + ThisValue

return Sum

* main program starts here **

NewNumber = SumRange(1, 5)
print(NewNumber)

!Ln: 14[col7o

Figure 14.07 The SumRange() function in Python

Chapter 14: Structured Programming

ConsoleAppUcabonl - Microsoft

jJBliSl

File Edit View Project Debug Data Tools Window Help

I dp J -U - id 3 & -JI : , & Z Z *0 - ►

blModule Medulei

Dim Number, NewNumber As Integer

Function SumRange(ByVal FirstValue, ByVal LastValue)

Dim Sum, ThisValue As Integer
Sum = 0

For ThisValue = FirstValue To LastValue

Sum = Sum + ThisValue

Next

SumRange = Sum
End Function

Sub Main()

NewNumber = SumRange(1, 5)

Console.Write Line(NewNumber)

Console.ReadLine()

End Sub

Figure 14.08 The SumRange() function in VB.NET

Project J

program Project^;

{SAPPTYPE CONSOLE}
uses

SysUtils;

var NewNumber : integer;

function SumRange(FirstValue, LastValue : integer) :

var Sum, ThisValue : integer;
begin

Sum := 0;

for ThisValue ;= FirstValue to LastValue do

Sum := Sum + ThisValue;

Result := Sum;
end;

// *+ ma i n program starts here *

begin

NewNumber := SumRange(1, 5);

WriteLn(NewNumber);

ReadLn;
end.

| Insert

\Code/

JLi^

Figure 14.09 The SumRange() function in Pascal

TASK 14.03

Write a function to implement the following pseudocode:

FUNCTION Factorial (Number : INTEGER) : INTEGER

DECLARE Product : INTEGER
Product <- 1
FOR n e 2 TO Number

Product Product * n
ENDFOR

RETURN Product
ENDFUNCTION

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

14.06 Passing parameters to procedures

If a parameter is passed by value, at call time the argument can be an actual value (as we
showed in Section 14.04). If the argument is a variable, then a copy of the current value of
the
variable is passed into the subroutine. The value of the variable in the calling program is not
affected by what happens in the subroutine.

For procedures, a parameter can be passed by reference. At call time, the argument must
be
a variable. A pointerto the memory location of that variable is passed into the procedure. Any
changes that are applied to the variable’s contents will be effective outside the procedure in
the calling program/module.

KEYTERMS

By value: the actual value is passed into the procedure

By reference: the address of the variable is passed into the procedure

Note that neither of these methods of parameter passing applies to Python. In Python, the
method is called pass by object reference. This is basically an object-oriented way of
passing
parameters and is beyond the scope of this chapter (objects are dealt with in Chapter 27).
The important point is to understand how to program in Python to get the desired effect.

The full procedure header is written in pseudocode, in a very similar fashion to that for
function headers, as:

PROCEDURE ()

220

The parameter list needs more information for a procedure definition. In pseudocode, a
parameter in the list is represented in one of the following formats:

BYREF :

BYVAL cidentifier2> :

Passing parameters by value

The pseudocode for the pyramid example in Chapter 12 (Section 12.04) includes a
procedure
definition that uses two parameters passed by value. We can now make that explicit:
PROCEDURE OutputSymbols (BYVAL NumberOfSymbols : INTEGER, BYVAL Symbol :
CHAR)
DECLARE Count : INTEGER

FOR Count «- 1 TO NumberOfSymbols

OUTPUT Symbol // without moving to next line

ENDFOR

OUTPUT NewLine
ENDPROCEDURE

In Python (Figure 14.10), all parameters behave like local variables and their effect is as
though they are passed by value.

ProcedureExarnple.py - G/Users/Syhria/Hy

mr i' l’r v

File Edit Format Run Options Windows Help

def OutputSymbols (NumberOf Symbols, Symbol):

for Count in range (NumberOfSymbols) :

print(Symbol, end=" ' )

print ()

* main program starts here **

OutputSymbols(5, ' * '}

Figure 14.10 Parameters passed to a Python subroutine

InVB.NET (Figure 14.11), parameters default to passing by value. The keyword Byvai is
automatically inserted by the editor.

Figure 14.11 Parameters passed by value to a VB.NET procedure

In Pascal (Figure 14.12), there is no keyword for passing by value. This is the default
method.

Figure 14.12 Parameters passed by value to a Pascal procedure

Passing parameters by reference

The pseudocode forthe pyramid example generated in Chapter 12 (Section 12.04) includes
a
procedure definition that uses two parameters passed by reference. We can now make that
explicit:

PROCEDURE Adj ustValuesForNextRow (BYREF Spaces : INTEGER,

BYREF Symbols : INTEGER)

Spaces Spaces - 1
Symbols Symbols + 2
ENDPROCEDURE

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The pseudocode statement to call the procedure is:

CALL AdjustValuesForNextRow(NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols)

Python does not have a facility to pass parameters by reference. Instead the subroutine
behaves as a function and returns multiple values (see Figure 14.13). Note the order of the
variables as they receive these values in the main part of the program.

prQcedore3.py - O/Users/Sytoja/My Frog ramming/CUE Book/Chi j; python/

File Edit Format Run Options Windows Help

def AdjustValuesForNextRow(Spaces, Symbols):

Spaces = Spaces - 1
Symbols = Symbols + 2
return Spaces, Symbols

.JfllxJ

#*main program starts here ***

NumberOfSpaces = int(input())

NumberOfSymbols = int(input())

NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols = AdjustValuesForNextRow(NumberOfSpaces,

NumberOfSymbols)
print(NumberOfSpaces)
print(NumberOfSymbols)

,—r-UJ

-Ln: 6 |Col: 62

Figure 14.13 Multiple values returned from a Python subroutine

222
This way of treating a multiple of values as a unit is called a ‘tuple’. This concept is beyond
the
scope of this book. You can find out more by reading the Python help files.

In VB.NET (Figure 14.14), the ByRef keyword is placed in front of each parameter to be
passed
by reference.

E3 ConsoleAppfccatfonl - Microsoft Visual Basic 701

File Edit View Project Debug Data Tods Window Help

I JP lJ ciib A & , A 4 Ti = ^ 0 s

^Jnjxj

-j .5* -■ j

Figure 14.14 Parameters passed by reference to a VB.NET procedure

Part 2

Chapter 14:

In Pascal (Figure 14.15), The keyword var is placed in front of the declaration of parameters
to be passed by reference.

Figure 14.15 Parameters passed by reference to a Pascal procedure

TASK 14.04

1 Write program code to implement the structure chart from Figure 12.02 in Chapter 12
(for the average of two numbers).

2 Write program code to implement the structure chart from Figure 12.03 in Chapter 12
(for the number-guessing game).

3 Amend your program code from Task 14.02 to implement the interface shown in the
structure chart from Figure 12.05 in Chapter 12.

14.07 Putting it all together

The programs in this section are full solutions to the pyramid-drawing program developed in
Chapter 12 (Section 12.04).

The parameters of the subroutines have different identifiers from the variables in the main
program. This is done deliberately, so that it is quite clear that the parameters and local
variables within a subroutine are separate from those in the calling program or module.
If a parameter is passed by reference to a procedure, the parameter identifier within the
procedure references the same memory location as the variable identifier passed to the
procedure as argument.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

224

The pyramid-drawing program in PythonVB.NET and Pascal

Python

SPACE = ' ' # constant to give a space a name

def InputMaxNumberOf Symbols ():

Number = 0

while Number % 2 == 0:

print ("How many symbols make the base?")

Number = int(input("Input an odd number: "))

return Number

def SetValuesQ:

Symbol = input ("What symbol do you want to use? ")

MaxSymbols = InputMaxNumberOfSymbolsO

Spaces = (MaxSymbols + 1) // 2

Symbols = 1

return Symbol, MaxSymbols, Spaces, Symbols

def OutputChars (Number, Symbol):

for Count in range (Number):
print (Symbol, end= '')

def AdjustValuesForNextRow(Spaces, Symbols):

Spaces = Spaces - 1

Symbols = Symbols + 2
return Spaces, Symbols

def main():
ThisSymbol, MaxNumberOfSymbols, NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols = SetValuesO
while NumberOf Symbols <= MaxNumberOfSymbols:

OutputChars (NumberOf Spaces, SPACE)

OutputChars (NumberOf Symbols, ThisSymbol)

print () # move to new line

NumberOf Spaces, NumberOf Symbols = AdjustValuesForNextRow (NumberOf Spaces,

NumberOf Symbols)

main()

VB.NET

Module Module1

Const Space = " " 'constant to give a space a name

Dim NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols As Integer

Dim MaxNumberOfSymbols As Integer

Dim ThisSymbol As Char

Sub InputMaxNumberOf Symbols (ByRef Number As Integer)

Do

Console.WriteLine("How many symbols make the base?")

Console. Write ("Input an odd number: ")

Number = onsole.ReadLineO

Loop Until (Number Mod 2 = 1)

End Sub

Sub SetValues (ByRef Symbol, ByRef MaxSymbols, ByRef Spaces, ByRef Symbols)

Console .Write("What symbol do you want to use? ")

Symbol = Console. ReadLineO

InputMaxNumberOf Symbols (MaxSymbols)

Spaces = (MaxSymbols + 1) \ 2

Symbols = 1
End Sub

Chapter 14: Structured Programming

Sub OutputChars (ByVal Number, ByVal Symbol)

Dim Count As Integer

For Count = 1 To Number

Consol .Write (Symbol)

Next

End Sub

Sub AdjustValuesForNextRow(ByRef Spaces, ByRef Symbols)

Spaces = Spaces - 1

Symbols = Symbols + 2

End Sub

Sub Main()

SetValues(ThisSymbol, MaxNumberOfSymbols, NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols)

Do

OutputChars (NumberOf Spaces, Space)

OutputChars (NumberOf Symbols, ThisSymbol)

Console.WriteLineO 'move to new line

AdjustValuesForNextRow (NumberOf Spaces, NumberOf Symbols)

Loop Until NumberOfSymbols > MaxNumberOfSymbols

Consol .ReadLineO

End Sub

End Module

Pascal

program Project2;

{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}
uses

SysUtils;

const Space = ' 1 ; // constant to give a space a name

var NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols : integer;

var MaxNumberOfSymbols : integer;
var SymbolsThisSymbol : char;
procedure InputMaxNumberOfSymbols (var Number : integer);
begin

repeat

WriteLnCHow many symbols make the base?');

Write ('Input an odd number: ');

ReadLn (Number) ;
until Number MOD 2 = 1;

end;

procedure SetValues (var Symbol : char; var MaxSymbols, Spaces, Symbols : integer);
begin

Write ('What symbol do you want to use? '),*

ReadLn (Symbol) ;

InputMaxNumberOf Symbols (MaxSymbols) ;

Spaces := (MaxSymbols + 1) DIV 2;

Symbols := 1;

end;

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

226

procedure OutputChars(Number : integer; Symbol : char);

var Count : integer;

begin

for Count := 1 to Number do

Write (Symbol) ;
end;

procedure AdjustValuesForNextRow(var Spaces, Symbols : integer);

begin

Spaces := Spaces - 1;

Symbols := Symbols + 2;

end;

// ** ma ± n program starts here *

begin

SetValues(ThisSymbol, MaxNumberOfSymbols, NumberOfSpaces, NumberOfSymbols);

repeat

OutputChars (NumberOfSpaces, Space) ;

OutputChars (NumberOf Symbols, ThisSymbol) ;

WriteLn; // move to new line

AdjustValuesForNextRow (NumberOf Spaces, NumberOf Symbols) ;

until NumberOfSymbols > MaxNumberOfSymbols;

ReadLn; // to keep the window open

end.

Discussion Point:

Can you see how the two procedures outputspaces and outputsymbois have been
replaced by a single procedure OutputChars without changing the effect of the program?

• Declaration of subroutines (functions and procedures) is done before the main program
body.

• Calling a procedure is a program statement.

• Calling a function is done within an expression, for example an assignment.

• VB.NET and Pascal functions return exactly one value.

• Parameters can be passed to a subroutine. This is known as the interface.

• VB.NET and Pascal pass parameters by value, as a default, but can return one or more
values via parameters if they are
declared as reference parameters.
• In Python, parameters can only pass values into a subroutine. The only way to update a
value of a variable in the calling
program is to return one or more values from a function.

• When a subroutine is defined, parameters are the ‘placeholders’ for values passed into a
subroutine.

• Arguments are the values passed to the subroutine when it is called.

Exam-style Questions

Chapter 14: Structured Programming

1 Write program code for a procedure OutputTimesTabie that takes one integer parameter,
n, and outputs the times
table torn. For example the procedure call OutputTimesTabie (5) should produce:

1x5 = 5

2 x 5 = 10

3 x 5 = 15

4 x 5 = 20

5 x 5 = 25

6 x 5 = 30

7 x 5 = 35

8 x 5 = 40

9 x 5 = 45

10 x 5 = 50 [6]

2 Write program code for a function isDivisibleO that takes two integer parameters, x and y.
The function is to
return the value True or False to indicate whether x is exactly divisible by y. For example,
isDivisibie (24, 6)

should return True and isDivisibie(24, i) should return False.. [6]

3 A poultry farm packs eggs into egg boxes. Each box takes six eggs. Boxes must not
contain fewer than six eggs.

Write program code for a procedure EggsintoBoxes that takes an integer parameter,
Numberof Eggs. The procedure
is to calculate how many egg boxes can be filled with the given number of eggs and how
many eggs will be left over. The
procedure is to return two values as parameters, NumberofBoxes and EggsLef tover. [9]

227

<1 rticf C '

^t/

CtoiptsrII

Software Development

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of the design, coding and testing

stages in the program development cycle

■ show understanding of how to write, translate, test and

run a high-level language program

■ describe features found in a typical Integrated

Development Environment (IDE):

• for coding, including context-sensitive prompts

• for initial error detection, including dynamic syntax

checks

• for presentation, including prettyprint, expand and

collapse code blocks

• for debugging, including: single stepping, breakpoints,

variables/expressions report window

■ show understanding of ways of exposing faults in

programs and ways of avoiding faults

■ locate and identify the different types of errors (syntax

errors, logic errors and run-time errors)

■ correct identified errors

■ choose suitable data for black-box testing

■ understand the need for stub testing

■ perform white-box testing by selecting suitable data and
using a trace table

■ identify any error(s) in the algorithm by using the

completed trace table and amend the algorithm if
required

■ make amendments to an algorithm and data structure in

response to specification changes

■ analyse an existing program and make amendments to

enhance functionality.

Part 2

Chapter 15: Software Development

i 15.01 Stages in the program development cycle

Problem solving

The first step in solving a problem is to define it clearly. This is usually done in structured
jt English (See Chapter 11, Section 11.02) and is known as a ‘specification’.

The next step is planning a solution. Sometimes there is more than one solution. You need
to
decide which is the most appropriate.

The third step is to decide how to solve the problem:

• bottom-up: start with a small sub-problem and then build on this

• top-down: stepwise refinement using pseudocode, flowcharts or structure charts.

Design

You have a solution in mind. How do you design the solution in detail? Chapter 11 (Section
11.04) showed that an identifier table is a good starting point. This leads you to thinking
about data structures: do you need a ID array or a 2D array to store data while it is
processed? Do you need a file to store data long-term?

Plan your algorithm by drawing a flowchart or writing pseudocode.

[»

i
\

Coding

When you have designed your solution you may need to choose a suitable high-level
programming language. If you know more than one programming language, you have to
weigh up the pros and cons of each one. Looking at Chapter 13, you need to decide which
programming language would best suit the problem you are trying to solve and which
language you are most familiar with.

You implement your algorithm by converting your pseudocode into program code.
Depending on your editor you may have some helpful facilities (for features to expect see
Section 15.02).

Some syntax errors may be flagged up by your editor, so you can correct these as you go
along. A syntax error is a ‘grammatical’ error, in which a program statement does not follow
the rules of the high-level language constructs.

KEY TERMS

Syntax error: an error in which a program statement does not follow the rules of the
language

229

Translation

Some syntax errors may only become apparent when you are using an interpreter or
compiler to translate your program. Interpreters and compilers work differently (see Chapter
7, Section 7.05, and Chapter 20, Section 20.05). When a program compiles successfully,
you
know there will be no syntax errors remaining.

1 This is not the case with interpreted programs. Only statements that are about to be

[ executed will be syntax checked. So, if your program has not been thoroughly tested, it
may

I even have syntax errors remaining.

Figure 15.01 gives an example of how a compiler flags a syntax error. The compiler stops
when it first notices a syntax error. The error is often on the previous line. The compiler can’t
tell until it gets to the next line of code and finds an unexpected keyword.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

IS ProjectZ.dpr

Project2
program Froject2;

{$APFTYPE CONSOLE}

uses

SysUtils;

const Space = ' ';

var NuififcerOfSpaces, NumberOfSyxnbols : integer

arj MaxNumberOf Symbols

var symbol : char;

procedure InputMaxNuicberOfSymbols (var Number : integer) j

begin

repeat

WriteLn('How many symbols make the base?');

Write('Input an odd number: ');

ReadLn(Number);
until Number MOD 2-1;
end;

9: G Insert I \ Code/

[Error] Project. dpr(9):expected but VAR 1 found -*■

1 The compiler gives an error

message with a suggestion
of what might be wrong

iBuiidr

Figure 15.01 Syntax error in a Pascal program

230

Execution

When you start writing programs you may find it takes several attempts before the program
compiles. When it finally does, you can execute it. It may ‘crash’, meaning that it stops
working. In this case, you need to debug the code. The program may run and give you some
output. This is the Eureka moment: ‘it works!!!!’. But does the program do what it was meant
to do?

Testing

Only thorough testing can ensure the program really works under all circumstances (see
Sections 15.03 to 15.05).

Discussion Point:

Do you think that all programs can be totally error-free?

15.02 Features found in a typical Integrated Development

Environment (IDE)

Prettyprinting

Prettyprint refers to the presentation of the program code typed into an editor. It includes
indentation, colour-coding of keywords and comments.

Part 2

Chapter 15: Software Development

Python

IDLE (see Figure 15.02) automatically colour-codes keywords, built-in function calls,
comments, strings and the identifier in a function header. Indentation is automatic. When
you need to unindent after a block of statements, delete the spaces provided.

Figure 15.02 Prettyprint in IDLE

VB.NET

The editor provided by Visual Studio (see Figure 15.03) automatically colour-codes
keywords,
object references (such as console), comments and strings. The editor automatically indents
blocks of code correctly.

231

Figure 15.03 Prettyprint in Visual Studio

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

232

Pascal
This Delphi editor (see Figure 15.04) emboldens keywords and colour-codes strings,
comments and system directives (such as {apptype console}). When the programmer
indents a line of code, the next line is automatically indented by the same amount.

Figure 15.04 Prettyprint in the Delphi editor

Context-sensitive prompts

This feature displays hints or a choice of keywords and available identifiers appropriate at
the
current insertion point of the program code.

Figure 15.05 shows an example of the Visual Studio editor responding to text typed in by the
programmer.

EJ ConsoleApplicationl - Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 Express

File Edit View Project Debug Data Tools Window Help

i -I AS -j i IS ' • • ►

1 When you type ‘f’, a pop-up

list appears, displaying all
possible keywords and
identifiers starting with ‘F’

Sub SetValues(ByRef Symbol, ByRef MaxSymbols, ByRef Spaces, ByRef Symbols)

£le.Write("What symbol do you want to use? ")

Console.ReadLine()

4axNumberOfSymbols(MaxSymbols)

= (MaxSymbols + 1) \ 2
Ls = 1

OutputChar(ByVal Number.
Dim Count As Integer

' • ! FirstWeekOfYear
v Fix

FlagsAttribute
isl For
fi! For Each'

Sub ^ ForeignKeyConstraint
v Format
v FormatCurrency
<S FnrmatnatVTime
■ Common All

ByVal Symbol)

2 Choose the
required keyword

For statement

Introduces a loop that is iterated a specified number of times.

Note: Tab twice to insert the ’For^ snippet

irOfSpaces, NumberOfS'

INC

VE

zJ

3 An explanation of the chosen

construct appears. Pressing
the TAB key twice will put the
FOR loop construct into the code

Figure 15.05 Context-sensitive prompts in the Visual Studio editor

Chapter 15: Software Development

In Figure 15.06, the Python editor, IDLE, shows the required parameters after a function
identifier has been typed in by the programmer.

*procedure3.py - Q/Users/Sylvia/My Programming/QE Book/Chl3/python/p

File Edit Format Run Options Windows Help

SPACE = ' * # constant to give a space a name

def InputMaxNumberOfSymbols():

Number = 0

while Number % 2 = 0:

print("How many symbols make the base?")

Number = int(input( "Input an cdd number: "))
return Number

def SetValues():

Symbol * input("What symbol do you want to use? ")

MaxSymbols = InputMaxNumberOfSymbols()

Spaces = (MaxSymbols +1) // 2

Symbols = 1

return Symbol, MaxSymbols, Spaces, Symbols

def OutputChar(Number, Symbol):

for Count in range(Number):
print(

Pop-up text shows that print list elements

are separated by commas and the
parameters that you can specify (the
separator (sep) and how a line should end)

print(value, ..., sep=' end='\n', file=sys.stdout)

Ln: lSiCol: 12

Figure 15.06 Context-sensitive prompts in IDLE

Dynamic syntax checks

When a line has been typed, some editors perform syntax checks and alert the programmer
to errors.
Figure 15.07 shows an example of the Visual Studio editor responding to a syntax error.

ConsoleAppficationl - Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 Express

Fde Edit View Project Debug Data Tools Window Help

JP -Ll 'AS /- i -A

Modulel.vb* x

SModule Modulel

Const Space := " " ' constant to give a space a name

Dim NumberOf End of statement expected. s As integer

Dim MaxNumbe
Dim Symbol As Char
100 % - 4

The blue underline shows that

there is a syntax error.

As you move the mouse

pointer over different parts of
the line of code, the editor will
display explanations.

Here the mouse pointer

hovered under the := symbol. ,

1 Hei
l ho\

233

Figure 15.07 Dynamic syntax check in the Visual Studio editor

Expanding and collapsing code blocks

When working on program code consisting of many lines of code, it saves excessive
scrolling
if you can collapse blocks of statements.

Figure 15.08 shows the Visual Studio editor window with the procedures collapsed, so the
programmer can see the global variable declarations and the main program body. The
procedure
headings are still visible to help the programmer supply the correct arguments when calling
one of
these procedures from the main program.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

234

Figure 15.08 Collapsed code blocks in the Visual Studio editor

TASK 15.01

Investigate the facilities in the editors you have available. If you have a choice of editors, you
may like to use the editor with the most helpful facilities.

15.03 Testing strategies

Finding syntax errors is easy. The compiler/interpreter will find themforyou and usually gives
you a hint as to what is wrong.
Much more difficult to find are logic errors and run-time errors. A run-time error occurs when
program execution comes to an unexpected halt or ‘crash’ or it goes into an infinite loop and
‘freezes’.

KEY TERMS

Logic error: an error in the logic of the solution that causes it not to behave as intended
Run-time error: an error that causes program execution to crash or freeze

Both of these types of error can only be found by careful testing. The danger of such errors
is that
they may only manifest themselves under certain circumstances. If a program crashes every
time it
is executed, it is obvious there is an error. If the program is used frequently and appears to
work until

•w

Chapter 15: Software Development

a certain set of data causes a malfunction, that is much more difficult to discover without
perhaps
serious consequences.

Stub testing

When you develop a user interface, you may wish to test it before you have implemented all
the facilities. You can write
a ‘stub’ for each procedure (see Figure 15.09). The procedure body only contains an output
statement to acknowledge
that the call was made. Each option the user chooses in the main program will call the
relevant procedure.

235

Figure 15.09 VB.NET stub testing

Black-box testing

As the programmer, you can see your program code and your testing will involve knowledge
of the code (see the next section, about white-box testing).
As part of thorough testing, a program should also be tested by other people, who do not
see
the program code and don’t know how the solution was coded.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

236

Such program testers will look at the program specification to see what the program is
meant to do, devise test data and work out expected results. Test data usually consists of
normal data values, boundary data values and erroneous data values.

The tester then runs the program with the test data and records their results. This method of
testing is called black-box testing because the tester can’t see inside the program code: the
program is a ‘black box’.

Where the actual results don’t match the expected results, a problem exists. This needs
further investigation by the programmer to find the reason for this discrepancy and correct
the program (see Section 15.06). Once black-box testing has established that there is an
error, other methods (see Sections 15.04 and 15.05) have to be employed to find the lines of
code that need correcting.

KEY TERMS

Test data: carefully chosen values that will test a program

Black-box testing: comparing expected results with actual results when a program is run

White-box testing

How can we check that code works correctly? We choose suitable test data that checks
every
path through the code.

KEY TERMS

White-box testing: testing every path through the program code

WORKED EXAMPLE 15.01

White-box testing of pseudocode

This is the pseudocode from Worked Example 11.02 in Chapter 11:

INPUT Numberl
INPUT Number2
INPUT Number3
IF Numberl > Number2
THEN // Numberl is bigger

IF Numberl > Number3

THEN

OUTPUT Numberl
ELSE

OUTPUT Number3

ENDIF

ELSE // Number2 is bigger

IF Number2 > Number3

THEN

OUTPUT Number2
ELSE

OUTPUT Number3

ENDIF

ENDIF

Chapter 15: Software Development

To test it, we need four sets of numbers with the following characteristics:

• The first number is the largest.

• The first number larger than the second number; the third number is the largest.

• The second number is the largest.

• The second number is larger than the first number; the third number is the largest.
Note that it does not matter what exact values are chosen as test data. The important point
is that the values differ in such a way that each part of the nested if statement is checked.
Table 15.01 lists four sets of test data and the results from them. The parts of the algorithm
not entered fora particular set of data are greyed out. This makes it easier to see that each
part has been checked after all four tests have been done.

Line of algorithm

INPUT Numberl

Test 1

15
INPUT Number2

12

INPUT Number3

IF Numberl > Number2

TRUE

THEN

IF Numberl > Number3

TRUE

THEN

OUTPUT Numberl

Output 15

ELSE

OUTPUT Number3

ENDIF

ELSE

IF Number2 > Number3

THEN

OUTPUT Number2

ELSE

OUTPUT Number3

ENDIF

ENDIF

Table 15.01 Testing the validity of the nested IF statement

For more white-box testing methods see Sections 15.04 and 15.05.

237

15.04 Program testing using the IDE

Debugging is the action of finding and correcting errors (‘bugs’) in a program. An IDE often
contains features to help with debugging.

KEYTERMS

Debugging: finding and correcting errors in a program

Python

To debug using IDLE, from the Python Shell (see Figure 15.10), choose Debugger from the
Debug menu.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Open the source program from the File menu. To set a breakpoint, right-click on the line you
want to set the breakpoint on.

Start running the program by clicking the Go button in the Debug Control window. The
program stops at the breakpoint (Figure 15.11(a)). Then click the Step button to execute one
instruction at a time.

The Debug Control window (Figure 15.11(b)) shows which line number is about to be
executed (line 4 in the example). The contents of all variables are also displayed in the
Debug
Control window.

238

Figure 15.10 Python Shell with Debugger switched on

-JnJxJ

File Edit Format Run Options Windows

Help

Total = 0

Numbers = 0

NewNumber = int(input())

while NewNumber ! = -1:

NewNumber = int(input())
Numbers = Numbers + 1

Total = Total + NewNumber

Average = Total / Numbers
print (Total, Average)

Ln: 4|Col: 1

Figure 15.11 (a) Python program showing a breakpoint and (b) the Debug Control window

VB.NET

In Visual Studio (see Figure 15.12(a)), you can set breakpoints by clicking in the left margin
of
the editor.

Click on Run to run the program and enter data (se e Figu re 15.12(b)). When your program
reaches the breakpoint, use the ‘Step Into’ button ( ) to single-step through your

program.

To set up a variable watch window, select Windows from the Debug menu and choose
Watch.
A table is displayed at the bottom of the editor (see Figure 15.12(a)) and you can type in the
variable names you want to inspect.

Part 2

Chapter 15: Software Development

Dim Total, Numbers, NewNumber As Intel Breakpoint set

Dim Average As Single J on this line

~~i/ iiwmn.a _» — xuwvki j i j.

Total = Total + NewNumber

Loop

Average = Total / Numbers

Console.Writeline(Total, Average)
Console.ReadLine()

End Sub

Watch

window

End Module
(a)

(b)

Figure 15.12 VB.NET (a) program with breakpoint and (b) run window with input

Pascal

In the Delphi editor, you need to switch the debugger on before compiling your program:
in the Tools menu, select Debugger Options and ensure the Integrated Debugger option is
ticked.

You can now set breakpoints by clicking in the left margin of the editor (see Figure 15.13(a)).

Click on Run. When your program reaches the breakpoint, use the Trace into’ button ( # )

to single-step through your program, entering data (see Figure 15.13(b)).

To set up a variable watch window, from the Run menu, choose ‘Add Watch ../. Type one
variable name at a time into the Expression box and click Ok. To see the watch window, from
the View menu, choose ‘Debug windows’ and ‘Watches’ (see Figure 15.13(c)).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

240

(C)

Figure 15.13 Pascal (a) program with breakpoint, (b) run window with input and (c) watch
window

15.05 Dry-running an algorithm

A good way of checking that an algorithm works as intended is to dry-run the algorithm
using a trace table and different test data.

The idea is to write down the current contents of all variables and conditional values at each
step of the algorithm.

KEY TERMS

Dry-run: the process of checking the execution of an algorithm or program by recording

variable
values in a trace table

Trace table: a table with a column for each variable that records their changing values

Part 2

Chapter 15
WORKED EXAMPLE 15.02

Tracing an algorithm

Here is the algorithm of the number-guessing game:

SecretNumber 34

INPUT "Guess a number: " Guess

NumberOfGuesses 1

REPEAT

IF Guess = SecretNumber
THEN

OUTPUT "You took" NumberOfGuesses "guesses"

ELSE

IF Guess > SecretNumber

THEN

INPUT "Guess a smaller number: " Guess

ELSE

INPUT "Guess a larger number: " Guess

ENDIF

NumberOfGuesses NumberOfGuesses + 1

ENDIF

UNTIL Guess = SecretNumber

To test the algorithm, construct a trace table (Table 15.02) with one column for each
variable used in the algorithm and also for the condition Guess > SecretNumber

Now carefully look at each step of the algorithm and record what happens. Note that
we do not tend to write down values that don’t change. Here SecretNumber does not
change after the initial assignment, so the column is left blank in subsequent rows.

SecretNumber

Guess

NumberOfGuesses

Guess >
SecretNumber

Message

34

FALSE

.. .larger...

55

TRUE

.. .smaller...

30

FALSE

.. .larger...

42

TRUE

.. .smaller...

36

TRUE

.. .smaller...

33

FALSE
.. .larger...

34

... 7 guesses

Table 15.02 Trace table for number-guessing game

We only make an entry in a cell when an assignment occurs. Values remain in variables
until they are overwritten. So a blank cell means that the value from the previous entry
remains.

It is important to start filling in a new row in the trace table for each iteration (each time
round the loop).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

242

WORKED EXAMPLE 15.03

Tracing an algorithm

To test the improved algorithm of Worked Example 11.12 (bubble sort), dry-run the
algorithm by completing the trace table (Table 15.03).

Maxlndex 7
n Maxlndex - 1
REPEAT

NoMoreSwaps TRUE
FOR j 1 TO n

IF MyList [j] > MyList[j + 1]

THEN

Temp MyList[j]

MyList [j] MyList [j + 1]

MyList[j + 1] Temp
NoMoreSwaps FALSE

ENDIF
ENDFOR
nn-1
UNTIL NoMoreSwaps = TRUE

Max

NoMoreSwaps

MyList [j] >

Temp

MyList

Index

MyList [j + 1]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

34

98

41

19

25
TRUE

FALSE

FALSE

FALSE

TRUE

98

98

TRUE

98

41

98

TRUE

98

19

98

TRUE

98

25

98
5

TRUE

FALSE

FALSE

TRUE

34

34

FALSE

TRUE

41

19

41

TRUE

41

25

41

TRUE

FALSE
2

FALSE

FALSE

TRUE

34

19

34

TRUE

34

25

34

TRUE

FALSE

FALSE

FALSE

Table 15.03 Trace table for improved bubble sort algorithm

Part 2

TASK 15.02
Design a trace table for the following algorithm:

FUNCTION ConvertFromHex(HexString : STRING) RETURNS INTEGER

DECLARE ValueSoFar, HexValue, HexLength, i : INTEGER
DECLARE HexDigit : CHAR
ValueSoFar 0

HexLength Length(HexString)

FOR i <- 1 TO HexLength

HexDigit HexString [i]

CASE OF HexDigit

'A': HexValue 10

'B': HexValue 11

•C': HexValue 12

'D': HexValue «- 13
'E': HexValue 14

•F': HexValue 15

OTHERWISE HexValue StringToInt (HexDigit)

ENDCASE

ValueSoFar ValueSoFar * 16 + HexValue

ENDFOR

RETURN ValueSoFar
ENDFUNCTION

Dry-run the function call ConvertFromHex('A5') by completing the trace table.

15.06 Corrective maintenance

Maintaining programs is not like maintaining a mechanical device. It doesn't need lubricating
and parts don't wear out. Corrective maintenance of a program refers to the work required
when a program is not working correctly due to a logic error or because of a run-time error.
Sometimes program errors don’t become apparent for a tong time because it is only under
very rare circumstances that there is an unexpected result or the program crashes. These
circumstances might arise because part of the program is not used often or because the
data
on an occasion includes extreme values.
G

Corrective maintenance: correcting identified errors

When a problem is reported, the programmer needs to find out what is causing the bug. To
find a bug, a programmer either uses the features found in an IDE (see Section 15.04) or a
trace table (see Section 15.05).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 15.03

Design a trace table for the following algorithm:

INPUT Binarystring

StringLength <- Length(BinaryString)

FOR i «- 1 TO StringLength
Bit Binarystring [i]

BitValue IntegerValue (Bit) // convert string to integer

DenaryValue <- DenaryValue + 2 + BitValue
ENDFOR

1 Dry-run the algorithm using 'ior as the input. Complete the trace table.

2 The result should be 5. Can you find the error in the code and correct it?

15.07 Adaptive maintenance

Programs often get changed to make them perform functions they were not originally
designed to do.

For example, the Connect 4 game introduced in Chapter 12 (Worked Example 12.03) allows
two players, 0 and X, to play against each other. An amended version would be for one
player
to be the computer. This would mean a single player could try and win against the computer.

Adaptive maintenance is the action of making amendments to a program to enhance

functionality or in response to specification changes.

244 I

Adaptive maintenance: amending a program to enhance functionality or in response to

specification changes

TASK 15.04

Design the algorithm to simulate the computer playing the part of Player X in Connect 4.
Chapter 15: Software Development

Exam-style Questions

1 Consider this code for a function:

FUNCTION Binary (Number : INTEGER) : STRING

DECLARE Binarystring : STRING
DECLARE PlaceValue : INTEGER
Binarystring 1 ' // empty string
PlaceValue «- 8
REPEAT

IF Number >= PlaceValue

THEN

Binarystring Binarystring & '1' // concatenates two strings

Number ^ Number - PlaceValue
ELSE

Binarystring Binarystring & 'O'

PlaceValue PlaceValue DIV 2

UNTIL Number = 0
RETURN Binarystring

ENDFUNCTION

a Dry-run the function call Binary (n) by completing the given trace table.

Number

Binarystring

PlaceValue

Number >= PlaceValue

11

11

What is the return value?

b i Now dry-run the function call Binary do) by completing the given trace table.

Number
Binarystring

PlaceValue

Number >= PlaceValue

10

11

24£

[5]

What is the return value? [3]

ii The algorithm is supposed to convert a denary integer into the equivalent binary number,
stored as a

string of Os and Is. Explain the result of each dry-run and what needs changing in the given
algorithm. [3]

246

Chapter 16

Data Representation

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of why user-defined types are

necessary

■ define composite and non-composite types

■ show understanding of methods of file organisation and

of file access

■ select an appropriate method of file organisation and file

access for a given problem

■ describe the format of binary floating-point real numbers

■ normalise floating-point numbers and show

understanding of the reasons for normalisation
■ show understanding of the effects of changing the
allocation of bits to mantissa and exponent in a floating¬
point representation

■ convert binary floating-point real numbers into denary

and vice versa

■ show understanding of the consequences of a binary

representation only being an approximation to the real
number it represents and that binary representations can
give rise to rounding errors

■ show understanding of how underflow and overflow can

occur.

16.01 User-defined data types

This chapter must start with a clarification. It is generally accepted that a programmer writes
a program which is to be used by a ‘user’ in the same way that an operating system provides
a 'user’ interface. However, in the activity of programming the programmer now becomes the
'used of the programming language. The term ‘user-defined data type’ applies to this latter
type of user.

Non-composite user-defined data types

A non-composite data type has a definition which does not involve a reference to another
type. The simple built-in types such as integer or real are obvious examples. When a
programmer uses a simple built-in type the only requirement is for an identifier to be named
with a defined type. A user-defined type has to be explicitly defined before an identifier can
be created. Two examples are discussed here.

Enumerated data type

An enumerated data type defines a list of possible values. The following pseudocode
shows two examples of type definitions:

TYPE

TDirections = (North, East, South, West)

TDays = (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday)

Variables can then be declared and assigned values, for example:

DECLARE Directionl : TDirections

DECLARE StartDay : TDays
Directionl North
StartDay <- Wednesday
It is important to note that the values of the enumerated type look like string values but they
are not. They must not be enclosed in quote marks.

The values defined in an enumerated data type are ordinal. This means that they have an
implied order of values. This makes the second example much more useful because the
ordering can be put to many uses in a program. For example, a comparison statement can
be
used with the values and variables of the enumerated data type:

DECLARE Weekend : Boolean

DECLARE Day : TDays

Weekend = TRUE IF Day > Friday

Enumerated data type: a list of possible data values

Pointer data type

A pointer data type is used to reference a memory location. It may be used to construct
dynamically varying data structures.

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The pointer definition has to relate to the type of the variable that is being pointed to. The
pseudocode for the definition of a pointer is illustrated by:

TYPE

TMyPointer = *

Declaration of a variable of pointer type does not require the caret symbol ( A ) to be used:

DECLARE MyPointer : TMyPointer

A special use of a pointer variable is to access the value stored at the address pointed to.
The
pointer variable is said to be ‘dereferenced’:

ValuePointedTo MyPointer*

Composite user-defined data types

A composite user-defined data type has a definition with reference to at least one other type.
Three examples are considered here.

Record data type

A record data type is the most useful and therefore most widely used. It allows the
programmer to collect together values with different data types when these form a coherent
whole.

248

KEY TERMS

Record data type: a data type that contains a fixed number of components, which can be of
different
types

As an example, a record could be used for a program using employee data. Pseudocode for
defining the type could be:

TYPE

TEmployeeRecord

DECLARE EmployeeFirstName : STRING

DECLARE EmployeeFamilyName : STRING
DECLARE DateEmployed : DATE
DECLARE Salary : CURRENCY
ENDTYPE

An individual data item can then be accessed using a dot notation:

Employeel.DateEmployed «- #16/05/2017 #

A particular use of a record is for the implementation of a data structure where one or
possibly two of the variables defined are pointer variables.

Set data type

A set data type allows a program to create sets and to apply the mathematical operations
defined in set theory. The following is a representative list of the operations to be expected:

• union

• difference

• intersection

Chapter 16: Data Representation

• include an element in the set

• exclude an element from the set

• check whether an element is in a set.

Objects and classes

In object-oriented programming, a program defines the classes to be used - they are all
user-defined data types. Then for each class the objects must be defined. Chapter 27
(Section 27.03) has a full discussion of this subject.

Why are user-defined data types necessary?

When object-oriented programming is not being used a programmer may choose not to use
any user-defined data types. However, for any reasonably large program it is likely that their
use will make a program more understandable and less error-prone. Once the programmer
has decided because of this advantage to use a data type that is not one of the built-in types
then user-definition is inevitable. The use of, for instance, an integer variable is the same
for any program. However, there cannot be a built-in record type because each different
problem will need an individual definition of a record.

16.02 File organisation

In everyday computer usage, a wide variety of file types is encountered. Examples are
graphic
files, word-processing files, spreadsheet files and so on. Whatever the file type, the content
is
stored using a defined binary code that allows the file to be used in the way intended.

249

For the very specific task of storing data to be used by a computer program, there are only
two defined file types. A file is either a text file or a binary file. A text file, as discussed in
Chapter 13 (Section 13.09), contains data stored according to a defined character code as
defined in Chapter 1 (Section 1.03). It is possible, by using a text editor, to create a text file.

A binary file stores data in its internal representation, for example an integer value might be
stored in two bytes in two’s complement representation. This type of file will be created using
a specific program.

The organisation of a binary file is based on the concept of a record. A file contains records
and each record contains fields. Each field consists of a value.

KEYTERMS

Binary file: a file designed for storing data to be used by a computer program
Record: a collection of fields containing data values

Discussion Point:

A record is a user-defined data type. It is also a component of a file. Can there be or should
there be any relationship between these two concepts?

Serial files
A serial file contains records which have no defined order. A typical use of a serial file would
be for a bank to record transactions involving customer accounts. A program would be
running. Each time there was a withdrawal or a deposit the program would receive the

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details as data input and would record these in a transaction file. The records would enter
the file in chronological order but otherwise the file would have no ordering of the records.

A text file can be considered to be a type of serial file but it is different because the file has
repeating lines which are defined by an end-of-line character or characters. There is no end-
of-record character. A record in a serial file must have a defined format to allow data to be
input and output correctly.

Sequential files

A sequential file has records that are ordered. It is the type of file suited to long-term
storage of data. As such it should be the type of file that is considered as an alternative to a
database. The discussion in Chapter 10 (Section 10.01) compared a text file with a database
but the arguments for using a database remain the same if a sequential file is used for the
comparison. In the banking scenario, a sequential file could be used as a master file for an
individual customer account. Periodically, the transaction file would be read and all affected
customer account master files would be updated.

In order to allow the sequential file to be ordered there has to be a key field for which the
values are unique and sequential but not necessarily consecutive. It is worth emphasising
the difference between key fields and primary keys in a database table, where the values
are required to be unique but not to be sequential. In a sequential file, a particular record is
found by sequentially reading the value of the key field until the required value is found.

250

Direct-access files

Direct-access files are sometimes referred to as ‘random-access’ files but, as with random-
access memory, the randomness is only that the access is not defined by a sequential
reading of the file. For large files, direct access is attractive because of the time that would
be taken to search through a sequential file. In an ideal scenario, data in a direct-access file
would be stored in an identifiable record which could be located immediately when required.
Unfortunately, this is not possible. Instead, data is stored in an identifiable record but finding
it may involve an initial direct access to a nearby record followed by a limited serial search.

The choice of the position chosen fora record must be calculated using data in the record
so that the same calculation can be carried out when subsequently there is a search for
the data. The normal method is to use a hashing algorithm. This takes as input the value
for the key field and outputs a value for the position of the record relative to the start of the
file. The hashing algorithm must take into account the potential maximum length of the file,
that is, the number of records the file will store. A simple example of a hashing algorithm, if
the key field has a numeric value, is to divide the value by a suitably large number and use
the remainder from the division to define the position. This method will not create unique
positions. If a hash position is calculated that duplicates one already calculated by a different
key, the next position in the file is used. This is why a search will involve a direct access
possibly followed by a limited serial search.

File access

Once a file organisation has been chosen and the data has been entered into a file, the
question now to be considered is how this data is to be used. If an individual data item is to
be read then the access method for a serial file is to successively read record by record until
the required data is found. If the data is stored in a sequential file the process is similar but
only the value in the key field has to be read. For a direct-access file, the value in the key
field

Part 3

is submitted to the hashing algorithm which then provides the same value for the position in
the file that was provided when the algorithm was used at the time of data input.

File access might also be needed to delete or edit data. The normal approach with a
sequential file is to create a new version of the file. Data is copied from the old file to the new

file until the record is reached which needs deleting or editing. If deletion is needed, reading

and copying of the old file continues from the next record. If a record has changed, an edited
version of the record is written to the new file and then the remaining records are copied to
the new file. For a direct-access file there is no need to create a new file (unless the file has
become full). A deleted record can have a flag set so that in a subsequent reading process
the
record is skipped over.

Serial file organisation is well suited to batch processing or for backing up data on magnetic
tape. Flowever, if a program needs a file in which individual data items might be read,
updated or deleted then direct-access file organisation is the most suitable and serial file
organisation the least suitable.

16.03 Real numbers

A real number is one with a fractional part. When we write down a value for a real number in
the denary system we have a choice. We can use a simple representation or we can use an
exponential notation (sometimes referred to as scientific notation). In this latter case we
have
options. For example, the number 25.3 might alternatively be written as:

.253 xlO 2 or 2.53 * 10 1 or 25.3x10° or 253 x lcr 1

For this number, the simple expression is best but if a number is very large or very small the
exponential notation is the only sensible choice.

Floating-point and fixed-point representations

A binary code must be used for storing a real number in a computer system. One possibility
is
to use a fixed-point representation. In this option, an overall number of bits is chosen with a
defined number of bits for the whole number part and the remainder for the fractional part.
The alternative is a floating-point representation. The format for a floating-point number
can be generalised as:

±MxRE

In this option a defined number of bits are used for what is called the significand or mantissa,
±M. The remaining bits are used for the exponent or exrad, E. The radix, R is not stored in
the
representation; it has an implied value of 2.

Floating-point representation: a representation of real numbers that stores a value for the
mantissa
and a value for the exponent

To illustrate the differences between the two representations a very simple example can be
used. Let’s consider that a real number is to be stored in eight bits.

For the fixed-point option, a possible choice would be to use the most significant bit as a
sign
bit and the next five bits for the whole number part leaving two bits for the fractional part.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

252

Some important non-zero values in this representation are shown in Table 16.01. (The bits
are
shown with a gap to indicate the implied position of the binary point.)

Description

Binary code

Denary equivalent

Largest positive value

01111111

31.75
Smallest positive value

000000 01

0.25

Smallest magnitude negative value

100000 01

-0.25

Largest magnitude negative value

mm li

-31.75

Table 16.01 Example fixed-point representations (using sign and magnitude)

Fora floating-point representation, a possible choice would be four bits for the mantissa and
four bits for the exponent with each using two’s complement representation. The exponent
is stored as a signed integer. The mantissa has to be stored as a fixed-point real value. The
question now is where the binary point should be.

Two of the options for the mantissa being expressed in four bits are shown in Table 16.02(a)
and Table 16.02(b). In each case, the denary equivalent is shown and the position of the
implied binary point is shown by a gap. Table 16.02(c) shows the three largest magnitude
positive and negative values for integer coding that will be used for the exponent.

a)_ b) c)

First bit pattern

fora real value

Real value
in denary

0111

3.5

0110

3.0

0101

2.5
1010

-3.0

1001

-3.5

100 0

-4.0

Second bit
pattern fora
real value

Real

value in
denary

0111

.875

0110

.75

0101

.625

1010

-.75

1001

-.875

1000

-1.0

Integer bit
pattern

Integer value
in denary
0111

0110

0101

1010

-6

1001

-7

1000

-8

Table 16.02 Coding a fixed-point real value in eight bits (four for the mantissa and
four for the exponent)

It can be seen that having the mantissa with the implied binary point immediately following
the sign bit produces smaller spacing between the values that can be represented. This is
the
preferred option for a floating-point representation. Using this option, the most important
non-zero values for the floating-point representation are shown in Table 16.03. (The implied
binary point and the mantissa exponent separation are shown by a gap.)

Description

Binary code

Denary equivalent

Largest positive value

01110111

.875 x 2 7 = 112

Smallest positive value

0 001 1000

.125 x2' 8 = 1/2048

Smallest magnitude negative value

1 111 1000

-.125 x 2- 8 = -1/2048

Largest magnitude negative value

1000 0111

-1 x 2 7 = -128

Table 16.03 Example floating-point representations

The comparison between the values in Tables 16.01 and 16.03 illustrate the greater range of
positive and negative values available if floating-point representation is used.

Part 3

Chapter 16: Data Representation

Extension question 16.01

f 1 Using the methods suggested in Chapter 1 (Section 1.01) can you confirm for yourself
that

► the denary equivalents of the binary codes shown in Tables 16.02 and Table 16.03 are as

. indicated?

: 2 Can you also confirm that conversion from positive to negative or vice versa for a fixed-

format real value still follows the rules defined in Chapter 1 (Section 1.02) for two’s
complement representation.

r Precision and normalisation

’ In principle a decision has to be made about the format of a floating-point representation

, both with regard to the total number of bits to be used and the split between those

representing the mantissa and those representing the exponent. In practice, a choice for
the total number of bits to be used will be available as an option when the program is
written. However, the split between the two parts of the representation will have been
' determined by the floating-point processor. If you did have a choice you would base a

■ decision on the fact that increasing the number of bits for the mantissa would give better
precision for a value stored but would leave fewer bits for the exponent so reducing the
range of possible values.

In order to achieve maximum precision, it is necessary to normalise a floating-point number.

(This normalisation is totally unrelated to the process associated with designing a database.)
Since precision increases with an increasing number of bits for the mantissa it follows that
p optimum precision will only be achieved if full use is made of these bits. In practice, that

r means using the largest possible magnitude for the value represented by the mantissa.

j To illustrate this we can consider the eight-bit representation used in Table 16.03. Table
16.04

r shows possible representations for denary 2 using this representation.

Denary representation

Floating-point binary representation

0.125 x 2 4

0 0010100

0.25 x 2 3

0 010 0011

0.5 x 2 2

0 100 0010

Table 16.04 Alternative representations of denary 2 using four bits each for mantissa and
exponent.

For a negative number we can consider representations for -4 as shown in Table 16.05.

Denary representation

Floating-point binary representation

-0.25 x 2 4

1110 0100

-0.5 x2 3

1 100 0011

-1.0 x 2 2
1 000 0010

Table 16.05 Alternative representations of denary -4 using four bits each for mantissa and
exponent.

It can be seen that when the number is represented with the highest magnitude for the
mantissa, the two most significant bits are different. This fact can be used to recognise that
a number is in a normalised representation. The values in these tables also show how a
number could be normalised. For a positive number, the bits in the mantissa are shifted left
until the most significant bits are 0 followed by 1. For each shift left the value of the exponent
is reduced by 1.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

254

The same process of shifting is used for a negative number until the most significant bits are
1 followed by 0. In this case, no attention is paid to the fact that bits are falling off the most
significant end of the mantissa.

Conversion of representations

In Chapter 1 (Section 1.01), a number of methods for converting numbers into different
representations were discussed. The ideas presented there now need a little expansion.

Let’s start by considering the conversion of a simple real number, such as 4.75, into a simple
fixed-point binary representation. This looks easy because 4 converts to 100 in binary and
.75
converts to .11 in binary so the binary version of 4.75 should be:

100.11

However, we now remember that a positive number should start with 0. Can we just add a
sign bit? Fora positive number we can. Denary 4.75 can be represented as 0100.11 in
binary.

For negative numbers we still want to use two’s complement form. So; to find the
representation of -4.75 we can start with the representation for 4.75 then convert it to two’s
complement as follows:

0100.11 converts to 1011.00 in one’s complement

then to 1011.01 in two’s complement

To check the result, we can apply Method 2 from Worked Example 1.01 in Chapter 1.1011 is
the code for -8 + 3 and .01 is the code for .25; -8 + 3 + .25 = -4.75.

We can now consider the conversion of a denary value expressed as a real number into a
floating-point binary representation. The first thing to realise is that most fractional parts do
not convert to a precise representation. This is because the binary fractional parts represent
a half, a quarter, an eighth, a sixteenth and so on. Unless a denary fraction is a sum of a
collection of these values, there cannot be an accurate conversion. In particular, of the
values
from .1 through to .9 only .5 converts accurately. This was mentioned in Chapter 1 (Section
1.02) in the discussion about storing currency values.

The method for conversion of a positive value is as follows:

1 Convert the whole-number part using the method described in Chapter 1 (Section 1.01).

2 Add the 0 sign bit.

3 Convert the fractional part using the method described in Worked Example 16.01.

4 Combine the two, with the exponent expressed as zero.

5 Adjust the position of the binary point and change the exponent accordingly to achieve a
normalised form.

WORKED EXAMPLE 16.01

Converting a denary value to a floating-point representation

Example 1

Let’s consider the conversion of 8.75:

1 The 8 converts to 1000, adding the sign bit gives 01000.

2 The .75 can be recognised as being .11 in binary.

3 The combination gives 01000.11 which has exponent value zero.

Chapter 16: Data Representation

Part 3

4 Shifting the binary point gives 0.100011 which has exponent value denary 4.

5 The next stage depends on the number of bits defined for the mantissa and the
exponent; if ten bits are allocated for the mantissa and four bits are allocated for the
exponent the final representation becomes 0100011000 for the mantissa and 0100 for
the exponent.

Example 2

Let’s consider the conversion of 8.63. The first step is the same but now the .63 has to be
converted by the ‘multiply by two and record whole number parts’ method. This works as
follows:
.63 x 2 = 1.26 so 1 is stored to give the fraction .1

.26 x 2 = .52 so 0 is stored to give the fraction .10

.52 x 2 = 1.04 so 1 is stored to give the fraction .101

.04 x 2 = .08 so 0 is stored to give the fraction .1010

At this stage it can be seen that multiplying .08 by 2 successively is going to give a lot of
zeros in the binary fraction before another 1 is added so the process can be stopped.

What has happened is that .63 has been approximated as .625. So, following Steps 3-5 in
Example 1, the final representation becomes 0100010100 for the mantissa and 0100 for the
exponent.

TASK 16.01

Convert the denary value -7.75 to a floating-point binary representation with ten bits for the
mantissa and four bits for the exponent. Start by converting 7.75 to binary (make sure you
add
the sign bit!). Then convert to two's complement form. Finally, choose the correct value for
the exponent to leave the implied position of the binary point after the sign bit. Convert back
to denary to check the result.

Problems with using floating-point numbers

As illustrated above, the conversion of a real value in denary to a binary representation

almost guarantees a degree of approximation. This is then added to by the restriction of the
number of bits used to store the mantissa.

Many uses of floating-point numbers are in extended mathematical procedures involving

repeated calculations. Examples of such use would be in weather forecasting using a
mathematical model of the atmosphere or in economic forecasting. In such programming
there is a slight approximation in recording the result of each calculation. These so-called
rounding errors can become significant if calculations are repeated enough times. The
only way of preventing this becoming a serious problem is to increase the precision of the
floating-point representation by using more bits for the mantissa. Programming languages
therefore offer options to work in ‘double precision’ or ‘quadruple precision’.

The other potential problem relates to the range of numbers that can be stored. Referring
back to the simple eight-bit representation illustrated in Table 16.03, the highest value
represented is denary 112. A calculation can easily produce a value higherthan this. As
Chapter 5 (Section 5.02) illustrated, this produces an overflow error condition. However, for

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

floating-point values there is also a possibility that if a very small number is divided by a
number greater than 1 the result is a value smaller than the smallest that can be stored. This
is an underflow error condition. Depending on the circumstances, it may be possible for a
program to continue running by converting this very small number to zero but clearly this
must involve risk.

Exam-style Questions

1 A programmer may choose to use a user-defined data type when writing a program.

a Give an example of a non-composite user-defined data type and explain why its use by a
programmer is

different to the use of an in-built data type. [3]

b A program is to be written to handle data relating to the animals kept in a zoo. The
programmer chooses to
use a record user-defined data type.

i Explain what a record user-defined data type is. [2]

ii Explain the advantage of using a record user-defined data type. [2]

iii Write pseudocode for the definition of a record type which is to be used to store: animal
name, animal age,

number in zoo and location in the zoo. [5]

2 a A binary file is to be used to store data for a program.

i What are the terms used to describe the components of such a file. [2]

ii Explain the difference between a binary file and a text file. [3]

b A binary file might be organised for serial, sequential or direct access.

i Explain the difference between the three types of file organisation. [4]

ii Give an example of file use for which a serial file organisation would be suitable. Justify
your choice. [3]

iii Give an example of file use when direct access would be advantageous. Justify your
choice. [3]

Part 3

Chapter 16: Data Representation

3 A file contains binary coding. The following are four successive bytes in the file:

10010101
00110011

11001000

00010001

a The four bytes represent two numbers in floating-point representation. The first byte in
each case represents
the mantissa. Each byte is stored in two’s complement representation.

i Give the name for what the second byte represents in each case. [1]

ii State whether the representations are for two positive numbers or two negative numbers
and explain why. [2]

iii One of the numbers is in a normalised representation. State which one it is and give the
reason why. [2]

iv State where the implied binary point is in a normalised representation and explain why a
normalised

representation gives better precision for the value represented. [3]

v If two bytes were still to be used but the number of bits for each component was going to
be changed by
allocating more to the mantissa, what effect would this have on the numbers that could be
represented?

Explain your answer. [2]

b Using the representation described in part (a), Show the representation of denary 12.43 as
a floating-point

binary number. [5]

Communication and Internet Technologies

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of a bus or star topology network

■ show understanding of circuit switching and where it is

applicable

■ show understanding of packet switching and explain how

it is used to pass messages across a network

■ explain how hardware is used to support a LAN

■ show understanding of why a protocol is essential for
communication between computers

■ show understanding of how protocol implementation can

be viewed as a stack

■ show understanding of the function of each layer of the

TCP/IP protocol suite and the application of the suite
when a message is sent from one host to another on the
internet

■ show understanding of the function of a router in packet

switching

■ show awareness of other protocols (HTTP, FTP, POP3,

SMTP) and their purposes

■ show understanding of Ethernet and how collision

detection and avoidance works

■ show understanding of how the BitTorrent protocol

provides peer-to-peer file sharing

■ show understanding of a wireless network.

Part 3

Chapter 17: Communication and Internet Technologies

17.01 Isolated network topologies

There are five requirements for a data communications system: a sender, a receiver, a
transmission medium, a message and a protocol. Here, a ‘message’ is a general term to
describe any type of transmitted data. A message can only be transmitted if there is an
agreed protocol. Protocols are discussed in later sections of this chapter.

A data communications system may consist of an isolated network. There are several
possible topologies for an isolated network. The simplest possible network is where two
end-systems are connected by a network link as shown in Figure 17.01. This is an example
of
a point-to-point connection for which there is a dedicated link.

Figure 17.01 A point-to-point network

A bus topology also has only one link but it is shared by a number of end-systems and is
therefore described as a multi-point connection. The configuration is shown in Figure 17.02.
This configuration has a major difference in that there is no direct connection between any
pair of end-systems.

Figure 17.02 A bus network

A ring topology is shown in Figure 17.03(a). In this configuration, each end-system has a
point-
to-point connection to the two adjacent end-systems.

An example of a fully-connected mesh topology is shown in Figure 17.03(b). In this

configuration, each end-system has a point-to-point connection to each of the other end-
systems.

25 !

(a)

Figure 17.03 (a) A ring network and (b) a mesh network

(b)

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260

The final possibility is a star topology

which is shown in Figure 17.04. This
could have been drawn so that it
looked like a star but it is better
drawn to represent the physical
configuration that is used in an actual
installation. In a star topology, each
end-system has a point-to-point
connection to the ‘central’ device.

The ring and bus topologies were

used in early networks. Most of the
end-systems would have been user workstations; the others would have been servers. With
regard to the end-systems the same applies to a fully-connected mesh network but this was
never a realistic configuration because of the amount of cabling required.

In the star topology, the end-systems may again be user workstations or servers but the
central device is different. The star topology is nowadays the dominant configuration for an
individual network. There are several reasons for this. The most important is that the central
device can be used to connect the network to other networks and, in particular, to the
Internet. A specialised application is to use the star topology to function logically as a ring.
With the appropriate software installed, each end-system can function as though it has just
two directly connected neighbours.

Discussion Point:

Which network topologies have you used? You may wish to defer this discussion until you
have read about network devices later in this chapter.

17.02 Communication and transmission concepts

There are several concepts relating to the use of a network for communication and data
transmission.

Data flow modes

The data flow along an individual link is simplex, half duplex or full duplex. In simplex mode
the flow is one-way. In a duplex mode flow is both ways but only occurs simultaneously in
full-duplex mode.

Message types

When a message is sent it can be as a broadcast, a multicast or a unicast. Broadcasting is a

one-to-all communication (as used traditionally for radio and television). Multicasting is from
one source to many destinations. Unicasting is a one-to-one communication.

Transmission modes

For communication over an internetwork there are two possible approaches: circuit
switching or packet switching. Circuit switching is the method used in the traditional
telephone system. Because the Public Switched Telephone Networks (PTSNs) have now
largely converted to digital technology, the same method can be provided for data transfer

Chapter 17: Communication and Internet Technologies

rather than voice communication. Typically this is provided in a leased line service. The
concept is illustrated in Figure 17.05, which shows end-systems connected to local
exchanges
which have a switching function and which are connected via a number of intermediate
nodes with a switching function.

Figure 17.05 Circuit-switched data transmission

For data transfer to take place, the following has to happen:

1 The sender provides the identity of the intended receiver.

2 The system checks whether or not the receiver is ready to accept data.
3 If the receiver is available, a sequence of links is established across the network.

4 The data is transferred.

5 The links are removed.

It is not necessary for this discussion to define what could constitute a node in a circuit-
switched network. The links that are provided between the nodes are dedicated channels in
shared transmission media that guarantee unimpeded transmission. When a telephone call
is made there is a definite end of the call with removal of the links. However, for a leased-line
data connection there might be a permanent circuit established.

The packet-switching method allows data transmission without a circuit being established.
Data cannot be sent in a continuous stream. Instead data is packaged in portions inside
packets. A packet consists of a header which contains instructions for delivery plus the data
body. The method is similar to that used by the postal service but rather more complex! The
network schematic shown in Figure 17.05 is still appropriate to describe packet switching
except that the links used are not defined at the time a packet is transmitted by the sender.

Packet-switching services

When packet switching is used there are two ways that the network can provide a service:
connectionless service or connection-oriented service.

If a connectionless service is provided, a packet is dispatched with no knowledge of whether

or not the receiver is ready to accept it. In a connection-oriented service the first packet sent
includes a request for an acknowledgement. If this is received, the sender transmits further
packets. If no acknowledgement is received the sender tries again with the first packet.

17.03 Hardware connection devices

An end-system on an Ethernet LAN needs a network interface card (NIC). Each NIC has a
unique ‘physical’ address. This is sometimes referred to as the MAC address as explained
in Section 17.06. The end-system itself has no identification on the network. If the NIC is
removed and inserted into a different end-system, it takes the address with it.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The simplest device that can be used at the ‘centre’ of a star topology LAN is a hub. A hub
ensures that any incoming communication is broadcast to all connected end-systems.
However, the use of a hub is not restricted to supporting an isolated network. One possibility
is to have a hierarchical configuration with one hub connected to other hubs, which support
individual LANs. Another possibility is for a hub to have a built-in broadband modem. This
allows all of the end-user systems on the LAN to have an Internet connection when this
modem is connected to a telephone line.
A switch can function as a hub but it is a more intelligent device and, in particular, can keep
track of the addresses of connected devices. This allows a switch to send an incoming
transmission to a specific end-system as a unicast. This facility obviously reduces the
amount
of network traffic compared to that generated by a hub.

A router is the most intelligent of the connecting devices. It is in effect a small computer.

It can function as a switch but the router can make a decision about which device it will
transmit a received transmission to. As was mentioned in Chapter 2 (Section 2.04), the main
use of routers is in the backbone fabric of the Internet. Nearer to the end-systems, a router
may function as a gateway, as a network address translation box (described in Chapter 2
(Section 2.07)) or be combined with a firewall. There is further discussion of routers in
Section
17.04.

17.04 The TCP/IP protocol suite

Protocols are essential for successful transmission of data over a network. Each protocol
defines a set of rules that must be agreed between sender and receiver. At the simplest
level,
a protocol could define that a positive voltage represents a bit with value 1. At the other
extreme, a protocol could define the format of the first 40 bytes in a packet.

KEYTERMS

Protocol: a set of rules for data transmission which are agreed by sender and receiver

The complexity of networking requires a very large number of protocols. A protocol suite is a
collection of related protocols. TCP/IP is the dominant protocol suite for Internet usage. TCP/
IP can be explained on the basis of the network model shown in Figure 17.06.

Figure 17.06 shows a stack of layers for the protocols where:

• Each layer except the physical layer represents software installed on an end-system or on
a router.

• The software for each layer must provide the capability to receive and to transmit data in
full-duplex mode to an adjacent layer.

• A protocol in an upper layer is serviced by the protocols in lower layers.

As a result, an application run on one end-system can behave as though there was a direct
connection with an application running on a different end-system. To achieve this, the
application layer protocol on the sender end-system sends a ‘message’ to the transport layer
protocol on the same system. The transport layer protocol then initiates a process which
results in the identical ‘message’ being delivered to the receiver end-system. Finally, on the
receiver end-system, the transport layer protocol delivers the ‘message’ to the application
layer protocol.

TCP/IP

protocol

suite

Protocol stack for Protocol stack Protocol stack for

one end-system for a router another end-system

Figure 17.06 A network model relating to the TCP/IP protocol suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite only operates at the top three layers. The lower layers operate
with
a different protocol suite, such as Ethernet. A router has no awareness of the two highest
layers.

The TCP/IP suite comprises a number of protocols, including the following:

• Application layer: HTTP, SMTP, DNS, FTP, POP3

• Transport layer: TCP, UDP, SCTP

• Network layer: IP, IGMP, ICMP, ARP

The selection has been chosen to illustrate that the TCP/IP suite encompasses a very wide
range of protocols which is still evolving. Some of the listed protocols will not be considered
further.

263

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

If an application is running on an end-system where a ‘message’ is to be sent to a different

end-system the application will be controlled by an application layer protocol (see Section
17.05). The protocol will transmit the user data to the transport layer. The TCP protocol
operating in the transport layer now has to take responsibility for ensuring the safe delivery
of the‘message’ to the receiver. To do this it creates sufficient packets to hold all of the data.
Each packet consists of a header plus the user data.

As well as needing to ensure safe delivery, TCP also has to ensure that any response is
directed back to the application protocol. Thus one item in the header is the port number
which identifies the application layer protocol. For example, for HTTP the port number is

1. The packet must also include the port number for the application layer protocol at the
receiving end-system. However, TCP is not concerned with the address of the receiving
 end-
system. If the packet is one of a sequence, a sequence number is included to ensure
eventual
correct reassembly of the user data.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The TCP protocol is connection-oriented. As described in Section 17.02, initially just one
packet of a sequence is sent to the network layer. Once the connection has been
established,
TCP sends the other packets and receives response packets containing acknowledgements.
This allows missing packets to be identified and re-sent.

IP (Internet Protocol)

The function of the network layer, and in particular of the IP protocol, is to ensure correct
routing over the Internet. To do this it takes the packet received from the transport layer and
adds a further header. This header contains the IP addresses of both the sender and the
receiver. To find the IP address of the receiver, it is very likely to use the DNS system to find
the address corresponding to the URL supplied in the user data. This aspect was discussed
in
some detail in Chapter 2 (Section 2.08).

The IP packet, which is usually called a ‘datagram’, is sent to the data-link layer and
therefore
to a different protocol suite. The data-link layer assembles datagrams into ‘frames’. At this
stage, transmission can begin. Once the IP packet has been sent to the data-link layer, IP
has no further duty. IP functions as a connectionless service. If IP receives a packet which
contains an acknowledgement of a previously sent packet, it will simply pass the packet on
to TCP with no awareness of the content.

The router

As Figure 17.06 shows, the frame sent by the data-link layer will arrive at a router during
transmission (more likely at several routers!). At this stage, the datagram content of the
frame
is given back to IP. It is now the function of the router software to choose the next target host
in the transmission. The software has access to a routing table appropriate to that router.
The
size and complexity of the Internet prohibits a routerfrom having a global routing table. IP
then passes the datagram back to the data-link layer at the router.

The distinction between a switch and a router was discussed earlier. A further point to
note here is that when a frame arrives at a switch, it is transmitted on without any routing
decision. A switch operates in the data-link layer, not in the network layer.
17.05 Application-layer protocols associated with TCP/IP

There are very many application-layer protocols. This discussion will consider only a few of
the protocols that were introduced early in the use of TCP/IP.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

Because HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) underpins the World Wide Web it has to be
considered to be the most important application-layer protocol. Every time a user accesses a
website using a browser, HTTP is used but its functionality is hidden from view.

HTTP is a transaction-oriented, client-server protocol. The transaction involves the client

sending a ‘request’ message and the server sending back a ‘response’ message. The HTTP
protocol defines the format of the message. The first line of a request message is the
'request
line’. Optionally this can be followed by header lines. All of this uses ASCII coding. The
format
of the request line is:

CRLF

where CR and LF are the ASCII carriage return and linefeed characters. The request line
usually has GET as the method. However, there are several alternatives to the GET method

Chapter 17: Communication and Internet Technologies

which makes HTTP potentially a more widely applicable protocol than just being used for
webpage access. The version has to be specified because HTTP has evolved so there is
more
than one version in use.

In Chapter 2 (Section 2.09), a sequence of events was described for when a browser
accesses
a webpage. This can now be presented as a sequence of protocol actions. The following is
an
abbreviated version:

6
7

HTTP transmits a request message to TCP.

TCP creates one or more packets and sends the first one to IP using port 80 for the
destination port and a temporary port number for the sending port.

IP uses the URL in the message to get an IP address using DNS and sends a datagram.

At the server, IP forwards the datagram to TCP.

The server TCP sends an acknowledgement.

When a connection has been established, TCP sends the remaining packets, if any, to IP
which then forwards them through the server IP and TCP to the server application layer.

HTTP transmits a response message which is transmitted via TCP, IP, IP and TCP to the
client browser application.

All of this can happen with just one click on a bookmark item in a browser!

Email protocols

The traditional method of sending and receiving emails is schematically illustrated in Figure
17.07. It can be seen that three individual client-server interactions are involved. The client
has a connection to a mail server which then has to function as a client in the transmission
to
the mail server used by the receiver.

Email

sender SMTP
client

Mail

server

SMTP

Mail

server

Email

POP3 receiver
client

Figure 17.07 An email message being transmitted from a sender to a receiver

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a ‘push’ protocol. POP3 (Post Office Protocol
version

1. is a ‘puli’ protocol. There is a more recent alternative to POP3, which is IMAP (Internet
Message Access Protocol). IMAP offers the same facilities as POP3 but also a lot more.

This approach has been largely superseded by the use of web-based mail. A browser is
used
to access the email application, so HTTP is now the protocol used. However, SMTP remains
in
use for transfer between the mail servers.

265

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

For routine transfers of files from one user to another the most likely method is to attach the
file to an email. However, this is not always a suitable method. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
is

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

the application-layer protocol that can handle any file transfer between two end-systems.
File transfer can be less than straightforward if the end-systems have different operating
systems with different file systems. FTP handles this by separating the control process from
the data-transfer process.

17.06 Ethernet protocol

Ethernet is the other dominant protocol in the modern networked world. It is primarily
focused on LANs. Although Ethernet was first devised in the 1970s independently of any
organisation, it was later adopted for standardisation by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). In particular it was their 802 committee (obviously one of
many!) that took responsibility for the development of the protocol. The standard for a wired
network is denoted as IEEE 802.3 which can be considered to be a synonym for Ethernet.

The standard has evolved through five generations: standard or traditional, fast, gigabit, 10
gigabit and 100 gigabit. The gigabit part of the name indicates the transfer speed capability.

Ethernet transmits data in frames. Each frame contains a source address and a destination
address. The address is the physical or MAC address, which uniquely defines one NIC, as
described in Section 17.03. The reason that a unique address can be guaranteed is that 48
bits
are used for the definition. The address is usually written in hexadecimal notation, for
example:
4A:30:12:24:1A:10

266

Standard Ethernet was implemented on a LAN configured either as a bus or as a star

with a hub as the central device. In either topology, a transmission was broadcast in a
connectionless service.

Extension Question 17.01

In a star topology LAN with a hub as the central device, why must a transmission be
broadcast?

Because of the broadcast transmission, there was a need for the access to the shared
medium by end-systems to be controlled. If there were no control, two messages sent at
the same time would ‘collide’ and each message would be corrupted. The method adopted
was CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detection). This relied on the fact
that if a frame was being transmitted there was a voltage level on the Ethernet cable which
could be detected by an end-system. If this was the case, the protocol defined a time that
the
end-system had to wait before it tried again. Flowever, because two end-systems could have
waited then both decided to transmit at the same time collisions could still happen. Thus
there was also a need to incorporate a means for an end-system to detect a collision and to
discontinue transmission if a collision occurred.

Although there might be some legacy standard Ethernet LANs still operating, the modern
implementation of Ethernet is switched. The star configuration has a switch as the central
device. The switch controls transmission to specific end-systems. Each end-system is
connected to the switch by a full-duplex link so no collision is possible along that link. Since
collisions are now impossible, CSMA/CD is no longer needed.

Ethernet is the most likely protocol to be operating in the data-link layer defined in the
TCP/IP protocol stack. Referring back to Figure 17.06, the diagram shows IP in the network
layer sending a datagram to the data-link layer. When the data-link layer uses Ethernet, the
protocol defines two sub-layers. The upper of these is the logical link-control layer, which
handles flow control, error control and part of the framing process. The lower is the media
access control (MAC) sublayer which completes the framing process and defines the access

Chapter 17: Communication and Internet Technologies

method. The MAC layer transmits the frames that contain the physical addresses for sender
and receiver. This is the reason that these addresses are often referred to as MAC
addresses.

17.07 Peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing

The network traffic generated by peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing has come to be a dominant
feature of Internet usage. It is an architecture that has no structure and no controlling
mechanism. Peers act as both clients and servers and each peer is just one end-system.

The BitTorrent protocol is the most used protocol because it allows fast sharing of files.
There
are three basic problems to solve if end-systems are to be confident in using BitTorrent:

• How does a peer find others that have the wanted content?

• How do peers replicate content to provide high-speed downloads for everyone?

• How do peers encourage other peers to provide content rather just using the protocol to
download for themselves?

The answer provided by BitTorrent to the first question is to get every content provider to
provide a content description, called a torrent, which is a file that contains the name of the
tracker (a server that leads peers to the content) and a list of the chunks that make up the
content. The torrent file is at least three orders of magnitude smaller than the content so can
be transferred quickly. The tracker is a server that maintains a list of all the other peers (the
c swarnT) actively downloading and uploading the content.

The answer to the second question involves peers simultaneously downloading and
uploading
chunks but peers have to exchange lists of chunks and aim to download rare chunks for
preference. Each time a rare chunk is downloaded it automatically becomes less rare!

The answer to the third question requires dealing with the free-riders or ‘leechers’ who
only download. The solution is for a peer to initially randomly try other peers but then to
only continue to upload to those peers that provide regular downloads. If a peer is not
downloading or only downloading slowly, it will eventually be isolated or ‘choked’.

It is worth noting that the language of BitTorrent is somewhat esoteric and there are other
terms used which have not been mentioned. Fortunately the principles are straightforward.

17.08 Wireless networks

All of the previous discussion in this chapter has related to transmission using a cable
medium. In today’s world, this is no longer the dominant technology. The following brief
discussion considers four important examples of wireless technology discussed in order of
increasing scale of operation.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth has been standardised as IEEE 802.15. Communication is by short-range radio

transmission in a confined area. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network. This means that
there
is no defined infrastructure and network connections are created spontaneously. There is an
almost limitless range of applications that use Bluetooth; some are very simple, such as
using
a wireless keyboard or mouse.

WiFi

WiFi (WLAN in some countries) is a term used by the public to describe what is sometimes
called wireless Ethernet but is formally IEEE 802.11. This is a wireless LAN protocol which

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Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

uses radio frequency transmission. Most often a WiFi LAN is centred on a wireless access
point in an ‘infrastructure’ network (i.e. not an ad hoc network). The wireless access point
communicates wirelessly with any end-systems that have connected to the device. It also
has
a wired connection to the Internet.

268

WiMAX

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) or IEEE 802.16 is a protocol for a
MAN or WAN. It is designed for use by PSTNs to provide broadband access to the Internet
without having to lay underground cables. Local subscribers connect to the antenna of a
local base station using a microwave signal.

Cellular networks

A mobile phone is often called a ‘cell phone’ because

of the fundamental infrastructure provided for mobile
phone users. This is illustrated in Figure 17.08.

Each cell has at its centre a base station. The system

works because each cell has a defined frequency for
transmission which is different from the frequencies
used in adjacent cells.

Figure 17.08 A collection of mobile phone cells

The technology available in a mobile phone has progressed dramatically through what are
described as generations:

• 1G was designed for voice communication using analogue technology.

• 2G went digital.
• 3G introduced multimedia and serious Internet connection capability.

• 4G introduced smartphones with high-bandwidth broadband connectivity.

Part 3

Chapter 17: Communication and Internet Technologies

Exam-style Questions

1 a There are five requirements for a data communication system. State the five
requirements,
b An isolated wired network is to be used as a data communication system.

i Draw two possible topologies.

ii For each topology, explain why there is or is not direct point-to-point connections between
the end-systems,
c Each end-system is fitted with a network interface card (NIC).

i Explain why the NIC is needed.

ii Explain what would happen if the NIC in an end-system was replaced by a newer version.

2 One end-system with an Internet connection has a file. A user on another end-system
connected to the Internet
needs a copy of the file. There are different methods that might be used to enable the userto
obtain a copy of the file.

a Identify three possible methods with a brief explanation for each.

b Identify the application-layer protocols that each method will use with a brief explanation
for each one.

3 a Standard Ethernet is a term used to describe the original version of Ethernet.

CSMA/CD was a feature of standard Ethernet.

i Describe, with the aid of a diagram, a network topology that could be used with standard
Ethernet.

ii Describe the CSMA/CD method and explain its use.

b Ethernet can be used in conjunction with the TCP/IP protocol suite.

i Draw a diagram to illustrate how the combination of Ethernet and the TCP/IP suite provides
support for data
communication.

ii Explain the meaning of the term ‘MAC address’.

[3]

[2]

[4]

[3]

[2]

[6]

[8]

[3]

269

[4]

[5]
[3]

270

Chapter 18

Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of Boolean algebra

■ show understanding of De Morgan’s Laws

■ perform Boolean algebra using De Morgan’s Laws

■ simplify a logic circuit/expression using Boolean algebra

■ produce truth tables for common logic circuits

■ show understanding of how to construct a flip-flop

■ describe the role of flip-flops as data storage elements

■ show understanding of Karnaugh Maps and the benefits

of using them
■ solve logic problems using Karnaugh Maps.

18.01 Boolean algebra basics

Chapter 4 (Section 4.01) introduced logic expressions consisting of logic propositions

combined using Boolean operators. Boolean algebra provides a simplified way of writing a
logic expression and a set of rules for manipulating an expression.

Whenever a form of algebra is used it is vital that there is an understanding of its meaning.
As
a simple example we can consider the following four interpretations of the meaning of 1 + 1:

1+1=2
1 + 1 = 10
1+1=0
1+1=1

The first shows denary arithmetic, the second binary arithmetic and the third bit arithmetic.
The last one applies if Boolean algebra is being used. This is because in Boolean algebra 1
represents TRUE, 0 represents FALSE, and + represents OR. Therefore the fourth
statement
represents the logic statement:

TRUE OR TRUE is TRUE

There are options for the representation of Boolean algebra. For example, the symbols for
AND and OR are sometimes represented as a and v. There is the option of writing A.B or AB
for AND. The dot notation is used in this book. Finally, there are options for how NOT A (the
inverse of A) can be represented. A is used here.

Having established the notation for Boolean algebra we have to consider the rules that
apply.
These can formally be described as ‘laws’ or ‘identities’. Table 18.01 contains a full listing.

Identity/Law

AND form

OR form

Identity

i—*

ii

0+A = A

Null
o

II

<

1+A= 1

Idempotent

<

II

<

<

A+A = A

Inverse

II

A+A= 1

Commutative

<

CD

II

CD

<

A+B = B+A

Associative

(A.B).C = A.(B.C)

(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
Distributive

A+B.C = (A+B).(A+C)

A.(B+C) = A.B+A.C

Absorption

A.(A+B) = A

A+A.B = A

De Morgan’s

(A7B) =A + B

(ATB)=A. B

Double Complement

=A

Table 18.01 Boolean algebra identities (laws)

Some of the names used for the identities may be unfamiliar to you. This is not a concern.

You should note that for all but one of the identities there is an AND form and an OR form.
Furthermore, it is important to note that an identity written in one form can be transformed
into

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Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

the other by interchanging each 0 or 1 and each AND and OR. For example, O.A = 0 which
reads
FALSE AND A is FALSE transforms into TRUE OR A is TRUE, written in the algebra as 1+A
= 1.

It can also be seen that some of the identities look like those applying in normal algebra with
AND functioning as multiplication and OR functioning as addition. Thus it is allowed for the
terms ‘product’ and ‘sum’ to be used in the context of Boolean algebra.

TASK 18.01

It is vital that you can interpret a Boolean expression correctly. Go through Table 18.01 item
by
item and in each case read out the full meaning. For example:
1+A = 1 can be read as ‘one plus A equals 1’
but must be understood as ‘TRUE OR A is TRUE’

Although De Morgan’s laws look complicated at first glance, they can be rationalised easily.
The inverse of a Boolean product becomes the sum of the inverses of the individual values
in
the product. The inverse of a Boolean sum is the product of the individual inverses.

Unfortunately, using the algebra to simplify expressions is not something which can be learnt
as a
routine. It almost inevitably requires a little lateral thinking as Worked Example 18.01 will
show.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.01

Using Boolean algebra to simplify an expression

Let’s consider a simple example:

A+A.B can be simplified to A+B

In order to simplify the expression we have to first make it more complicated! This is
where the lateral thinking comes in. The OR form of the absorption identity is A+A.B = A.
This can be used in reverse to replace A by A+A.B to produce the following:

A+A.B+A.B

Applying the AND form of the commutative law and the OR form of the distributive law in
reverse we can see that:

A.B+A.B is the same as B.A+B.A which converts to B.(A+A)

This allows us to use the OR form of the inverse identity which converts A+A to 1. Asa
result the expression has become:

A+B.l

When the OR form of the commutative law and the AND form of the identity law are
applied to the B.l term, it then becomes A+B.

18.02 Logic circuits

Chapter 4 introduced the symbols for logic gates that are used in logic circuits and
discussed
the relationships between logic circuits, truth tables and logic expressions. This chapter
introduces some specific circuits that are used to construct components that provide
functionality in computer hardware.

Chapter 18: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

The half adder

A fundamental operation in computing is binary addition. The result of adding two bits is
either 1 or 0. However, when 1 is added to 1 the result is 0 but there is a carry bit equal to 1.
This cannot be ignored if two numbers with several bits in each
are being added.

The simplest circuit that can be used for binary addition is the
half adder. This can be represented by the diagram in Figure
18.01. The circuit takes two input bits and outputs a sum bit (S)
and a carry bit (C).

1 bit

half adder
circuitry

Figure 18.01 A half adder

The circuit required can be considered in the context of the

truth table which is shown as Table 18.02.

One possible circuit can be defined directly by examination

of the truth table. It can be seen that the only combination of
inputs that produces a 1 for the carry bit is when two 1 bits are
input. The truth table for the C output is in fact the AND truth
table. The truth table for the S output can be seen to match that
for the XOR operator which is shown in Figure 4.02 in Chapter
4 (Section 4.04). Therefore, one circuit that would produce the
half adder functionality would contain an AND gate and an XOR
gate with each gate receiving input from A and B.

Table 18.02 The truth table

fora half adder

This is only one of several circuits that would provide the functionality. As was explained in
Chapter 4 (Section 4.05), circuit manufacturers prefer to use either NAND or NOR gates.
The
circuit shown in Figure 18.02 consisting only of NAND gates has the correct logic to produce
the C and S outputs and is a likely choice for implementation.

Figure 18.02 A half adder circuit constructed from NAND gates

Question 18.01

In Figure 18.02, can you identify the individual circuits that represent the AND operator and
the XOR operator?
TASK 18.02

Use the intermediate points labelled W, X and Y to construct a truth table for the circuit
shown
in Figure 18.02. Check that this reproduces the truth table shown as Table 18.02.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

The full adder

If two numbers expressed in binary with several bits are to be added, the
addition must start with the two least significant bits and then proceed to the
most significant bits. At each stage the carry from the previous addition has
to be incorporated into the current addition. If a half adder is used each time,
there has to be separate circuitry to handle the carry bit because the half adder
only takes two inputs.

The full adder is a circuit that has three inputs including the previous carry bit.
The truth table is shown as Table 18.03.

One possible circuit for implementation contains two half adder circuits and an
OR gate as shown in Figure 18.03.

Cin

Input

Output

Cin

Cout

0
0

1
1

Table 18.03 The truth table

for a full adder

Cout

Figure 18.03 A possible implementation of a full adder

As before, it is possible to construct the circuit entirely from NAND gates as shown in Figure
18.04.

Cout

Figure 18.04 A full adder circuit constructed from NAND gates

Discussion Point:

Can you see how full adders could be combined to handle addition of, for example, four-bit
bin.ary numbers? What happens to the carry input for the first addition?

The SR flip-flop

All of the circuits so far encountered in this book have been combinational circuits. For
such a circuit the output is dependent only on the input values. An alternative type of circuit
is a sequential circuit where the output depends on the input and on the previous output.

KEY TERMS

Combinational circuit: a circuit in which the output is dependent only on the input values
Sequential circuit: a circuit in which the output depends on the input values and the previous
output
Part

Chapter 18: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

The SR flip-flop or ‘latch’ is a simple example of a sequential circuit.

It can be constructed with two NAND gates or two NOR gates. Figure
18.05 shows the version with two NOR gates. The flip-flop is a two-
state device. Either it has Q set to 1 and Q' set to 0 or it has the reverse.

The truth table for the circuit can be presented as shown in Table
18.04. The two lines of the truth table where both Sand R are
input as 0 produce no change in the values set for Q or Q'. This is
the condition when no signal is input to the flip-flop. Input of S = 1
and R = 0 always produces Q = 1 and Q' = 0. Input of S = 0 and R = 1
always produces the reverse.

This explains why the SR flip-flop can be used as a storage device

for 1 bit and therefore could be used as a component in RAM
because a value is stored but can be altered. The circuit must
be protected from receiving input on R and S simultaneously
because this leads to an invalid state with both Q and Q' set to 0.

The JK flip-flop

In addition to the possibility of entering an invalid state there

is also the potential for a circuit to arrive in an uncertain state if
inputs do not arrive quite at the same time. In order to prevent
this, a circuit may include a clock pulse input to give a better
chance of synchronising inputs. The JK flip-flop is an example.

The JK flip-flop can be illustrated by the symbol shown in Figure

18.06(a). A possible circuit is shown in Figure 18.06(b).

Q'

Figure 18.05 A circuit for an SR flip-flop using

NOR gates

Table 18.04 A representation of a truth table for an

SR flip-flop

(a) (b)

Figure 18.06 (a) A symbol for a JK flip-flop and (b) a possible circuit
The workings of the circuit are viewed in terms of the value of
the Q output immediately after the circuit detects a clock pulse.

The J input acts as a set input and the K as a clear so there is

some similarity to the functioning of the SR flip-flop. However, if
both J and K are input as a 1 then Q always switches value. The
significant part of the truth table is shown as Table 18.05.

18.03 Boolean algebra applications

The Boolean algebra representation of a truth table

One approach to creating a Boolean algebra expression for a particular problem is to start
with the truth table and apply the sum of products method. This establishes a minterm for
each row of the table that results in a 1 for the output.

Clock

Q unchanged

Q toggles
Table 18.05 Part of the truth table for a JK
flip-flop

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

This can be illustrated using the truth table for the half adder circuit shown in Figure 18.02.
The only row of the table creating a 1 output for C has a 1 input for A and for B. The product
becomes A.B and the sum has only this one term so we have:

OA.B

For the S output, there are two rows that produce a 1 output so there is a sum of two
minterms:

S = A.B +A.B

Note that the 0 in a row is represented by the inverse of the input symbol.

The Boolean algebra representation of a logic circuit

This approach can also be used as part of the process of creating a Boolean algebra logic
expression from a circuit diagram. The truth tables for the individual logic gates are used and
then some algebraic simplification is applied.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.02

Creating a Boolean algebra logic expression from a half adder circuit

For convenience Figure 18.02 is reproduced here as Figure 18.07. Examination of the figure
shows inputs A and B to a NAND gate with output W.

Figure 18.07 A half adder circuit

The first three rows of the NAND truth table produce a 1 output so the sum of products
has three minterms:

W = A.B+A.B + A.B

We can now consider the input of W to a NAND gate with A as the other input to produce
the X output. The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The result
of the AND operation is the product ofthe inputs so:

X = A.(A.B+A.B + A.B)

Applying the distributive and inverse laws now gives:

X = 0 + 0 + A.A.B which is simply A.B

We have to take the inverse of this to complete the NAND operation. This is where we need
the AND version of De Morgan’s law, which transforms the A.B into A+B.
The same laws applied to the output Y from the other intermediate NAND gate to give

Y = A+B.

Parts

Chapter 18: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

Finally, we need to consider A+B and A+B being input to the final NAND gate. Again we can
consider the AND operation first as the product of the inputs:

S = (A+B).(A+B)

If we pause to think we will not multiply this out but instead we will apply De Morgan’s law
directly to this to perform the inverse operation to complete the NAND operation. This
gives:

S = A.B + A.B

This is the value obtained directly from the truth table so the algebra has been used
correctly.

Extension question 18.01

Worked Example 18.02 did not show that the circuit produced the correct output for C. Also
a
shortcut was used to reach the final form of S. Can you use Boolean algebra to find the form
of C from the circuit and can you convert the expression for S if you start by using the
distributive law before applying De Morgan’s law?

18.04 Karnaugh maps (K-maps)

A Karnaugh map is a method of creating a Boolean algebra

expression from a truth table. It can make the process much easier
than if you usesum-of-products to create minterms. The truth table
for an OR gate, shown as Table 18.06, can be used to illustrate the
method.

Using the sum-of-products approach gives the following expression

forX:

X = A.B + A. B + A.B

X
0

Table 18.06 The truth table

for the OR operand

This is not instantly recognisable as A+B but, with a little effort, using
Boolean algebra laws it could be shown to be the same.

The Karnaugh map approach is simpler. The corresponding K-map is

shown in Figure 18.08. Each cell in a Karnaugh map shows the value
of the output X for a combination of input values for A and B.

The interpretation of a Karnaugh map follows these rules:

• Only cells containing a 1 are considered.

• Groups of cells containing Is are identified where possible, with a

group being a row, a column or a rectangle.

• Groups must contain 2,4,8 and so on cells.

BB

A
A

Figure 18.08 A K-map of

the truth table in Table 18.06
0

1—1

• Each group should be as large as possible.

• Groups can overlap.

• If an individual cell cannot be contained in any group it is treated as being a group.

• Within each group, the only input values retained are those which retain a constant value
throughout the group.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

These rules define a column and a row group as indicated by the blue outlines. In the
column
group, B remains unchanged but A changes so B is retained. In the row group, it is A that
remains unchanged. The Boolean algebra expression is then just the sum of these retained
values:

X = A+B

278

Thus the Karnaugh map has found the OR expression without using any algebra.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.03

Using a K-map to interpret a three-input problem

Let’s consider the truth table shown in Table 18.07.

0
1

1
1

Table 18.07 A sample truth table with three inputs

Before starting any application of a method it is always worth looking to see if there are
any trends. In this case you can see that whenever B = 1 the output for X is 1. This means
that the final algebra should have B + something.

Applying sum of products gives the following five-minterm expression:

A. B.C +A.B . C + A.B.C + A.B. C + A.B.C

There are options for how the K-map is presented. We will choose to combine input values
in the columns. Figure 18.09 shows the result. This follows the convention of having the
rows corresponding to values of A and the columns to combinations of values for B and C.

r-

11

11

1_

1
Figure 18.09 A K-map representation of the truth table shown in Table 18.07

It is important to note that the labelling of the columns does not follow a binary value
pattern. Instead it follows the Gray coding sequence, where only one bit changes value
each time.

Part 3

Chapter 18: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

Following the rules stated above, the first group to identify is the square of four cells with
a value 1 as identified by the blue rectangle in the diagram. For these it can be seen that
A has different values, B has a constant value but C changes values. So, only B is retained.
Note this was anticipated from the initial inspection of the truth table.

This apparently only leaves the top left cell. It looks like an isolated cell but it is not
because K-maps wrap round. The cell is defined by BC = 00. This has two adjacent cells
under Gray coding rules. One is immediately obvious - BC = 01 but this contains 0 so
can be ignored. The other adjacent cell is the BC = 10 combination. Thus, there is a row
group containing BC = 00 and BC = 10, indicated by the dotted line partial group outlines.
Note that we cannot include the 11 cell in the same row because a group cannot contain
three members. For this row, the value A remains unchanged, B changes but C remains
unchanged so the product A. C results. So by adding this to the B for the other group the
final expression becomes:

A.C + B

This is much simpler than the expression with five minterms derived directly from the truth
table.

Extension question 18.02

Consider the Karnaugh map shown in Figure 18.10. This corresponds to a problem with four
inputs. It wraps round horizontally and vertically. Use the map to create a Boolean algebra
expression.

279

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Exam-style Questions

1 a Consider the following circuit:

i Identify the three different logic gates used.

ii Complete the following truth table for the circuit for the inputs shown for A and B:

Inputs

Working space

Outputs

b For the circuit shown in part (a), identify the type of circuit and what the outputs represent.
2 a Consider the following truth table:

0
1

[2]

[5]

[3]

i Using the sum-of-products approach, create a Boolean expression that matches the logic.

[3]

Part 3

Chapter 18: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

3a

ii For the rows that have A = 1, the output for X is 1. Explain how this would be reflected in a
simplified form
of Boolean expression matching the truth table.

Consider the following circuit:

[2]

i Usingyour knowledge of the truth table for an AND gate, create a Boolean algebra
expression for the output from the first AND gate.

ii Carry out the same exercise for the OR gate in the circuit.

iii Using De Morgan’s law, create the logic expression for the output from the NOT gate.
Consider the following truth table:

[2]

[3]

[4]

A
B

1-

i Create a Karnaugh map to match this truth table.

ii Use the Karnaugh map to create a Boolean algebra expression for this logic.

[4]

[3]

b Consider the truth table shown in 3 a.

i Use the sum-of-products method to create a Boolean algebra expression from the truth
table. [3]

ii Use Boolean algebra to show that this expression can be simplified to give the same
expression created
from the Karnaugh map. (Hint: you might wish to use the fact that A.B=A.B +A.B).

[4]

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of the differences between RISC and
CISC processors

■ show understanding of the importance/use of pipelining

and registers in RISC processors

■ show understanding of interrupt handling on CISC and

RISC processors

■ show awareness of the four basic computer architectures:

SISD, SIMD, MISD, MIMD

■ show awareness of the characteristics of massively

parallel computers.

Chapter 19: Processor and Computer Architecture

19.01 The control unit

While a program is being executed, the CPU is receiving a sequence of machine-code

instructions. It is the responsibility of the control unit within the CPU to ensure that each
machine instruction is handled correctly. There are two ways that a control unit can be
designed to allow it to perform its function.

One method is for the control unit to be constructed as a logic circuit. This is called the hard¬
wired solution. The machine-code instructions are handled directly by hardware.

The alternative is for the control unit to use microprogramming. In this approach, the control
unit contains a ROM component in which is stored the microinstructions or microcode for
microprogramming. This is often referred to as firmware. The choice of which method is
used
is largely dependent on the type of processor.

19.02 CISC and RISC processors

The ‘architecture’ of a processor can be defined in a number of ways. From the point of view
of a sophisticated programmer, the architecture involves the following:

• the instruction set

• the instruction format

• the addressing modes

• the registers accessible by instructions.

The choice of the instruction set is the main factor in deciding on a suitable architecture.
One view is that the instruction set should be chosen so that it can be clearly applied to
important problems, that only simple equipment is required and that important problems
are handled speedily. An opposing view is that it should be chosen to suit the needs of high-
level languages.

Early developments in computing led

to the latter view becoming dominant.

Computer systems contained what

would now be referred to as CISC
(Complex Instruction Set Computers)
processors with the complexity
increasing with the advent of new
systems. However, the philosophy
began to be challenged in the late
1970s. It was argued that RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computers) would be a
better approach. Table 19.01 contains a
number of features that distinguish RISC
from CISC.

It can be seen that ‘reduced’ affects

more than just the number of
instructions. The simplicity of the instructions allows data to be stored in registers and
manipulated in them with no resource to memory access other than that necessary for initial
loading and possible final storing. The simplicity also allows hard-wiring inside the control
unit with limited complexity required.

RISC

CISC

Fewer instructions

More instructions

Simpler instructions

More complex instructions

Small number of instruction formats

Many instruction formats

Single-cycle instructions whenever

possible

Multi-cycle instructions
Fixed-length instructions

Variable-length instructions

Only load and store instructions to

address memory

Many types of instructions to address

memory

Fewer addressing modes

More addressing modes

Multiple register sets

Fewer registers

Hard-wired control unit

Microprogrammed control unit

Pipelining easier

Pipelining more difficult

Table 19.01 Comparison of RISC with CISC

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

284

In contrast, the specialised instructions that can be part of a CISC architecture often require
repeated memory access. The complexity of some of the instructions makes hard-wiring
extremely difficult so microprogramming is the norm. However, the increased complexity
of instructions for CISC is often because they more closely match high-level language
constructs. This means that compiler writing becomes much easier for a CISC processor.

Extension question 19.01

Can you find out whether the processors in any systems you are using are described as
RISC
or CISC?

One of the major driving forces for creating RISC processors was the opportunity they would
provide for efficient pipelining. Pipelining is a form of parallelism applied specifically to
instruction execution. Other forms of parallelism are discussed in Section 19.03.

KEY TERMS
Pipelining: instruction-level parallelism

The underlying principle of pipelining is that the fetch-decode-execute cycle described in

Chapter 5 (Section 5.04) can be separated into a number of stages. One possibility is a
five-stage model consisting of:

• instruction fetch (IF)

• instruction decode (ID)

• operand fetch (OF)

• instruction execute (IE)

• result write back (WB).

Figure 19.01 shows how pipelining would work with

this five-stage breakdown of instruction handling. For
pipelining to be implemented, the construction of the
processor must have five independent units, with each
handling one of the five stages identified. This explains
the need for a RISC processor to have many register
sets; each processor unit must have access to its own
set of registers. Figure 19.01 uses the representation
1.1,1.2 and so on to define the instruction and the
stage of the instruction. Initially only the first stage of
the first instruction has entered the pipeline. At clock cycle 6 the first instruction has left the
pipeline, the last stage of instruction 2 is being handled and instruction 6 has just entered.

It can be seen that once under way the pipeline is handling five stages of five individual
instructions. In particular, at each clock cycle the complete processing of one instruction has
finished. Without the pipeline the processing time would be five times longer.

Clock cycles

7
IF

1.1

2.1

3.1

4.1

5.1

6.1

7.1

ID

1.2

2.2

3.2

4.2

5.2

6.2

OF

1.3

2.3

3.3

4.3

5.3

IE

1.4

2.4

3.4

4.4
WB

1.5

2.5

3.5

Figure 19.01 Pipelining for five-stage instruction handling

One issue that has to be dealt with regarding a pipelined processor is interrupt handling.

The discussion in Chapter 5 (Section 5.06) referred to a processor with instructions handled
sequentially. In the pipelined system described above there will be five instructions in the
pipeline when an interrupt occurs. One option for handling the interrupt is to erase the
pipeline
contents for the latest four instructions to have entered. Then the normal interrupt-handling
routine can be applied to the remaining instruction. The other option is to construct the
individual units in the processor with individual program counter registers. This allows
current
data to be stored for all of the instructions in the pipeline while the interrupt is handled.

Discussion Point:

Consider the two consecutive instructions:

ADD Rl, R2, R3

ADD R5, Rl, R4

These are typical three-register instructions favoured for RISC. The first adds the contents
of registers R2 and R3 and stores the result in Rl. The next instruction is similar but uses
the value stored in Rl. In a pipelined structure, the second instruction will be reading the
contents of Rl before the previous instruction has placed the value there. How could this
potential problem be overcome?

19.03 Parallel processing

Parallel processor systems

One computer can have multiple processors running in parallel.

In principle, there are four categories of system:

• SISD (Single Instruction Single Data stream)

• SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data stream)

• MISD (Multiple Instruction Single Data stream)

• MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data stream).

SISD (Single Instruction Single Data stream) is the typical arrangement found in early
personal computers. There is a single processor so no processor parallelism. The single
data
stream just means one memory.

SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data stream) describes how an array or vector processor
works. The multiple processors each have their own memory. One instruction is input and
each processor executes this instruction using data available in its dedicated memory.

MISD (Multiple Instruction Single Data stream) isn’t implemented in commercial products.

MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data stream) has examples in modern personal
computers which are of the symmetric multiprocessor type using identical processors. In this
case, each processor executes a different individual instruction. The multiple data stream
can be provided by a single memory suitably partitioned. Each processor might have a
dedicated cache memory.

Parallel computer systems

Examples of one type of multicomputer system are called massively parallel computers.
These are the systems used by large organisations for computations involving highly
complex
mathematical processing. They are the latest in an evolution of what have traditionally
been called ‘supercomputers’. The major difference in architecture is that instead of
having a bus structure to support multiple processors there is a network infrastructure to
support multiple computer units. The programs running on the different computers can
communicate by passing messages using the network.

An alternative type of multicomputer system is cluster computing, where a very large number
of PCs are networked.

285

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

1 a Computer systems are now often constructed with RISC processors

i State what the acronym RISC stands for. [1]

ii State four characteristics to be expected of a RISC system. [4]

286

i Explain what this term means and which specific part of the processor will be hard-wired.
[3]
ii State what the alternative to hard-wiring is and what hardware component is needed to be
part of the

processor to allow this alternative to be implemented. [2]

2 a Parallelism can be achieved in a number of ways.

i Identify three different types of parallelism. [3]

ii Identify which type pipelining belongs to. [1]

iii Using a diagram, explain how pipelining works. [5]

b Interrupt handling is not so straightforward in a pipelined system. Explain why this is so

and give a brief

account of how problems can be avoided. [3]

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

m show understanding of how an operating system can

maximise the use of resources

■ describe the ways in which the user interface hides the

complexities of the hardware from the user

■ show understanding of processor management including:

the concepts of a process, multitasking and an interrupt
and the need for scheduling

■ show understanding of paging for memory management

including: the concepts of paging and virtual memory, the
need for paging, how pages can be replaced and how disk
thrashing can occur

■ show understanding of the concept of a virtual machine

and give examples of the role of virtual machines and
their benefits and limitations

■ show understanding of how an interpreter can execute

programs without producing a translated version

■ show understanding of the various stages in the

compilation of a program

■ show understanding of how the grammar of a language

can be expressed using syntax diagrams or Backus-Naur
Form (BNF) notation

■ show understanding of how Reverse Polish Notation

(RPN) can be used to carry out the evaluation of
expressions.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

20.01 The purposes of an operating system (OS)

Before considering the purposes of an operating system (OS), we need to present the
context
in which it runs. A computer system needs a program that begins to run when the system is
first switched on. At this stage, the operating system programs are stored on disk so there
is no operating system. However, the computer has stored in ROM a basic input output
system (BIOS) which starts a bootstrap program. It is this bootstrap program that loads the
operating system into memory and sets it running.

An operating system can provide facilities to have more than one program stored in memory.
Only one program can access the CPU at any given time but others are ready when the
opportunity arises. This is described as multi-programming. This will happen for one single
user. Some systems are designed to have many users simultaneously logged in. This is a
time-sharing system.

The purposes of an operating system can usefully be considered from two viewpoints:
an internal viewpoint and an external viewpoint. The internal viewpoint concerns how
the activities of the operating system are organised to best use the resources available.

The external viewpoint concerns the facilities made available for system usage. Chapter 7
(Section 7.02) contained a categorised summary of the various activities that an operating
system engages in. This chapter discusses some of them in more detail.

Resource management

The three fundamental resources in a computer system are:

• the CPU

• the memory

• the I/O (input/output) system.

Resource management relating to the CPU concerns scheduling to ensure efficient usage.

The methods used are described in Section 20.03. These methods consider the CPU as a
single unit; specific issues relating to a multiprocessor system are not considered. Resource
management relating to the memory concerns optimum usage of main memory.
The I/O system does not just relate to input and output that directly involves a computer
user. It also includes input and output to storage devices while a program is running. Figure
20.01 shows a schematic diagram that illustrates the structure of the I/O system.

Figure 20.01 Main components associated with the I/O system

The bus structure in Figure 20.01 shows that there can be an option for the transfer of data
between an I/O device and memory. The operating system can ensure that I/O passes via
the

CPU but for large quantities of data the operating system can ensure direct transfer between

memory and an I/O device.

To understand the issues associated with I/O management,

some discussion of timescales is required. It must be
understood that one second is a very long time for
a computer system. A CPU typically operates at GHz
frequencies. One second sees more than one trillion clock
cycles. Some typical speeds for I/O are given in Table 20.01.

Device

Data rate

Time for transfer of 1 byte

Keyboard

10 Bps

0.1 s

Screen

50 MBps

2 x10" 8 S

Disk

5 MBps

2 X 10‘ 7 S

Table 20.01 Typical rates and times for data transfer

The slow speed of I/O compared to a typical CPU clock

cycle shows that management of CPU usage is vital to ensure that the CPU does not remain
idle while I/O is taking place.

Operating system facilities provided for the user

The user interface may be made available as a command line, a graphical display or a voice
recognition system but the function is always to allow the user to interact with running
programs. When a program involves use of a device, the operating system provides the
device driver: the user just expects the device to work. (You might, however, wish to argue
that printers do not always quite fit this description.)

The operating system will provide a filesystem fora user to store data and programs. The
user has to choose filenames and organise a directory (folder) structure but the user does
not
have to organise the physical data storage on a disk. If the user is a programmer, the
operating
system supports the provision of a programming environment. This allows a program to be
created and run without the programmer being familiar with how the processor functions.

When a program is running it can be considered to be a type of user. The operating system
provides a set of system calls that provide an interface to the services it offers. For instance,
if
a program specifies that it needs to read data from a file, the request for the file is converted
into a system call that causes the operating system to take charge, find the file and make it
available to the program. An extension of this concept is when an operating system provides
an application programming interface (API). Each API call fulfils a specific function such as
creating a screen icon. The API might use one or more system calls. The API concept aims
to
provide portability for a program.

Operating system structure

An operating system has to be structured in orderto provide

a platform for both resource management and the provision
of facilities for users. The logical structure of the operating
system provides two modes of operation. User mode is the
one available for the user or an application program. The
alternative has a number of different names of which the
most often used are ‘privileged mode’ or ‘kernel mode 5 . The
difference between the two is that kernel mode has sole
access to part of the memory and to certain system functions
that user mode cannot access.

It is now normal for the operating system to be separated

into a kernel which runs all of the time and the remainder
which runs in user mode. One possibility then is to use a
layered structure as illustrated in Figure 20.02.

Figure 20.02 Layered structure for an operating system

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In this model, application programs or utility programs could make system calls to the
kernel. However, to work properly each higher layer needs to be fully serviced by a lower
layer (as in a network protocol stack).

This is hard to achieve in practice. A more flexible approach uses a modular structure,
illustrated in Figure 20.03. The structure works by the kernel calling on the individual
services
when required. It could possibly be associated with a micro-kernel structure where the
functionality in the kernel is reduced to the absolute minimum.

Figure 20.03 Modular structure for an operating system

20.02 Process scheduling

Programs that are available to be run on a computer system are initially stored on disk. In
a time-sharing system a user could submit a program as a ‘job’ which would include the
program and some instructions about how it should be run. Figure 20.04 shows an overview
of the components involved when a program is run.

A long-term or high-level scheduler program controls the selection of a program stored on

disk
to be moved into main memory. Occasionally a program has to be taken back to disk due to
the
memory getting overcrowded. This is controlled by a medium-term scheduler. When the
program
is installed in memory, a short-term or low-level scheduler controls when it has access to the
CPU.

Figure 20.04 Components involved in running a program

Process states

In Chapter 7 (Section 7.02), it was stated that a process can be defined as ‘a program being
executed’. This definition is perhaps better slightly modified to include the state when the
program first arrives in memory. At this stage a process control block (PCB) can be created
in memory ready to receive data when the process is executed. Once in memory the state of
the process can change.
The transitions between the states shown in Figure 20.05 can be described as follows:

• A new process arrives in memory and a PCB is created; it changes to the ready state.

• A process in the ready state is given access to the CPU by the dispatcher; it changes to the
running state.

• A process in the running state is halted by an interrupt; it returns to the ready state.

• A process in the running state cannot progress until some event has occurred (I/O
perhaps);
it changes to the waiting state (sometimes called the ‘suspended’ or ‘blocked’ state).

Chapter 20: System Software

• A process in the waiting state is notified that an event is completed; it returns to the ready
state.

• A process in the running state completes execution; it changes to the terminated state.

Figure 20.05 The five states defined for a process being executed

It is possible for a process to be separated into different parts for execution. The separate
parts
are called threads. If this has happened, each thread is handled as though it were a process.

KEY TERMS

Process: a program in memory that has an associated process control block

Process control block (PCB): a complex data structure containing all data relevant to the
running of
a process

Thread: part of a process being executed

Interrupts

Some interrupts are caused by errors that prematurely terminate a running process.
Otherwise there are two reasons for interrupts:

• Processes consist of alternating periods of CPU usage and I/O usage. I/O takes far too
long
for the CPU to remain idle waiting for it to complete. The interrupt mechanism is used
when a process in the running state makes a system call requiring an I/O operation and
has to change to the waiting state.

• The scheduler decides to halt the process for one of several reasons, discussed in the next
section (‘Scheduling algorithms’).

Whatever the reason for an interrupt, the OS kernel must invoke an interrupt-handling
routine. This may have to decide on the priority of an interrupt. One required action is
that the current values stored in registers must be recorded in the process control block.
This allows the process to continue execution when it eventually returns to the running
state.

Discussion Point:

What would happen if an interrupt was received while the interrupt-handling routine was
being executed by the CPU? Does this require a priority being set for each interrupt?

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Scheduling algorithms

Although the long-term or high-level scheduler will have decisions to make when choosing
which program should be loaded into memory, we concentrate here on the options for the
short-term or low-level scheduler.

A scheduling algorithm can be preemptive or non-preemptive. A preemptive algorithm

can halt a process that would otherwise continue running undisturbed. If an algorithm is
preemptive it may involve prioritising processes.

The simplest possible algorithm is first come first served (FCFS). This is a non-preemptive
algorithm and can be implemented by placing the processes in a first-in first-out (FIFO)
queue. It will be very inefficient if it is the only algorithm employed but it can be used as part
of a more complex algorithm.

A round-robin algorithm allocates a time slice to each process and is therefore preemptive,
because a process will be halted when its time slice has run out. It can be implemented as a
FIFO queue. It normally does not involve prioritising processes. However, if separate queues
are created for processes of different priorities then each queue could be scheduled using a
round-robin algorithm.

A priority-based scheduling algorithm is more complicated. One reason for this is that every
time a new process enters the ready queue or when a running process is halted, the
priorities
for the processes may have to be re-evaluated. The other reason is that whatever scheme is
used to judge priority level it will require some computation. Possible criteria are:
• estimated time of process execution

• estimated remaining time for execution

• length of time already spent in the ready queue

• whether the process is I/O bound or CPU bound.

More than one of these criteria might be considered. Clearly, estimating a time for execution
may not be easy. Some processes require extensive I/O, for instance printing wage slips for
employees. There is very little CPU usage for such a process so it makes sense to allocate it
a high priority so that the small amount of CPU usage can take place. The process will then
change to the waiting state while the printing takes place.

20.03 Memory management

The term memory management embraces a number of aspects. One aspect concerns the
provision of protected memory space for the 05 kernel. Another is that the loading of a
program into memory requires defining the memory addresses for the program itself, for
associated procedures and for the data required by the program. In a multiprogramming
system, this might not be straightforward. The storage of processes in main memory can get
fragmented in the same way as happens for files stored on a hard disk. There may be a
need
for the medium-term scheduler to move a process out of main memory to ease the problem.

One memory managementtechnique is to partition memory with the aim of loadingthe

whole of a process into one partition. Dynamic partitioning allows the partition size to match
the process size. An extension of this idea is to divide larger processes into segments, with
each segment loaded into a dynamic partition. Alternatively, a paging method can be used.
The process is divided into equal-sized pages and memory is divided into frames of the
same
size. All of the pages are loaded into memory at the same time.

The most flexible approach to memory management is to use virtual memory based on
paging but with no requirement for all pages to be in memory at the same time. In a virtual

Part 3

Chapter 20: System Software

memory system, the address space that the CPU uses is larger than the physical main
memory space. This requires the CPU to transfer address values to a memory management
unit that allocates a corresponding address on a page.

KEYTERMS

Virtual memory: a paging mechanism that allows a program to use more memory addresses
than are
available in main memory

The starting situation is that the set of pages comprising the process are stored on disk. One
or more of these pages is loaded into memory when the process is changing to the ready
state. When the process is dispatched to the running state, the process starts executing. At
some stage, it will need access to pages still stored on disk which means that a page needs
to
be taken out of memory first. This is when a page replacement algorithm is needed. A simple
algorithm would use a first-in first-out method. A more sensible method would be the least-
recently-used page but this requires statistics of page use to be recorded.

One of the advantages of the virtual memory approach is that a very large program can be
run
when an equally large amount of memory is unavailable. Another advantage is that only part
of
a program needs to be in memory at any one time. For example, the index tables for a
database
could be permanently in memory but the full tables could be brought in only when required.

The system overhead in running virtual memory can be a disadvantage. The worst problem
is ‘disk thrashing’, when part of a process on one page requires another page which is on
disk.
When that page is loaded it almost immediately requires the original page again. This can
lead to almost perpetual loading and unloading of pages. Algorithms have been developed
to guard against this but the problem can still occur, fortunately only rarely.

20.04 Virtual machine

Although virtual memory could be used in a system running a virtual machine, the two are
completely different concepts that must not be confused. Also note that the Java virtual
machine discussed in Chapter 7 (Section 7.05) is based on a different underlying concept.

The principle of a virtual machine is that a process interacts directly with a software interface
provided by the operating system. The kernel of the operating system handles all of the
interactions with the actual hardware of the host system. The software interface provided for
the virtual machine provides an exact copy of the hardware. The logical structure is shown in
Figure 20.06.

Figure 20.06 Logical structure for a virtual machine implementation

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The advantage of the virtual machine approach is that more than one different operating
system can be made available on one computer system. This is particularly valuable if an
organisation has legacy systems and wishes to continue to use the software but does not
wish to keep the aged hardware. Alternatively, the same operating system can be made
available many times. This is done by companies with large mainframe computers that offer
server consolidation facilities. Different companies can be offered their own virtual machine
running as a server.

One drawback to using a virtual machine is the time and effort required for implementation.
Another is the fact that the implementation will not offer the same level of performance that
would be obtained on a normal system.

20.05 Translation software

An overview of how a compiler or an interpreter is used was presented in Chapter 7 (Section

7.05). This section will consider some details of how a compiler works with a brief reference
to
the workings of an interpreter.

A compiler can be described as having a ‘front end’ and a ‘back end’. The front-end program
performs analysis of the source code and produces an intermediate code that expresses
completely the semantics (the meaning) of the source code. The back-end program then
takes this intermediate code as input and performs synthesis of object code. This analysis-
synthesis model is represented in Figure 20.07.

Figure 20.07 Analysis-synthesis model for a compiler

For simplicity, Figure 20.07 assumes no error in the source code. There is a repetitive
process
in which the source code is read line-by-line. For each line, the compiler creates matching
intermediate code. Figure 20.07 also shows how an interpreter program would have the
same
analysis front-end: In this case, however, once a line of source code has been converted to
intermediate code, it is executed.

Front-end analysis stages

The four stages of front-end analysis, shown in Figure 20.08, are:

• lexical analysis

• syntax analysis

• semantic analysis

• intermediate code generation.

Part 3

Chapter 20: System Software

Figure 20.08 Front-end analysis

In lexical analysis each line of source code is separated into tokens. This is a pattern¬
matching exercise. It requires the analyser to have knowledge of the components that can
be
found in a program written in the particular programming language.

For example, the declaration statement:

Var Count : integer;

would be recognised as containing five tokens:

Var Count : integer ;

The assignment statement:

PercentMark [Count] := Score * 10

would be recognised as containing eight tokens:

PercentMark [ Count ] := Score * 10

The analyser must categorise each token. For instance, in the first example, var and integer
must be recognised as keywords. The non-alphanumeric characters such as [or * must be
categorised. The := is a special case; the analyser must recognise that this is one operator
with two characters that must not be separated.

Finally, all identifiers such as count and PercentMark must be recognised as such and
an entry for each must be made in the symbol table (which could have been called the
identifier table). The symbol table contains identifier attributes such as the data type,
where it is declared and where it is assigned a value. The symbol table is an important
data structure for a compiler. Although Figure 20.08 shows it only being used by the syntax
analysis program, it is also used by later stages of compilation.

KEY TERMS

Symbol table: a data structure in which each record contains the name and attributes of an
identifier

Syntax analysis, which is also known as parsing, involves analysis of the

program constructs. The results of the analysis are recorded as a syntax or parse tree.

Figure 20.09 shows the parse tree for the following assignment statement:

y := 2 * x + 4

Note that the hierarchical structure of the tree, if correctly interpreted, ensures that the
multiplication of 2 by x is carried out before the addition of 4.
Semantic analysis is about establishing the full meaning of the code. An annotated
abstract syntax tree is constructed to record this information. For the identifiers in this

2x

Figure 20.09 Parse tree for an

assignment statement

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tree an associated set of attributes is established including, for example, the data type.
These
attributes are also recorded in the symbol table.

An often-used intermediate code created by the last stage of front-end analysis is a three-
address code. As an example the following assignment statement has five identifiers
requiring five addresses:

y := a + (b * c - d) / e

This could be converted into the following four statements, each requiring at most three
addresses:

temp := b * c
temp := temp - d
temp := temp / e
y := a + temp

Representation of the grammar of a language

For each programming language, there is a

defined grammar. This grammar must be
understood by a programmer and also by a
compiler writer.

One method of presenting the grammar rules

is a syntax diagram. Figure 20.10 represents the
grammar rule that an identifier must start with a
letter which can be followed by any combination
of none or more letters or digits. The convention
used here is that options are drawn above the
main flow line and repetitions are drawn below it.

An alternative approach is to use Backus-Naur

Form (BNF). A possible format for a BNF definition
of an identifier is:
Figure 20.10 Syntax diagram defining an identifier

::= ||

::= 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9

::= |

::= A|B|C|D|E|F|G|H|l|J|K|L|M|N|0|P|Q|R|S|T|U|V|W|X|Y|Z

::= a|b|c|d|e|f|g|h|i|j|k|l|m|n|o|p|q|r|s|t|u|v|w|x|y|z

The use of | is to separate individual options. The ::= characters can be read as ‘is defined
as’. Note the recursive definition of in this particular version of BNF. Without the
use of recursion the definition would need to be more complicated to include all possible
combinations following the initial .

A syntax diagram is only used in the context of a language. It has limited use because it
cannot be incorporated into a compiler program as an algorithm. By contrast, BNF is a
general approach which can be used to describe any assembly of data. Furthermore, it can
be used as the basis for an algorithm.

Chapter 20: System Software

Back-end synthesis stages

If the front-end analysis has established that there are syntax errors, the only back¬
end process is the presentation of a list of these errors. For each error, there will be an
explanation and the location within the program source code.

In the absence of errors, the main back-end stage is machine code generation from the
intermediate code. This may involve optimisation of the code. The aim of optimisation
is to create an efficient program; the methods that can be used are diverse. One type of
optimisation focuses on features that were inherent in the original source code and have
been propagated into the intermediate code. As a simple example, consider these
successive
assignment statements:

x := (a + b) (a - b)
y := (a + 2 b) * (a - b)

The most efficient code would be:

temp := (a - b)
x := (a + b) temp
y := x + temp b

Question 20.01
Check the maths for the efficient code defined above.

Another example is when a statement inside a loop, which is therefore executed for each
repetition of the loop, does the same thing each time. Optimisation would place the
statement immediately before the loop.

The other type of optimisation is instigated when the machine code has been created. This
type of optimisation may involve efficient use of registers or of memory.

Evaluation of expressions

An assignment statement often has an algebraic expression defining a new value for an
identifier. The expression can be evaluated by firstly converting the infix representation in the
code to Reverse Polish Notation (RPN). RPN is a postfix representation which never
requires
brackets and has no rules of precedence.

297

WORKED EXAMPLE 20.01

Manually converting an expression between RPN and infix

Converting an expression to RPN

We consider a very simple expression:

a+b*c

The conversion to RPN has to take into account operator precedence so the first step is to
convert b * c to get the intermediate form:

a+bc*

We then convert the two terms to give the final RPN form:

abc*+

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Ifthe original expression had been (a + b) * c (where the brackets were essential) then
the conversion to RPN would have given:

ab+c*

Converting an expression from RPN

Consider this more complicated example of an RPN expression:

x2y3 + 6/
The process is as follows. The RPN is scanned until two identifiers are followed by an
operator. This combination is converted to give an intermediate form (brackets are used for
clarification):

(x 2) y 3 + 6 /

This process is repeated to give the following successive versions:

(X *

1.

(y

3.

6/

(X *

1.

(y *

1. 6 /

((X *

1.

(y *

3)) / 6

Because of the precedence rules, some of the brackets are unnecessary; the final version
could be written as:

(x 2 + y 3) / 6

■^WORKED EXAMPLE 20.02

Using a syntax tree to convert an expression to RPN

In the syntax analysis stage, an expression is represented as a syntax tree. The expression
a + b * c would be presented as shown in Figure 20.11.
Figure 20.11 Syntax tree for an infix expression

To create this tree, the lowest precedence operator (+) is positioned at the root. If there are
several with the same precedence, the first one is used. The RPN form of the expression
can now be extracted by a post-order traversal. This starts at the lowest leaf to the left of
the root and then uses left-right-root ordering which ensures, in this case, that the RPN
representation is:

abc*+

Chapter 20: System Software

WORKED EXAMPLE 20.03

Using a stack with an RPN expression

Stack

line

Figure 20.12 Shunting-yard algorithm

To convert an infix expression to RPN using a stack, the shunting-yard algorithm is used
(Figure 20.12).

Converting an expression to RPN

The rules of the algorithm are to consider the string of tokens representing the infix
expression. These represent the railroad waggons that are to be shunted from the infix line
to the RPN line. The tokens are examined one by one. For each one, the rules are:

• If it is an identifier, it passes straight through to the RPN expression line.

• If it is an operator, there are two options:

o If the stack line is empty or contains a lower precedence operator, the operator is
diverted into the stack line.

o If the stack line contains an equal or higher preference operator, then that operator
is popped from the stack into the RPN expression line and the new operator takes
its place on the stack line.

• When all tokens have left the infix line, the operators remaining on the stack line are
popped one by one from the stack line onto the RPN expression line.

Consider the infix expression a + b c. Table 20.02 traces the conversion process. The
first operator to enter the stack line is the + so when the higher precedence comes later
it too enters the stack line. At the end the * is popped followed by the +.

Infix line

Stack line

RPN line

a+b*c

b*c

b*c

*c

ab

ab

abc

abc*

abc*+

Table 20.02 Trace of the conversion process

Had the infix expression been a b + c then would have been first to enter the stack
line but it would have been popped from the stack before + could enter.

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Evaluating an RPN expression

A stack can be used to evaluate an RPN expression. Let’s consider the execution of the
following RPN expression when x has the value 3 and y has the value 4:

x2y3 + 6/

The rules followed here are that the values are added to the stack in turn. The process is
interrupted if the next item in the RPN expression is an operator. This causes the top two
items to be popped from the stack. Then the operator is used to create a new value from
these two and the new value is added to the stack. The process then continues. Figure.
20.13 shows the successive contents of tine stack with an indication of when an operator
has been used. The intermediate states of the stack when two values have been popped
are not shown.

12

18

18

Figure 20.13 Evaluating a Reverse Polish expression using a stack

TASK 20.01

Practise your understanding of RPN.

1 Convert the following infix expressions into RPN using the methods described in
Worked Examples 20.01,20.02 and 20.03:

(x - y) / 4
3 * (2 + x / 7)

2 Convert the following RPN expressions into the corresponding infix expressions:

4ab + c + d + e + *
y2^z3^ + /

Note that the caret ( A ) symbol represents ‘to the power of.

3 Using simple values for each variable in part 2, use the infix version to evaluate the
expression. Then use the stack method to evaluate the RPN expression and check
that you get the same result.

It needs to be understood that the use of RPN would be of little value if the simple processor
with a limited instruction set discussed in Chapter 6 (Section 6.04) was being used. Modern
processors will have instructions in the instruction set that handle stack operations, so a
compiler can convert expressions into RPN knowing that conversion to machine code can
utilise these and allow stack processing in program execution.

Part 3

Summary

• The operating system provides resource management including scheduling of processes,

memory management and control of the I/O system.

• For the user, the operating system provides an interface, a file system and application
programming interfaces.

• A modular approach provides a flexible structure for the operating system.

• There are five states for a process: new, ready, running, waiting and terminated.

• A process may be interrupted by an error, a need for an I/O activity or the scheduling
algorithm.

• In a virtual machine, a process interacts with a software interface provided by the operating
system.
• Compiler operation has a front-end program providing analysis and a back-end program
providing synthesis.

• Backus-Naur form is used to represent the rules of a grammar.

• Reverse Polish Notation is used for the evaluation of expressions.

Exam-style Questions

la In a multiprogramming environment, the concept of a process has been found to be very

useful in controlling the execution of programs.

i Explain the concept of a process.

ii In one model for the execution of a program, there are five defined process states. Identify
three of them
and explain the meaningof each.

b The transition of processes between states is controlled by a scheduler.

i Identify two scheduling algorithms and for each classify its type.

ii A scheduling algorithm might be chosen to use prioritisation. Identify two criteria that could
be used to
assign a priority to a process.

2 a Three memory management techniques are partitioning, scheduling and paging.

i Give definitions of them.

ii Identify two ways in which they might be combined,

b Some systems use virtual memory.

i Identify which of the techniques in part (a) is used to create virtual memory.

ii Explain two advantages of using virtual memory.

iii Explain one problem that can occur in a virtual memory system.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

3 a A compiler is used to translate a program into machine code.

i A compiler is modelled as containing a front end and a back end. State the overall aim of
the front end

and of the back end. [2]

ii Identify two processes which are part of the front end. [2]
g

iii Identify two processes which are part of the backend. [2]

b Complete the following Backus-Naur definition of a signed integer:

::=.

::=.

::=.

::=. [4]

c Convert the expression (a + 6) + b / c into Reverse Polish Notation. [2]

d Convert the Reverse Polish Notation expression 2 a3b6c- + into infix notation. [2]

302

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

u show understanding of the terms: public key, private key,

plain text, ciphertext, encryption and asymmetric key
cryptography

■ show understanding of how the keys can be used to send:

• a private message from the public to an individual/

organisation

• a verified message to the public

■ show understanding of how a digital certificate is

acquired and used to produce digital signatures

show awareness of the purpose of Secure Socket Layer

(SSL)/Transport Layer Security (TLS); its use in client-
server communication and situations where its use would
be appropriate

show understanding of malware: viruses, worms,

phishingand pharming

describe vulnerabilities that the various types of malware

can exploit

describe methods that can be used to restrict the effect of

malware.
Learning objectives

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

21.01 Encryption fundamentals

Encryption can be used as a routine procedure when storing data within a computing
system. However, the focus in this chapter is on the use of encryption when transmitting
data
over a network.

The use of encryption is illustrated in Figure 21.01.The process starts with original data
referred to as plaintext, whatever form it takes. This is encrypted by an encryption algorithm
which makes use of a key. The product of the encryption is ciphertext, which is transmitted
to the recipient. When the transmission is received it is decrypted using a decryption
algorithm and a key to produce the original plaintext.

Figure 21.01 Overview of encryption and decryption

KEY TERMS

Plaintext: data before encryption

Ciphertext: the result of applying an encryption algorithm to data

Security concerns

There are a number of security concerns relating to a transmission:

• Confidentiality: Only the intended recipient should be able to decrypt the ciphertext.

• Authenticity: The receiver must be certain who sent the ciphertext.

• Integrity: The ciphertext must not be modified during transmission.

• Non-repudiation: Neither sender nor receiver should be able to deny involvement in the
transmission.

• Availability: Nothing should happen to prevent the receiver from receiving the transmission.
This chapter will consider only confidentiality, authenticity and integrity.

The confidentiality concern arises because a message could be intercepted during

transmission and the contents read by an unauthorised person. The concern about integrity
reflects the fact that the transmission might be interfered with deliberately but also that
there might be accidental corruption of the data during transmission.

Encryption methods
The fundamental principle of encryption is that the encryption algorithm must not be
a secret: it must be in the public domain. In contrast, an encryption key must be secret.
However, this is not quite the full story. There are two alternative approaches. One is
symmetric key encryption; the other is asymmetric key encryption.

In symmetric key encryption there is just one key which is used to encrypt and then
to decrypt. This key is a secret shared by the sender and the receiver of a message. In
asymmetric key encryption two different keys are used, one for encryption and a different
one for decryption. Only one of these is a secret.

Part 3

Chapter 21: Security

So, how does this work? What happens at the sending end is straightforward. The sender
has
a key which is used to encrypt some plaintext and the ciphertext produced is transmitted
to the receiver. The question is, how does the receiver get to have the key needed for
decryption? If symmetric key encryption is used, there needs to be a secure method for the
sender and receiver to be provided with the secret key.

Using asymmetric key encryption, the process actually starts with the receiver. The receiver
must be in possession of two keys. One is a public key which is not secret. The other is a
private key which is secret and known only to the receiver. The receiver can send the public
key to a sender, who uses the public key for encryption and sends the ciphertext to the
receiver. The receiver is the only person who can decrypt the message because the private
and public keys are a matched pair. The public key can be provided to any number of
different people allowing the receiver to receive a private message from any of them. Note,
however, that if two individuals require two-way communication, both communicators need
a private key and must send the matching public key to the other person.

There are two requirements to ensure confidentiality should the transmission be intercepted
and the message extracted: the encryption algorithm must be complex and the number of
bits used to define the key must be large.

Extension Question 21.01

The details of encryption algorithms are beyond the scope of this book. However, you
might wish to investigate the type of approach used in established examples, such as DES
or RSA. Also, you might wish to consider the number of different combinations for a 64-bit
or 128-bit key.

The above account does not completely answer the question of how encryption works. The
missing factor is an organisation to provide keys and to ensure their safe delivery to
individuals usingthem.

21.02 Digital signatures and digital certificates

Using asymmetric encryption, the decryption-encryption works if the keys are used the
other way round. An individual can encrypt a message with a private key and send this to
many recipients who have the corresponding public key and can therefore decrypt the
message. This approach would not be used if the content of a message was confidential.
However, it could be used if it was important to verify who the sender was. Only the
sender has the private key and the public keys only work with that one specific private key.
Therefore, used this way, the message has a digital signature identifying the sender.

There is a disadvantage in using this method

of applying a digital signature in that it is
associated with an encryption of the whole
of a message. An alternative is to use a
cryptographic one-way hash function which
creates from the message a number, uniquely
defined for the particular message, called a
‘digest’. The private key is used as a signature
for this digest. This speeds up the process of
confirming the sender’s identity. The process at
the sender’s end of the transmission is outlined
in Figure 21.02. A public one-way hash function
is used.

Message

Cryptographic
hash
function

Digest

Sender’s
private key

-> Encryption

Digital

/ signature

Figure 21.02 Sender using a one-way hash function to send a digital signature

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

306

We will assume that the message is transmitted as plaintext

together with the digital signature as a separate file. The
processes that take place at the receiver end are outlined in
Figure 21.03. The same public hash key function is used that
was used by the sender so the same digest is produced if the
message has been transmitted without alteration.

The decryption of the digital signature produces an identical

digest if the message was genuinely sent by the original owner
of the public key that the receiver has used. This approach has
allowed the receiver to be confident that the message is both
authentic and unaltered.

This sounds good but unfortunately it does not consider the

fact that someone might forge a public key and pretend to be
someone else. Therefore, there is a need for a more rigorous
means of ensuring authentication. This can be provided by a
Certification Authority (CA) provided as part of a Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI).

^ Message

■>

Cryptographic

hash

function

Figure 21.03 Checking received transmissions

Let’s consider a would-be receiver who has a public-private key pair. This individual wishes
to be able to receive secure messages from other individuals. The public key must be made
available in a way that ensures authentication. The steps taken by the would-be receiver to
obtain a digital certificate to allow safe public key delivery are illustrated in Figure 21.04. The
process can be summarised as follows:

An individual (person A) who is a would-be

receiver and has a public-private key pair
contacts a local CA.

The CA confirms the identity of person A.

Person A’s public key is given to the CA.

The CA creates a public-key certificate (a digital

certificate) and writes person A’s public key into
this document.
The CA uses encryption with the CA’s private key
to add a digital signature to this document.

The digital certificate is given to person A.

Person A posts the digital certificate on a

website.

Figure 21.04 Processes involved in obtaining a digital certificate

Figure 21.04 has person A placing the digital certificate on that person’s website but another
option is to post it on a website designed specifically for keeping digital certificate data.
Alternatively, a digital certificate might be used solely for authenticating emails as was
suggested in Chapter 8 (Section 8.02).

Once a signed digital certificate has been posted on a website, any other person wishing to
use person A’s public key downloads the signed digital certificate from the website and uses
the CA’s public key to extract person A’s public key from the digital certificate.

For this overall process to work there is a need for standards to be defined. As ever, the
name
for the standard, X.509, is not very memorable.

Part 3

Chapter 21: Security

21.03 SSL and TLS

Secure Socket Layer (SSL) arid Transport Layer Security (TLS) are two closely related
protocols
providing security in using the Internet. TLS is a slightly modified version of SSL. We
concentrate
on SSL here. The main context for the use of SSL is a client-server application. As described
in
Chapter 17 (Section 17.04), the interface between an application and TCP uses a port
number.

In the absence of a security protocol, TCP services an application using the port number.
The
combination of an IP address and a port number is called a ‘socket’. When the Secure
Socket
Layer protocol is implemented it functions as an additional layer between TCP in the
transport
layer and the application layer. When the SSL protocol is in place, the application protocol
HTTP
becomes HTTPS. Note that although SSL is referred to as a protocol, it is in fact a protocol
suite.

The starting point for SSL implementation is a connection between the client and the server
being established by TCP. The Handshake Protocol from the SSP suite is used to create
a session to allow the client and the server to communicate. Once the session has been
established, the client and server can agree which encryption algorithms are to be used and
can define the values for the session keys that are to be used. This interchange may involve
checking digital certificates. For the transmission, SSL provides encryption, compression of
the data and integrity checking. When the transmission is complete the session is closed
and
all records of the encryption disappear.

An application running HTTPS can guarantee secure communication allowing users to send
confidential information such as credit card details in an ecommerce transaction. The user
is completely unaware of the processes involved in ensuring confidential transmission with
data integrity assured.

307

Discussion Point:

Chapter 8 (Section 8.01) discussed security and privacy issues. The use of encryption has
always been a controversial subject. There are two important aspects to this. The first is
whether powerful, unbreakable encryption algorithms should be made available to the
public. The second relates to the key escrow scheme, which allows governments access to
all
secret keys. You may wish to revisit your Chapters discussions.

21.04 Malware

Types of malware

Malware is the colloquial name for malicious software. Malicious software is software that is
introduced into a system for a harmful purpose. One category of malware is where program
code is introduced to a system. The various types of malware-containing program code are:

• virus: tries to replicate itself inside other executable code

• worm: runs independently and propagates to other network hosts

• logic bomb: lies dormant until some condition is met

• Trojan horse: replaces all or part of a previously useful program

• spyware: collects information and transmits it to another system

• bot: takes control of another computer and uses it to launch attacks.

The differences between the different types are not large and what is always called an ‘anti-
virus’ package will detect all of the different types. The virus category is often subdivided
according to the software that the virus attaches itself to. Examples are boot sector viruses
and macro viruses.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Malware can also be classified in terms of the activity involved:

• phishing: sending an email or electronic message from an apparently legitimate source

requesting confidential information

• pharming: setting up a bogus website which appears to be a legitimate site

• keylogger: recording keyboard usage by the legitimate user of the system.

308

System vulnerabilities

Many system vulnerabilities are associated directly with the activities of legitimate users of a
system. Malware can be introduced inadvertently by the user in a number of ways:

• attaching a portable storage device

• opening an email attachment

• accessing a website

• downloading a file from the Internet.

Alternatively, a legitimate user with a grievance might introduce malware deliberately.

Other vulnerabilities are indirectly associated with the activities of legitimate users. By far
the most significant is the use of weak passwords and particularly those which have a direct
connection to the user. A poor choice of password gives the would-be hacker a strong
chance
of being able to gain unauthorised access. Other examples include a legitimate user not
recognising a phishing or pharming attack and, as a result, disclosing sensitive information.

Systems inherently lack optimum security. Operating systems are notorious for lacking good
security. There is a tendency for operating systems to increase in complexity which tends to
offer the potential for more insecurity. The regular updates are often required because of a
newly discovered security vulnerability. In the past, commonly used application packages
have allowed macro viruses to flourish but this particular problem is largely under control.

A very specific vulnerability is buffer overflow. Programs written in the C programming

language, of which there are very many, do not automatically carry out array bound checks.
A program can be written to deliberately write code to the part of memory that is outside
the address range defined for the array implemented as a buffer. This will overwrite what is
stored there so when a subsequent program reads this overwritten section it will not execute
as it should. This might just cause minor disruption but if cleverly engineered it could lead to
an attacker gaining unauthorised access to the system and causing serious problems.

Chapter 8 (Section 8.02) has a discussion of the standard security measures for computer
systems such as firewalls and anti-virus software.

Chapter 21: Security

1 a When transmitting data across a network three concerns relate to: confidentiality,
authenticity and integrity.
Explain each of these terms.

[4]

b Encryption and decryption can be carried out using a symmetric or an asymmetric key
method.

Explain how keys are used in each of these methods. You are not required to describe the
algorithms used.

Your account must include reference to a public key, a private key and a secret key. [6]

c Digital signatures and digital certificates are used in message transmission.

Give an explanation of their use. [5]

2 Malware is a serious concern for computer system users.

a Give the names of two types of malware which involve some malicious code being input
into a system. [2]

b Explain the difference between the two types of code. [3]

c Identify and explain two approaches for preventing malicious code from entering a
computer system. [4]

d Explain the terms ‘phishing 5 and ‘pharming 5 . [3]

e Identify one possible policy for reducing the threat from phishing or pharming. [2]

310

Chapter 22

Monitoring and Control Systems

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

m show understanding of the difference between a

monitoring system and a control system

■ show understanding of sensors and actuators and their

usage

■ show understanding of the additional hardware required

to build these systems

■ show understanding of the importance of feedback in a

control system

■ show understanding of the software requirements of

these systems

■ show understanding of how bit manipulation can be used

to monitor/control a device

■ carry out bit manipulations

■ show understanding of how to make use of appropriate

bit manipulation in monitoring systems and control
systems.

22.01 Logistics

Monitoring can be used to describe a very wide range of activities but all are characterised
by the measurement of some physical property. Typical examples of the physical property
could be temperature, pressure, light intensity, flow rate or movement.

Let’s consider temperature as an example. If this was being monitored under human control,
the measurement could be made with a standard mercury thermometer. However, in this
chapter we are interested in systems where a computer or microprocessor is being used.

In this scenario, monitoring requires a measuring device that records a value which can be
transmitted to the computer. Such a measuring device is a called a sensor. For monitoring
temperature, a sensor could contain a thermocouple which outputs a temperature-
dependent voltage.

There can only be one of two reasons to monitor a system:

• to check whether or not the monitored value is within acceptable limits; in a safety
system, if the measured property has reached a dangerous level;some immediate action
is required.
• to ensure routinely and continuously that the monitored property is as required; if the
value measured indicates that a change has occurred, then the control part of the system
may have to take measures to reverse this change.

The control element of a monitoring and control system needs a device, called an actuator
Figure 22.01 shows a schematic diagram of a computer-controlled environment.

KEY TERMS

Sensor: a hardware device that measures a property and transmits a value to a controlling
computer

Actuator: a hardware device that receives a signal from a computer and adjusts the setting
of a
controlling device

Figure 22.01 includes an analogue-to-

digital converter (ADC) and a digital-to-
analogue converter (DAC) as separate
components but they are likely to be
integral to the device in the controlled
environment. It should be noted that
the diagram also shows an actuator
as a single component. This is a
simplification. An actuator is an electric
motor that drives a controlling device
which is not shown.

The system shown in Figure 22.01

involves a continuous process where
a measurement is made and then, if
needed, a control action is initiated.
Following this control action, a
measurement is taken again. There is
therefore an element of feedback in the
system.

Figure 22.01 Computer-controlled environment

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

A closed-loop feedback control system is a special type of monitoring and control system
where the feedback directly controls the operation. Figure 22.02 shows a schematic diagram
of such a system. A microprocessor functions as the controller. This compares the value for
the actual output, as read by the sensor, with the desired output. It then transmits a value to
the actuator which depends on the difference calculated.
312

22.02 Real-time Desired

programming

Monitoring and control systems require

real-time programming. Whether a program
is just monitoring or is monitoring and
controlling, it must incorporate a structure
for repetitive sensor reading. This must
continue for the whole duration of the
period that the system is switched on.

A simple loop structure will achieve this

but reading sensor values every clock cycle of a processor is unnecessarily frequent. The
program must control the timing of the repetitions. This might be done by creating a timed
sequence for reading values or possibly by including a time delay inside a loop.

Figure 22.02 Closed-loop feedback control system

Extension question 22.01

Research the capabilities for controlling the timing sequence for continuous running in
your chosen programming language. Which ones would be best suited to a monitoring and
control program?

An example monitoring program

Consider the following fragment of pseudocode:

EndReadingSensor FALSE
ReadingOutOfRange FALSE
REPEAT

CALL SensorRead(SensorValue)

IF SensorValue > MaximumAllowed

THEN

ReadingOutOfRange <- TRUE

Reading 'H'

ELSE

IF SensorValue < MinimumAllowed

THEN
ReadingOutOfRange TRUE
Reading <- 'L'

ENDIF

ENDIF

IF ReadingOutOfRange
THEN

CALL WarningDisplay(Reading)

ENDIF

ReadingOutOfRange FALSE
FOR TimeFiller <- 1 TO 999999
ENDFOR

UNTIL EndReadingSensor

Note the following features of the program:

• There is an infinite loop.

• The loop finishes with another loop that does nothing other than create a delay before
the outer loop repeats.

• When the sensor reading indicates a problem, the loop calls a procedure to handle
whatever notification method is to be used.

• Following this call, the loop continues so the Boolean variable has to be reset to prevent
the warning procedure being repetitively called.

An example monitoring and control program

Consider a system which is controlling an enclosed environment. The environment has

a sensor to monitor a property and an actuator to control that property. The following
fragment of code might be used:

EndReadingSensor <- FALSE

READ DesiredOutputLevel
REPEAT

CALL SensorRead(SensorValue)

SensorDifference <- DesiredOutputLevel - SensorValue

IF ABS (SensorDifference) < DesiredOutputLevel/lOO
THEN
SensorDif ference 0

ENDIF

IF SensorDifference > 0
THEN

ActuatorAdjustmentFactor SensorDifference/DesiredOutputLevel
AdjustmentDirection 'up'

CALL ActivateActuator(AdjustmentDirection, ActuatorAdjustmentFactor)

ENDIF

IF SensorDifference < 0
THEN

ActuatorAdjustmentFactor <- ABS (SensorDif ference)/DesiredOutputLevel

AdjustmentDirection 'down'

CALL ActivateActuator(AdjustmentDirection, ActuatorAdjustmentFactor)

ENDIF

FOR TimeFiller «- 1 TO 999999

ENDFOR

UNTIL EndReadingSensor

Note the following features of the program:

• A procedure is called to activate the actuator only if the sensor reading shows a significant
change.

• The code will only work properly if it can be guaranteed that the activation of the actuator
has caused a change in the property before the sensor reading in the next iteration of the
loop.

22.03 Bit manipulation

The two fragments of code in Section 22.02 have a direct call to a procedure to take some
action. A slightly different approach would be to set values for Boolean variables subject
to what the sensors detect. For instance if a controlled environment had two properties to

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

be monitored and controlled, four Boolean variables could be used. Values could be set by
assignment statements such as:
IF SensorDifferencel > 0
IF SensorDifferencel < 0
IF SensorDifference2 > 0
IF SensorDifference2 < 0

THEN SensorlHighFlag TRUE

THEN SensorlLowFlag TRUE
THEN Sensor2HighFlag TRUE
THEN Sensor2LowFlag TRUE

Another part of the monitoring and control program would be checking whether any of the
four flags were set. The machine code for running such a program could use individual bits
to
represent each flag. The way that flags could be set and read are illustrated by the following
assembly language code fragments in which the three least significant bits (positions 0,1
and

1. of the byte are used as flags:

LDD 0034
AND #B00000000

STO 0034

Loads a byte into the accumulator from an address

Uses a bitwise AND operation of the contents of the accumulator with the
operand to convert each bit to 0

Stores the altered byte in the original address

LDD 0034
XOR #B00000001

314

STO 0034

Uses a bitwise XOR operation of the contents of the accumulator with the
operand to toggle the value of the bit stored in position 0. This changes the
value of the flag it represents.

LDD 0034

and #booooooio Uses a bitwise AND operation of the contents of the accumulator with the

operand to leave the value in position 1 unchanged but to convert every other
bit to 0. A subsequent instruction can now compare the value of the byte with
denary 2 to see if the flag represented by this bit position is set.

STO 0034

LDD 0034

OR #boooooioo Uses a bitwise OR operation of the contents of the accumulator with the

operand to set the flag represented by the bit in position 2. All other bit
positions remain unchanged.

STO 0034

Part 3

Chapter 22: Monitoring and Control Systems

Exam-style Questions

1 A zoo reptile house has sixteen tanks which accommodate its reptiles. Each tank has to
have its own microclimate
where the appropriate levels of heat and humidity are crucial. The zoo implements a
computer system which
supplies the conditions in each of the tanks to a terminal in a central area. Warning
messages are flashed up on
the screen if any condition arises which requires the intervention of a zoo-keeper.

a State the name of the type of computing system described.

b State two items of hardware which need to be present in the tanks for this system to
function correctly,
c This is the polling routine which is used to run the system indefinitely:

01

REPEAT

02

FOR i 1 TO .

03

READ Conditionl, Condition2 in

tank (i)

04

IF Conditionl < Extreme[i,l] OR

Conditionl

Extreme [i, 2]

05

THEN

06

OUTPUT "Warning! Problem

in Tank ",

07

ENDIF

08

IF Condition2 < Extreme [i, 3] OR

Conditions

Extreme [i, 4]

09

THEN

10

OUTPUT "Warning! Problem

in Tank ",

11

ENDIF

12
ENDFOR

13

14

FOR i <- 1 TO 999999

15

ENDFOR

16

UNTIL .

Fill in the gaps in the pseudocode.

ii

Explain what is stored in the array Extreme.

iii

Explain what happens in lines 04 to 11.

iv

Explain the purpose of the loop in lines 14 to 15.

315

[1]

[2]

[2]

[2]

[3]

[1]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

d The zoo decides that the computer system needs to be updated. The computer system will
now make use
of actuators. These actuators will operate devices which adjust the microclimate.
Actuators can be in two states, on or off. Whether an actuator is on or off is determined by a
single bit
value (0 means off, 1 means on) in a specific 8-bit memory location.

The actuators to control the climate in Tank 4 use memory location 0804. Bit 5 of this
memory location
controls the heater.

bit number

value

Use some of the assembly language instructions to write the instructions that will ensure bit
5 of location

0804 is set to 1. [6]

Instruction
Explanation

Op Code Operand

LDM #n

Immediate addressing. Load the number n to ACC

LLD

Direct addressing. Load the contents of the given address to ACC

STO

Store the contents of ACC at the given address

OUT

Output to the screen the character whose ASCII value is stored in ACC

AND #n

Bitwise AND operation of the contents of ACC with the operand

AND

Bitwise AND operation of the contents of ACC with the contents of

XOR #n

Bitwise XOR operation of the contents of ACC with the operand

OR #n

Bitwise OR operation of the contents of ACC with the operand

Cambridge International AS and A Level Computer Science 9608 Specimen Paper 3 Q 3

Further Problem-Solving and

Programming Skills

Computational Thinking
and Problem-Solving

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of how to model a complex system
by only including essential details

■ write a binary search algorithm to solve a particular

problem

■ show understanding of the conditions necessary for the

use of a binary search

■ show understanding of how the performance of a binary

search varies according to the number of data items

■ write algorithms to:

• implement an insertion sort

• implement a bubble sort

• find an item in each of the following: linked list, binary

tree, hash table

• insert an item into each of the following: stack, queue,

linked list, binary tree, hash table

• delete an item from each of the following: stack, queue,

linked list

■ show understanding that performance of a sort routine

may depend on the initial order of the data and the
number of data items

■ show understanding that different algorithms which

perform the same task can be compared by using criteria
such as time taken to complete the task and memory used

■ show understanding that an abstract data type (ADT) is a

collection of data and a set of operations on those data

■ show understanding that data structures not available

as built-in types in a particular programming language
need to be constructed from those data structures which
are built-in within the language

■ show how it is possible for ADTs to be implemented from

another ADT

■ describe the following ADTs and demonstrate how they can

be implemented from appropriate built-in types or other
ADTs: stack, queue, linked list, dictionary, binary tree.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

23.01 What is computational thinking?

We have already been thinking computationally in Chapters 11 to 15. Here is the formal
definition:

Computational thinking is a problem-solving process where a number of steps are taken in

order to reach a solution, rather than relying on rote learning to draw conclusions without
considering these conclusions.

Computational thinking involves abstraction, decomposition, data modelling, pattern

recognition and algorithm design.

318

Abstraction

Abstraction involves filtering out information that is not necessary to solving the problem.
There are many examples in everyday life where abstraction is used. In Chapter 11 (Section
11.01), we saw part of the underground map of London, UK. The purpose of this map is
to help people plan their journey within London. The map does not show a geographical
representation of the tracks of the underground train network.nor does it show the streets
above ground. It shows the stations and which train lines connect the stations. In other
words, the information that is not necessary when planning how to get from Kings Cross St.
Pancras to Westminster is filtered out. The essential information we need to be able to plan
our route is clearly represented.

Abstraction gives us the power to deal with complexity. An algorithm is an abstraction of a

process that takes inputs, executes a sequence of steps, and produces outputs. An abstract
data type defines an abstract set of values and operations for manipulating those values.

Decomposition

Decomposition means breaking tasks down into smaller parts in order to explain a process
more clearly. Decomposition is another word for step-wise refinement (covered in Chapter
12, Section 12.01). This led us to structured programming using procedures and functions
with parameters, covered in Chapter 14 (Section 14.03 to 14.05).

Data modelling

Data modelling involves analysing and organising data. In Chapter 13 we met simple data
types such as integer, character and Boolean. The string data type is a composite type:
a sequence of characters. When we have groups of data items we used one-dimensional
(ID) arrays to represent linear lists and two-dimensional (2D) arrays to represent tables
or matrices. We stored data in text files. In Chapter 10, we used data modelling to design
database tables.

We can set up abstract data types to model real-world concepts, such as records, queues
or stacks. When a programming language does not have such data types built-in, we can
define our own by building them from existing data types (see Section 23.03). There are
more
ways to build data models. In Chapter 27 we cover object-oriented programming where we
build data models by defining classes. In Chapter 29 we model data using facts and rules. In
Chapter 26 we cover random files.

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

Pattern recognition

Pattern recognition means looking for patterns or common solutions to common problems
and exploiting these to complete tasks in a more efficient and effective way. There are many
standard algorithms to solve standard problems, such as insertion sort or binary search (see
Section 23.02).

Algorithm design

Algorithm design involves developing step-by-step instructions to solve a problem (see

Chapter 11).

23.02 Standard algorithms

Bubble sort

In Chapter 11, we developed the algorithm for a bubble sort (Worked Example 11.12).

Discussion Point:

What were the essential features of a bubble sort?

TASK 23.01

Write program code for the most efficient bubble sort algorithm. Assume that the items to be
sorted are stored in a ID array with n elements.

319

Insertion sort

Imagine you have a number of cards with a different value printed on each card. How would
you sort these cards into order of increasing value?

You can consider the pile of cards as consisting of a sorted part and an unsorted part. Place
the unsorted cards in a pile on the table. Hold the sorted cards as a pack in your hand. To
start with only the first (top) card is sorted. The card on the top of the pile on the table is the
next card to be inserted. The last (bottom) card in your hand is your current card.

Figure 23.01 shows the sorted cards in your hand as blue and the pile of unsorted cards as
white. The next card to be inserted is shown in red. Each column shows the state of the pile
as the cards are sorted.

Position
number

1
2

l47|

47

47

17

17

17

54

54

54
47

47

28

17

17

HSU

54

54

47

93

93

93

| 93

93

54

28

28

28

| 28

r*28 a

93

Key

Sorted
Next card
Unsorted

Figure 23.01 Sorting cards

Repeat the following steps until all cards in the unsorted pile have been inserted into the
correct position:

1 Repeat until the card to be inserted has been placed in its correct position.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

320

1.1 Compare the current card with the card to be inserted.

1.2 If the card to be inserted is greater than the current card, insert it below the current
card.

1.3 Otherwise, if there is a card above the current card in your hand, make this your new
current card.

1.4 If there is no new current card, place the card to be inserted at the top of the sorted
pile.

What happens when you work through the sorted cards to find the correct position for the
card to be inserted? In effect, as you consider the cards in your hand, you move the current
card down a position. If the value of the card to be inserted is smaller than the last card you
considered, then the card is inserted at the top of the pile (position 1).

This method is known as an insertion sort. It is a standard sort method.

We can write this algorithm using pseudocode. Assume the values to be sorted are stored in
a ID array, List:

FOR Pointer «- 2 TO NumberOfitems

ItemToBelnserted <- List [Pointer]

Currentltem «- Pointer - 1 // pointer to last item in sorted part of list

WHILE (List [Currentltem] > ItemToBelnserted) AND (Currentltem > 0)

List [Currentltem + 1] <- List [Currentltem]// move current item down

Currentltem «- Currentltem - 1 // look at the item above
ENDWHILE

List [Currentltem + 1] <- ItemToBelnserted // insert item

ENDFOR

TASK 23.02

1 Dry-run the insertion sort algorithm using a trace table. Assume the list consists of the
following six items in the order given: 53,21,60,18,42,19.
2 Write program code for the insertion sort algorithm. Assume that the items to be sorted are
stored in a ID array with n elements.

Extension question 23.01

Investigate the performances of the insertion sort and the bubble sort by:

• varying the initial order of the items

• increasing the number of items to be sorted.

Binary search

In Chapter 11 we developed the algorithm for a linear search (Worked Example 11.11). This
is
the only way we can systematically search an unordered list. However, if the list is ordered,
then we can use a different technique.

Consider the following real-world example.

If you want to look up a word in a dictionary, you are unlikely to start searching for the word
from the beginning of the dictionary. Suppose you are looking for the word ‘quicksort’. You
look at the middle entry of the dictionary (approximately) and find the word ‘magnetic’,
‘quicksort’ comes after ‘magnetic’, so you look in the second half of the dictionary. Again you
look at the entry in the middle of this second half of the dictionary (approximately) and find

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

the word ‘report’, ‘quicksort’ comes before ‘report’, so you look in the third quarter. You can
keep looking at the middle entry of the part which must contain your word, until you find the
word. If the word does not exist in the dictionary, you will have no entries in the dictionary left
to find the middle of.

This method is known as a binary search. It is a standard method.

KEYTERMS

Binary search: repeated checking of the middle item in an ordered search list and discarding
the half
of the list which does not contain the search item

We can write this algorithm using pseudocode. Assume the values are sorted in ascending
order and stored in a ID array, List of size Maxitems.

Found «- FALSE
SearchFailed <- FALSE
First 1
Last 4- Maxitems // set boundaries of search area
WHILE NOT Found AND NOT SearchFailed

Middle 4- (First + Last) DIV 2 // find middle of current search area

IF List [Middle] = Searchltem
THEN

Found 4- TRUE
ELSE

IF First >= Last // no search area left

THEN

SearchFailed <- TRUE

ELSE

IF List [Middle] > Searchltem

THEN // must be in first half

Last 4- Middle - 1 // move upper boundary

ELSE // must be in second half

First 4 - Middle + 1 // move lower boundary

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF
ENDWHILE
IF Found = TRUE
THEN

OUTPUT Middle // output position where item was found

ELSE

OUTPUT "Item not present in array"

ENDIF

TASK 23.03

Dry-run the binary search algorithm using a trace table. Assume the list consists of the
following 20 items in the order given: 7,12,19,23,27,33,37,41,45,56,59,60,62,71,75,80,84,
88,92,99.

Search for the value 60. How many times did you have to execute the while loop?
Dry-run the algorithm again, this time searching for the value 34. How many times did you
have to execute the while loop?

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

322

Discussion Point:

Compare the binary-search algorithm with the linear-search algorithm. If the array contains
n items, how many times on average do you need to test a value when using a binary
search
and how many times on average do you need to test a value when using a linear search?
Can
you describe how the search time varies with increasing n?

23.03 Abstract data types (ADTs)

An abstract data type is a collection of data. When we want to use an abstract data type,
we need a set of basic operations:

• create a new instance of the data structure

• find an element in the data structure

• insert a new element into the data structure

• delete an element from the data structure

• access all elements stored in the data structure in a systematic manner.

KEY TERMS

Abstract data type: a collection of data with associated operations

The remainder of this chapter describes the following ADTs: stack, queue, linked list, binary
tree, hash table and dictionary. It also demonstrates how they can be implemented from
appropriate built-in types or other ADTs.

23.04 Stacks

What are the features of a stack in the real world? To make a stack, we pile
items on top of each other. The item that is accessible is the one on top of the
stack. If we try to find an item in the stack and take it out, we are likely to cause
the pile of items to collapse.

Figure 23.02 shows how we can represent a stack when we have added four
items in this order: A, B, C, D. Note that the slots are shown numbered from the
bottom as this is more intuitive.
The Baseof stackPointer will always point to the first slot in the stack. The
TopOfstackPointer will point to the last element pushed onto the stack.
When an element is removed from the stack, the TopOfstackPointer will
decrease to point to the element now at the top of the stack.

_D

C_

J3

TopOfstackPointer

BaseOfStackPointer

Figure 23.02 A stack

23.05 Queues

What are the features of a queue in the real world? When people form a queue,
they join the queue at the end. People leave the queue from the front of the
queue. If it is an orderly queue, no-one pushes in between and people don’t
leave the queue from any other position.

Figure 23.03 shows how we can represent a queue when five items have joined
the queue in this order: A, B, C, D, E.

3
4

A _ FrontOfQueuePointer

E <- EndOfQueuePointer

Figure 23.03 A queue

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

When the item at the front of the queue leaves, we need to move all the
other items one slot forward. This would involve a lot of moving of data.

A more efficient way to make use of the slots is the concept of a ‘circular’
queue. Pointers show where the front and end of the queue are. Eventually
the queue will ‘wrap around’ to the beginning. Figure 23.04 shows a
circular queue after 11 items have joined and five items have left the
queue.

23.06 Linked lists

EndOfQueuePointer

FrontOfQueuePointer

Figure 23.04 A circular queue

In Chapter 11 we used an array as a linear list. In a linear list, the list items are stored in
consecutive locations. This is not always appropriate. Another method is to store an
individual list item in whatever location is available and link the individual item into an
ordered sequence using pointers.

An element of a list is called a node. A node can consist of several data items and a pointer,
which is a variable that stores the address of the node it points to.
A pointer that does not point at anything is called a null pointer. It is usually represented
by 0. A variable that stores the address of the first element is called a start pointer.

KEY TERMS

Node: an element of a list

Pointer: a variable that stores the address of the node it points to

Null pointer: a pointer that does not point at anything

Start pointer: a variable that stores the address of the first element of a linked list

In Figure 23.05, the data value in the node box represents the key field of that node. There
are
likely to be many data items associated with each node. The arrows represent the pointers.

It does not show at which address a node is stored, so the diagram does not give the value
of
the pointer, only where it conceptually links to.

StartPointer

node node node

323

Figure 23.05 Conceptual diagram of a linked list

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

A new node, A, is inserted at the beginning of the list. The content of startPointer is copied
into the new node’s pointer field and startPointer is set to point to the new node, A.

StartPointer

node

Figure 23.06 Conceptual diagram of adding a new node to the beginning of a linked list

In Figure 23.07, a new node, P, is inserted at the end of the list. The pointer field of node L
points to the new node, P. The pointer field of the new node, P, contains the null pointer.

To delete the first node in the list (Figure 23.08), we copy the pointer field of the node to be
deleted into StartPointer.

StartPointer

Figure 23.08 Deleting the first node in a linked list

To delete the last node in the list (Figure 23.09), we set the pointer field for the previous
node
to the null pointer.

StartPointer

node node node

Figure 23.09 Conceptual diagram of deleting the last node of a linked list

Sometimes the nodes are linked together in order of key field value to produce an ordered
linked list. This means a new node may need to be inserted or deleted from between two
existing nodes.

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

To insert a new node, C, between existing nodes, B and D (Figure 23.10), we copy the
pointer
field of node B into the pointer field of the new node, C. We change the pointer field of node
B
to point to the new node, C.

StartPointer

node

Figure 23.10 Conceptual diagram of adding a new node into a linked list

To delete a node, D, within the list (Figure 23.11), we copy the pointer field of the node to be
deleted, D, into the pointer field of node B.

StartPointer

Figure 23.11 Conceptual diagram of deleting a node within a linked list

Remember that, in real applications, the data would consist of much more than a key field
and one data item. This is why linked lists are preferable to linear lists. When list elements
need reordering, only pointers need changing in a linked list. In a linear list, all data items
would need to be moved.

Using linked lists saves time, however we need more storage space for the pointer fields.

In Chapter 16 we looked at composite data types, in particular the user-defined record type.
We grouped together related data items into record data structures. To use a record
variable,
we first define a record type. Then we declare variables of that record type.

We can store the linked list in an array of records. One record represents a node and
consists
of the data and a pointer. When a node is inserted or deleted, only the pointers need to
change. A pointer value is the array index of the node pointed to.

Unused nodes need to be easy to find. A suitable technique is to link the unused nodes to
form another linked list: the free list. Figure 23.12 shows our linked list and its free list.

StartPointer

node node node

FreeListPtr

node node node node

Figure 23.12 Conceptual diagram of a linked list and a free list

325

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326

When an array of nodes is first initialised to work as a linked list, the linked list will be empty.
So the start pointer will be the null pointer. All nodes need to be linked to form the free
list. Figure 23.13 shows an example of an implementation of a linked list before any data is
inserted into it.

StartPointer

FreeListPtr

List

Data

Pointer

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]
5

[5]

[6]

[7]

Figure 23.13 A linked list before any nodes are used

We now code the basic operations discussed using the conceptual diagrams in Figures
23.05
to 23.12.

Create a new linked list

// NullPointer should be set to -1 if using array element with index 0

CONSTANT NullPointer = 0

// Declare record type to store data and pointer

TYPE ListNode

DECLARE Data : STRING

DECLARE Pointer : INTEGER
ENDTYPE

DECLARE StartPointer : INTEGER

DECLARE FreeListPtr : INTEGER
DECLARE List [1 : 7] OF ListNode

PROCEDURE InitialiseList

StartPointer «- NullPointer // set start pointer

FreeListPtr «- 1 // set starting position of free list

FOR Index 4 - 1 TO 6 // link all nodes to make free list

List [Index] .Pointer 4 - Index + 1

ENDFOR

List[7] .Pointer «- NullPointer // last node of free list

ENDPROCEDURE
Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

Insert a new node into an ordered linked list

PROCEDURE InsertNode(NewItem)

IF FreeListPtr <> NullPointer

THEN // there is space in the array

// take node from free list and store data item

NewNodePtr <- FreeListPtr

List [NewNodePtr] .Data <- Newltem

FreeListPtr <- List [FreeListPtr] .Pointer

// find insertion point

ThisNodePtr «- StartPointer // start at beginning of list

WHILE ThisNodePtr <> NullPointer // while not end of list

AND List [ThisNodePtr] .Data < Newltem

PreviousNodePtr «- ThisNodePtr // remember this node

// follow the pointer to the next node

ThisNodePtr <- List [ThisNodePtr] .Pointer
ENDWHILE

IF PreviousNodePtr = StartPointer

THEN // insert new node at start of list

List [NewNodePtr] .Pointer «- StartPointer
StartPointer «- NewNodePtr

ELSE // insert new node between previous node and this node
List [NewNodePtr] .Pointer <- List [PreviousNodePtr] .Pointer
List [PreviousNodePtr] .Pointer «- NewNodePtr

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

After three data items have been added to the linked list, the array contents are as shown in
Figure 23.14.
327

StartPointer 1

FreeListPtr 4

List

Data

Pointer

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

Figure 23.14 Linked list of three nodes and free list of four nodes

Find an element in an ordered linked list

FUNCTION FindNode (Dataltem) RETURNS INTEGER // returns pointer to node

CurrentNodePtr <- StartPointer // start at beginning of list
WHILE CurrentNodePtr <> NullPointer // not end of list

AND List [CurrentNodePtr] .Data <> Dataltem // item not found

// follow the pointer to the next node
CurrentNodePtr <- List [CurrentNodePtr] .Pointer
ENDWHILE

RETURN CurrentNodePtr // returns NullPointer if item not found

ENDFUNCTION

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328

Delete a node from an ordered linked list

PROCEDURE DeleteNode(Dataltem)

ThisNodePtr <- StartPointer // start at beginning of list

WHILE ThisNodePtr <> NullPointer // while not end of list

AND List [ThisNodePtr] .Data <> Dataltem // and item not found
PreviousNodePtr ThisNodePtr // remember this node

// follow the pointer to the next node

ThisNodePtr «- List [ThisNodePtr] .Pointer
ENDWHILE

IF ThisNodePtr <> NullPointer // node exists in list

THEN

IF ThisNodePtr = StartPointer // first node to be deleted

THEN

StartPointer «- List [StartPointer] .Pointer

ELSE

List [PreviousNodePtr] <- List [ThisNodePtr] .Pointer

ENDIF

List [ThisNodePtr] .Pointer <- FreeListPtr

FreeListPtr <- ThisNodePtr

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

Access all nodes stored in the linked list

PROCEDURE OutputA1INodes

CurrentNodePtr 4 - StartPointer // start at beginning of list

WHILE CurrentNodePtr <> NullPointer // while not end of list
OUTPUT List [CurrentNodePtr] .Data
// follow the pointer to the next node
CurrentNodePtr «- List [CurrentNodePtr] .Pointer
ENDWHILE
ENDPROCEDURE

TASK 23.04

Convert the pseudocode for the linked-list handling subroutines to program code.
Incorporate the subroutines into a program and test them.

Note that a stack ADT and a queue ADT can be treated as special cases of linked lists. The
linked list stack only needs to add and remove nodes from the front of the linked list. The
linked list queue only needs to add nodes to the end of the linked list and remove nodes
from
the front of the linked list.

TASK 23.05

Write program code to implement a stack as a linked list. Note that the adding and removing
of nodes is much simpler than for an ordered linked list.

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

TASK 23.06

Write program code to implement a queue as a linked list. You may find it helpful to
introduce
another pointer that always points to the end of the queue. You will need to update it when
you add a new node to the queue.

23.07 Binary trees

In the real world, we draw tree structures to represent hierarchies. For example, we can
draw
a family tree showing ancestors and their children. A binary tree is different to a family tree
because each node can have at most two ‘children’.

In computer science binary trees are used for different purposes. In Chapter 20 (Section
20.05), you saw the use of a binary tree as a syntax tree. In this chapter, you will use an
ordered binary tree ADT (such as the one shown in Figure 23.15) as a binary search tree.

Root node
Figure 23.15 Conceptual diagram of an ordered binary tree

329

Nodes are added to an ordered binary tree in a specific way:

Start at the root node as the current node.

Repeat

If the data value is greater than the current node’s data value, follow the right branch.

If the data value is smaller than the current node’s data value, follow the left branch.

Until the current node has no branch to follow.

Add the new node in this position.

For example, if we want to add a new node with data value D to

the binary tree in Figure 23.15, we execute the following steps:

1 Start at the root node.

2 D issmallerthan F, so turn left.

3 D is greater than C, so turn right.

4 D is smaller than E, so turn left.

5 There is no branch going left from E, so we add D as a left

child from E (see Figure 23.16).

This type of tree has a special use as a search tree. Just like
the binary search applied to an ordered linear list, the binary Figure 23.16 Conceptual
diagram of adding a node to an

ordered binary tree

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

search tree gives the benefit of a faster search than a linear search or searching a linked list.
The ordered binary tree also has a benefit when adding a new node: other nodes do not
need to be moved, only a left or right pointer needs to be added to link the new node into the
existing tree.

We can store the binary tree in an array of records (see Figure 23.17). One record
represents a
node and consists of the data and a left pointer and a right pointer. Unused nodes are linked
together to form a free list.
RootPointer

FreePtr l

Tree

LeftPointer

Data

RightPointer

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

Figure 23.17 Binary tree before any nodes are inserted

330

Create a new binary tree

// NullPointer should be set to -1 if using array element with index 0

CONSTANT NullPointer = 0

// Declare record type to store data and pointers

TYPE TreeNode
DECLARE Data : STRING
DECLARE LeftPointer : INTEGER
DECLARE RightPointer : INTEGER
ENDTYPE

DECLARE RootPointer : INTEGER

DECLARE FreePtr : INTEGER
DECLARE Tree[l : 7] OF TreeNode
PROCEDURE InitialiseTree

RootPointer <- NullPointer // set start pointer

FreePtr <- 1 // set starting position of free list

FOR Index «- 1 TO 6 // link all nodes to make free list

Tree [Index] .LeftPointer <- Index + 1

ENDFOR

Tree [7] .LeftPointer <- NullPointer // last node of free list

ENDPROCEDURE

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

Insert a new node into a binary tree

PROCEDURE InsertNode (Newltem)

IF FreePtr <> NullPointer

THEN // there is space in the array

// take node from free list, store data item and set null pointers

NewNodePtr <- FreePtr

FreePtr «- Tree [FreePtr] .LeftPointer

Tree [NewNodePtr] .Data «- Newltem

Tree [NewNodePtr] .LeftPointer «- NullPointer

Tree [NewNodePtr] .RightPointer «- NullPointer

// check if empty tree

IF RootPointer = NullPointer

THEN // insert new node at root

RootPointer <- NewNodePtr
ELSE // find insertion point

ThisNodePtr <- RootPointer // start at the root of the tree

WHILE ThisNodePtr <> NullPointer // -while not a leaf node
PreviousNodePtr 4- ThisNodePtr // remember this node
IF Tree [ThisNodePtr] .Data > Newltem
THEN // follow left pointer
TurnedLeft «- TRUE

ThisNodePtr «- Tree [ThisNodePtr] .LeftPointer

ELSE // follow right pointer
TurnedLeft 4- FALSE

ThisNodePtr 4 - Tree [ThisNodePtr] .RightPointer

ENDIF

ENDWHILE

IF TurnedLeft = TRUE

THEN

Tree [PreviousNodePtr] .LeftPointer 4- NewNodePtr

ELSE

Tree [PreviousNodePtr] .RightPointer 4- NewNodePtr

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

Find a node in a binary tree

FUNCTION FindNode(Searchltem) RETURNS INTEGER // returns pointer to node

ThisNodePtr <- RootPointer // start at the root of the tree

WHILE ThisNodePtr <> NullPointer // while a pointer to follow

AND Tree [ThisNodePtr] .Data <> Searchltem // and search item not found
IF Tree [ThisNodePtr] .Data > Searchltem
THEN // follow left pointer

ThisNodePtr 4- Tree [ThisNodePtr] .LeftPointer

ELSE // follow right pointer
ThisNodePtr <- Tree [ThisNodePtr] .RightPointer

ENDIF

ENDWHILE

RETURN ThisNodePtr // will return null pointer if search item not found
ENDFUNCTION

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 23.07

Write program code to implement a binary search tree.

23.08 Hash tables

If we want to store records in an array and have direct access to records, we can use the
concept of a hash table.

The idea behind a hash table is that we calculate an address (the array index) from the
key value of the record and store the record at this address. When we search for a record,
we calculate the address from the key and go to the calculated address to find the record.
Calculating an address from a key is called ‘hashing’.

Finding a hashing function that will give a unique address from a unique key value is very
difficult. If two different key values hash to the same address this is called a ‘collision’. There
are different ways to handle collisions:

• chaining: create a linked list for collisions with start pointer'at the hashed address

• using overflow areas: all collisions are stored in a separate overflow area, known as
‘closed hashing’

• using neighbouring slots: perform a linear search from the hashed address to find an
empty slot, known as ‘open hashing’.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23.01

Calculating addresses in a hash table

Assume we want to store customer records in a ID array HashTabie [o : n] . Each

customer has a unique customer ID, an integer in the range 10001 to 99999.

We need to design a suitable hashingfunction. The result of the hashingfunction should be

such that every index of the array can be addressed directly. The simplest hashing function
gives us addresses between 0 and n:
FUNCTION Hash (Key) RETURNS INTEGER
Address <- Key MOD(n + 1)

RETURN Address
ENDFUNCTION

For illustrative purposes, we choose n to be 9. Our hashing function is:

Index <- CustomerlD MOD 10

We want to store records with customer IDs: 45876,32390,95312,64636,23467. We can

store the first three records in their correct slots, as shown in Figure 23.18.

[0]

[i]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

32390

95312

45876

Figure 23.18 A hash table without collisions

The fourth record key (64636) also hashes to index 6. This slot is already taken; we have a
collision. If we store our record here, we lose the previous record. To resolve the collision,
we can choose to store our record in the next available space, as shown in Figure 23.19.

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

[0]

[i]
[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

32390

95312

45876

64636

Figure 23.19 A hash table with a collision resolved by open hashing

The fifth record key (23467) hashes to index 7. This slot has been taken up by the previous
record, so again we need to use the next available space (Figure 23.20).

[0]

in

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

32390

95312
45876

64636

23467

Figure 23.20 A hash table with two collisions resolved by open hashing

When searching for a record, we need to allow for these out-of-place records. We know if
the record we are searching for does not exist in the hash table when we come across an
unoccupied slot.

We will now develop algorithms to insert a record into a hash table and to search for a
record
in the hash table using its record key.

• The hash table is a ID array HashTabieto : Max] of Record.

• The records stored in the hash table have a unique key stored in field Key.

Insert a record into a hash table

333

PROCEDURE Insert (NewRecord)

Index «- Hash (NewRecord. Key)

WHILE HashTable [Index] NOT empty

Index <- Index + 1 // go to next slot

IF Index > Max // beyond table boundary?

THEN // wrap around to beginning of table

Index «- 1

ENDIF

ENDWHILE

HashTable [Index] «- NewRecord

ENDPROCEDURE

Find a record in a hash table

FUNCTION FindRecord(SearchKey) RETURNS Record

Index «- Hash(SearchKey)

WHILE (HashTable[Index] .Key <> SearchKey) AND (HashTable[Index] NOT empty)

Index <- Index + 1 // go to next slot
IF Index > Max // beyond table boundary?

THEN // wrap around to beginning of table

Index «- 0

ENDIF

ENDWHILE

IF HashTable [Index] NOT empty // if record found

THEN

RETURN HashTable [Index] // return the record

ENDIF

ENDFUNCTION

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

23.09 Dictionaries

A real-world dictionary is a collection of key-value pairs. The key is the term you use to look
up the required value. For example, if you use an English-French dictionary to look up the
English word ‘book’, you will find the French equivalent word ‘livre’. A real-world dictionary is
organised in alphabetical order of keys.

An ADT dictionary in computer science is implemented using a hash table, so that a value
can
be looked up using a direct-access method.

Python has a built-in ADT dictionary. The hashing function is determined by Python. ForVB
and Pascal, we need to implement our own.

Here are some examples of Python dictionaries:

EnglishFrench = {} # empty dictionary

EnglishFrench ["book"] = "livre" # add a key-value pair to the dictionary

EnglishFrench ["pen"] = "stylo"

print (EnglishFrench ["book"]) # access a value in the dictionary

alternative method of setting up a dictionary

ComputingTerms = {"Boolean" : "can be TRUE or FALSE", "Bit" : "0 or 1"}

print (ComputingTerms ["Bit"])

334

There are many built-in functions for Python dictionaries. These are beyond the scope of this
book. However, we need to understand how dictionaries are implemented. The following
pseudocode shows how to create a new dictionary.

TYPE DictionaryEntry

DECLARE Key : STRING

DECLARE Value : STRING
ENDTYPE

DECLARE EnglishFrench [0 : 999] OF DictionaryEntry // empty dictionary

TASK 23.08

Write pseudocode to:

• insert a key-value pair into a dictionary

• look up a value in a dictionary.

Use the hashing function from Worked Example 23.01.

Chapter 23: Computational Thinking and Problem-solving

Exam-style Questions

1 a Complete the algorithm for a binary search function FindName.

The data being searched is stored in the array Names [o : 50].

The name to be searched for is passed as a parameter.

FUNCTION FindName (s : STRING) RETURNS INTEGER

Index «- -1
First «- 0
Last 50

WHILE (Last >= First) AND ..

Middle «- (First + Last) DIV 2

IF Names [Middle] = s
THEN

Index «- Middle
ELSE

IF .

THEN
Last «- Middle + 1 •

ELSE

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDWHILE

ENDFUNCTION

b The binary search does not work if the data in the array being searched is.

c What does the function FindName return when:

i the name searched for exists in the array

ii the name searched for does not exist in the array?

2 A queue Abstract Data Type (ADT) is to be implemented as a linked list of nodes. Each
node is a record, consisting
of a data field and a pointer field. The queue ADT also has a Frontof Queue pointer and an
Endof Queue pointer
associated with it. The possible queue operations are: JoinQueue and LeaveQueue.

a i Add labels to the diagram to show the state of the queue after three data items have been
added to the
queue in the given order: Apple, Pear, Banana.

[3]

[1]

335

[2]

[5]

ii

Add labels to the diagram to show how the unused nodes are linked to form a list of free
nodes. This list
has a startof FreeList pointer associated with it.

[2]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

336

b i Using program code, declare the record type Node.

ii Write program code to create an array Queue with 50 records of type Node. Your solution
should link all
nodes and initialise the pointers FrontOfQueue, EndOfQueue and startof FreeList.

c The pseudocode algorithm for the queue operation JoinQueue is written as a procedure
with the header:

PROCEDURE JoinQueue (Newltem)

where Newitem is the new value to be added to the queue. The procedure uses the
variables shown
in the following identifier table:

Identifier

Data type

Description

NullPointer

INTEGER

Constant set to -1

Array to store queue data

STRING

Value to be added

Pointer to next free node in array

Pointerto first node in queue

Pointer to last node in queue

Pointer to node to be added

i Complete the identifier table.

ii Complete the pseudocode using the identifiers from the table in part (i).

PROCEDURE JoinQueue (Newltem : STRING)

// Report error if no free nodes remaining

IF StartOfFreeList = .

THEN

Report Error
ELSE

// new data item placed in node at start of free list

NewNodePointer <- StartOfFreeList
Queue [NewNodePointer] .Data «- Newltem
// adjust free list pointer

StartOfFreeList «- Queue [NewNodePointer] .Pointer

Queue [NewNodePointer]. Pointer <- NullPointer

// if first item in queue then adjust front of queue pointer

IF FrontOfQueue = NullPointer
THEN

ENDIF

// new node is new end of queue

Queue[.].Pointer <-

EndOfQueue .

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

[3]

[7]

[7]

[6]

Algorithm Design Methods

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ describe the purpose of a decision table

■ construct a decision table with a maximum of three

conditions and simplify it by removing redundancies
■ construct a JSP structure diagram showing repetition

■ construct a JSP structure diagram showing selection

■ write equivalent pseudocode from JSP structure charts

■ construct a JSP structure diagram to describe a data

structure

construct a JSP data structure diagram using sequence,

selection, iteration

construct a JSP diagram for a program design

use state-transition diagrams to document an algorithm

and show the behaviour of an object.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

24.01 Decision tables

A decision table is a precise way of modelling logic. Each possible combination of

conditions is considered in turn and what action is required.

KEY TERMS

Decision table: a precise way of modelling logic

A decision table has the format shown in Figure 24.01.

Example

Students in a particular college take an end-of-year test. Any student with 90 marks or more
gets a distinction. Students with fewer than 20 marks fail. All other students get a pass.

We set up a decision table by allowing one row for each condition and one row for each
possible action. We need one column for every possible combination of conditions. Two
conditions require four columns; three conditions require eight columns. Table 24.01 shows
the decision table for awarding grades.

Conditions

Condition

alternatives

Actions
Action entries

Figure 24.01 The four

quadrants of a decision
table

338

Conditions

=90 marks

< 20 marks

Actions

Distinction

Pass

Fail

Table 24.01 Decision table example

Note that Y means true and N means false. X means this action is to be performed. A dash
is
added where the condition alternatives are irrelevant or impossible: a student cannot have
fewer than 20 marks and at the same time at least 90 marks.

The real power of decision tables becomes apparent when the conditions and resulting
actions are more complex. Inspection of the action entries sometimes shows redundancies
and the decision table can be simplified. This means the program code to be written will also
be simplified.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24.01

Creating a decision table

Consider an online order company that charges $5 for delivery of packages. If the order
value is over $50, the package is small and the customer has a promotion code, the
delivery is free. If the order value is over $50 and the package is small, the delivery charge
is $1. If the order value is over $50 and the customer has a promotion code, the delivery
charge is $1.

Chapter 24: Algorithm Design Methods

We complete the conditions in a decision table for the order form in the systematic
manner shown. Table 24.02 shows the delivery charge conditions.

Conditions

order value over $50

small package

Y
N

promotion code

Table 24.02 Delivery charge conditions

Next, we look at each combination of conditions in turn and decide which action needs
to be taken and mark those with X (see Table 24.03).

Conditions

ordervalueover$50

N
N

small package

promotion code

Actions

free delivery

$1 charge

$5 charge
X

Table 24.03 Delivery charge decision table

To find redundancies, we look at each action and then check whether the conditions are
required:

Free delivery only applies if all 3 conditions are true. There are no redundancies here.

The $1 charge applies if condition 1 is true and either condition 2 or condition 3 is true.
There are no redundancies here either.

The $5 charge applies in all cases where condition 1 is false. The redundant conditions
are shown by the shaded cells. We can therefore simplify the table (see Table 24.04) We
put a dash in the cells where the condition can be true or false-the action will be the
same. The dash is sometimes referred to as the ‘don’t care’ symbol.

Conditions

ordervalueover$50

small package

N
promotion code

Actions

free delivery

$1 charge

$5 charge

Table 24.04 Simplified delivery charge decision table

Decision tables can also be used to define outputs dependent on inputs so can be a
basis for testing a program.

339

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24.02 Jackson structured programming (JSP)

When designing a program using Jackson structured programming (JSP), we set up a

structure based on the structure of the data the intended program is to handle.

A structure can consist of elementary components (they have no parts) and composite
components (sequence, selection or iteration). A sequence has two or more components.
Selection consists of two or more parts, only one of which is selected. Iteration consists of
one part that repeats zero or more times.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24.02

Designing a program using JSP

Consider a company’s order form template:

Parts Order Form

Customer Name:

Customer Address:

Product ID

Description

Quantity

Unit Price

Price

Postage & Packing

Total Price

Payment by: Cheque/Bank card (delete as appropriate)

Bank Card Number:

Figure 24.02 Order form

The first stage of designing a program to process the data in this order form is to draw a
data structure diagram of the data.

Using the top-down approach, at the top level the order form consists of these
components: the header, the order body, the totals and the payment method.

• The header is a sequence composite component containing customer name and address.

• The body is an iteration composite component containing repeated products and

their quantity, etc.

• The payment method is a selection composite component containing either cheque

or bank card.

On the data structure diagram (see Figure 24.03):

• Repetition is shown by an asterisk (*) in the corner of components that are repeated.

• Selection is shown by a circle in the corner of components where only one is chosen.
Chapter 24: Algorithm Design Methods

TASK 24.01

Write pseudocode from the Jackson program structure diagram in Figure 24.04.

In more complicated systems, the output data can be subjected to the same analysis,
possibly leading to conflicts to be resolved.

24.03 State-transition diagrams

A computer system can be seen as a finite state machine (FSM). An FSM has a start state.
An input to the FSM produces a transformation from one state to another state.

The information about the states of an FSM can be presented in a state-transition table.

KEY TERMS

Finite state machine (FSM): a machine that consists of a fixed set of possible states with a
set of
inputs that change the state and a set of possible outputs

State-transition table: a table that gives information about the states of an FSM

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Table 24.05 shows an example FSM represented as a state-transition table.

• If the FSM is in state SI, an input of a causes no change of state.

current state

• If the FSM is in state SI, an input of b transforms SI to S2.

SI

S2

• If the FSM is in state S2, an input of b causes no change of state.

input

SI

SI

• If the FSM is in state S2, an input of a transforms S2 to SI.

b
S2

S2

A state-transition diagram can be used to describe the behaviour of Table 24.05 State-
transition table

an FSM. Figure 24.05 shows the start state as SI (denoted by#-► )•

If the FSM has a final state (also known as the halting state), this is
shown by a double-circled state (SI in the example).

KEY TERMS

State-transition diagram: a diagram that describes the behaviour of an FSM

Figure 24.05 State-transition diagram

If an input causes an output this is shown by a vertical bar (as in Figure 24.06). For example,
if
the current state is SI, an input of b produces output c and transforms the FSM to state S2.

b|c

a|d

Figure 24.06 State-transition diagram with outputs

Chapter 24: Algorithm Design Methods

WORKED EXAMPLE 24.03

Creating a state-transition diagram for an intruder detection system

A program is required that simulates the behaviour of an intruder detection system.

Description of the system: The system has a battery power supply. The system is
activated when the start button is pressed. Pressing the start button when the system
is active has no effect. To de-activate the system, the operator must enter a PIN. The
system goes into alert mode when a sensor is activated. The system will stay in alert
mode for two minutes. If the system has not been de-activated within two minutes an
alarm bell will ring.

We can complete a state-transition table (Table 24.06) using the information from the
system description.

Current state
Event

Next state

System inactive

Press start button

System active

System active

Enter PIN

System inactive

System active

Activate sensor

Alert mode

System active

Press start button

System active

Alert mode

Enter PIN

System inactive

Alert mode

2 minutes pass

Alarm bell ringing

Alert mode

Press start button

Alert mode

Alarm bell ringing

Enter PIN

System inactive
Alarm bell ringing

Press start button

Alarm bell ringing

Table 24.06 State-transition table for intruder detection simulation

The start state is ‘System inactive’. We can draw a state-transition diagram (Figure 24.07)
from the information in Table 24.06.

Figure 24.07 State-transition diagram for intruder alarm system

343

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Creating a state-transition diagram for a two’s complement FSM

A finite state machine has been designed that will take as input a positive binary integer,
one bit at a time, starting with the least significant bit. The FSM converts the binary
integer into the two’s complement negative equivalent. The method to be used is:

1 Output the bits input up to and including the first 1.

2 Output the other bits following this scheme:

2.1 For each 1, output a 0

2.2 For each 0, output a 1.

This information is represented in the state-transition table shown in Table 24.07.

Current state

SI

SI

S2

S2

Input bit

0
1

Next state

SI

S2

S2

S2

Output bit

Table 24.07 State-transition table with outputs

This method can be represented as the state-transition diagram in Figure 24.08.

1|0

Figure 24.08 State-transition diagram for a two’s complement FSM

TASK 24.02

Write a program that simulates the intruder alarm system in Worked Example 24.03.

Question 24.01

What is the output from the FSM represented by the state-transition diagram in Figure 24.08,
when the input is 0101 ?

Extension Question 24.01

Does the FSM in Figure 24.08 work for converting a negative binary number into its positive
equivalent?

Chapter 24: Algorithm Design Methods

Exam-style Questions

1 Atoll road is a road on which motor vehicle drivers have to pay to drive. The payment is
calculated as follows: Motor
vehicles pay a standard charge. If passenger vehicles (cars and buses) use the road during
off-peak times (not within
06:00 hrs to 19:00 hrs), the charge is reduced. Passenger vehicles with more than three
occupants do not get charged

345

a Complete the decision table.

[6]

Conditions

passenger vehicle

between 06:00 and

19:00

more than 3 occupants

Actions

standard charge

reduced charge

Free

b Simplify your solution by removing redundancies.

[3]

2 A bank uses a data file to print a monthly statement for a bank account. The file consists of
a header (account number
and name of account holder), followed by a statement body (repeated transactions detailing
date of payment, recipient
and amount), followed by a trailer (final balance and message if overdrawn).

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Complete the JSP data structure diagram: [5]

3 A car park has a barrier at the exit. The starting position of the barrier is lowered. When a
car wants to exit the car park,
the driver has to insert a coin into a coin slot at the barrier. The barrier raises and allows the
car to drive out of the car park.
After the car has passed through the barrier, the barrier lowers. In case of emergency, a
member of staff can open the
barrier using a remote control. The barrier will remain open until the remote control is used
again to lower the barrier.

346

The barrier has three states: lowered, raised and open. The transition from one state to
another is as shown in the
state-transition table:

Current state

Event

Next state

Barrier lowered

Coin inserted

Barrier raised

Barrier lowered

Open remotely

Barrier open

Barrier open

Close remotely

Barrier lowered

Barrier raised

Car has exited

Barrier lowered

Complete the state-transition diagram for the barrier:

3-

Recursion

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of the essential features of recursion

■ show understanding of how recursion is expressed in a

programming language

■ trace recursive algorithms

write recursive algorithms

show understanding of when the use of recursion is

beneficial

show awareness of what a compiler has to do to

implement recursion in a programming language.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

25.01 Concept of recursion

In mathematical logic and computer science, a function or procedure is said to be a

recursive routine if it is defined in terms of itself.

Recursive routine: a function or procedure defined in terms of itself

The classic mathematical example is the factorial function, nl, which is defined in Figure
25.01. This definition holds for all positive whole numbers.

Figure 25.01 Mathematical definition of the factorial function

Figure 25.02 shows expressions of the factorial function for the first four numbers.

4! = 4 x (4 - 1)| = 4 x 3!

3! = 3 x (3 - 1)| = 3 x 2!

2! = 2 x (2 - 1)1 = 2 x l!

1! = 1 x (l - i)! = i x 0!

Flere is the recursive

function, with a smaller number (3)

The number for the recursive

function keeps getting smaller, until
we reach 0!, which is explicitly defined.

Figure 25.02 Expressions of the factorial function

Because 0! = 1:
41 = 4x3x2x1x1 = 24

Recursive solutions have a base case and a general case. The base case gives a result
without involving the general case. The general case is defined in terms of the definition
itself. It is very important that the general case must come closer to the base case with each
recursion, for any starting point.

KEYTERMS

Base case: an explicit solution to a recursive function

General case: a definition of a recursive function in terms of itself

Chapter 25: Recursion

25.02 Programming a recursive subroutine

Coding the factorial function

We could program the function Factorial iteratively, using a loop:

FUNCTION Factorial (n : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER

Result «s- 1
FOR i e 1 TO n

Result Result * i
ENDFOR

RETURN Result
ENDFUNCTION

Alternatively, we can define the function Factorial recursively (Figure 25.03).

FUNCTION Factorial(n : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER

This is the general case

END IF

RETURN Result

ENDFUNCTION

Figure 25.03 The factorial function coded recursively

The recursive pseudocode resembles the original mathematical definition of the factorial
function. The dry run in Table 25.02 (Section 25.03) shows how this works.

Discussion Point:
Carefully examine the two solutions to the factorial function. What happens if the iterative
function is called with parameter 0? What happens if the recursive function is called with
parameter 0? What changes would need to be made so the mathematical definition holds
for all values of n?

When writing a recursive subroutine, there are three rules you must observe. A recursive
subroutine must:

• have a base case

• have a general case

• reach the base case after a finite number of calls to itself.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 25.01

Write program code to implement the recursive algorithm for the

Factorial function.

Question 25.01

What happens when the function is called with Factoriai(-2)? Which rule is not satisfied?

WORKED EXAMPLE 25.02

Coding a recursive procedure

Consider a procedure to count down from a given integer. We can write the solution as an
iterative algorithm:

PROCEDURE CountDownFrom(n : INTEGER)

FOR i <- n DOWNTO 0

OUTPUT i
ENDFOR

ENDPROCEDURE

We can also write the solution as a recursive algorithm. Consider what happens after the
first value has been output. The remaining numbers follow the same pattern of counting
down from the next smaller value. The base case is when n reaches 0. 0 will be output but
no further numbers. The general case is outputting n and then counting down from (n-1).
This can be written using pseudocode:

PROCEDURE CountDownFrom (n : INTEGER)

OUTPUT n
IF n > 0
THEN

CALL CountDownFrom (n-1)

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

25.03 Tracing a recursive subroutine

Tracing a recursive procedure

Dry-running the recursive procedure from Worked Example 25.02, we can complete a trace
table as shown in Table 25.01.

Call number

Procedure call

OUTPUT

n>0

CountDownFrom(3)

TRUE

CountDownFrom(2)

TRUE

CountDownFrom(1)

TRUE

4
CountDownFrom(0)

FALSE

Table 25.01 Trace table for CALL CountDownFrom(3)

It is more complex to trace a subroutine that contains statements to execute after the
recursive call. Look at the slightly modified algorithm:

Chapter 25: Recursion

PROCEDURE CountUpTo(n : INTEGER)

IF n > 0
THEN

CALL CountUpTo(n-l)

ENDIF
OUTPUT n
ENDPROCEDURE

Note that the statements after call CountupTo(n-i) are not executed until control returns
to this statement as the recursive calls unwind.

What is the effect of moving the output statement to the end of the procedure? Figure 25.04
traces the execution of call countupTo (3)

Call number

Procedure call

n>0

OUTPUT

CountUpTo( 3)

TRUE

CountUpTo( 2)

TRUE

3
CountUpTo( 1)

TRUE

CountUpTo( 0)

FALSE

0^

(3)

CountUpTof 1)

TRUE

(2)

CountUpTo(2)

TRUE

2r^

(1)

CountUpTof 3)

TRUE

3_

Figure 25.04 Trace table for call CountupTo(3)

Base case reached

I Recursive calls unwind

When the base case is reached, the fourth call of the procedure is complete and the
procedure is exited. Control then passes back to the third call and so on. Note how we show
the trace as the recursive calls unwind. Don’t go back up the table and fill in the OUTPUT
column as this will not make it clear enough when the output occurred.

Tracing a recursive function

A recursive function has a statement after the recursive call to itself: the return statement.
Again we show what happens when the recursive calls unwind by filling in more rows in the
trace table. Let’s consider the factorial function again.

FUNCTION Factorial (n : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER

IF n = 0
THEN

Result <- 1
ELSE

Result «- n * Factorial (n-1)

ENDIF

RETURN Result
ENDFUNCTION

351

Call

number

Procedure call

II

Result

Return

value

Factorial(4)

FALSE

4 * Factorial(3)

Factorial(3)

FALSE

3 * Factorial(2)
3

Factorial(2)

FALSE

2 * Factorial(1)

Base case reached

Factorial(1)

FALSE

1 * Factorial(0)

Factorial(0)

TRUE

1-

— w~

Factorial(1)

FALSE

1*1

i"i

(3)

Factorial(2)

FALSE

2*1

(2)

Factorial(3)
FALSE

3*2

^^Recursive calls unwind

(1)

Factorial(4)

FALSE

4*6

24 J

Figure 25.05 Trace table for call Factorial(4)

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Another way to illustrate how the function calls unwind is by framing each call with a box
(see
Figure 25.06). When the inner-most box is completed the result is fed to the next outer one.
And so on until the outermost box has been completed.

Factorial(4)

Re sult 4 * Factorial (3) _

Factorial(3)

Re sult 3 * Factorial (2) _

Factorial(2)

Result 2 * Factorial (1)

Factorial(1)

Result «- 1 * Factorial (0)

Factorial(0)

Result 1

Result 1

Return 1
Return 2

Return 6 _

Return 24

Figure 25.06 Diagrammatic view of recursive calls of Factorial

TASK 25.02

Consider the following recursive algorithm:

PROCEDURE X(n : INTEGER)

IF (n = 0) OR (n = 1)

THEN

OUTPUT n
ELSE

CALL X(n DIV 2)

OUTPUT (n MOD 2)

ENDIF

ENDPROCEDURE

Dry-run the procedure call x(i9) by completing a trace table. What is the purpose of
this algorithm?

25.04 Running a recursive subroutine

Recursive subroutines can only be executed if the compiler produces object code that uses
a
stack to push return addresses and local variables when calling a subroutine repeatedly.

Chapter 25: Recursion

100 RETURN Result

110 ENDFUNCTION
120

130 // main program

140

150 DECLARE Answer : INTEGER

160 Answer «=- Factorial (Number)
170 OUTPUT Answer
180

190 ENDPROGRAM

The first program statement to be executed is line 160. The actual parameter n has the
value 3. The function call causes the return address to be put on the stack, as shown in
Figure 25.07. Program execution jumps to line 30.

When line 80 is reached, the function call causes the return address to be stored on the
stack,
together with the current contents of the local variables. The locations used to store these
values are referred to as a stack frame (represented by the blue borders in Figure 25.07).
Each
recursive call will add another stack frame to the stack until the base case is reached.

When the base case is reached, the result of the function call Factoriai(o) is returned by
pushing it onto the stack. The result is popped off the stack by the previous invocation of
the function. With each return from a function call, the corresponding stack frame is taken
off and the values of the local variables are restored. Eventually, control is returned to line
160 with the result of the function call on the top of the stack. The value of Answer is output
in line 170.

Stack

Description

160

160

080

160

080

080

160

080
3

080

080

160

080

080

080

160

080

080

160

080

160

1 st call is made (n=3)

2nd call is made (n=2)

3rd call is made (n=l)

4th call is made (n=0)

Base case reached, push result onto stack

Return to call 3

Pop result and stack frame; push new

result.

Return to call 2

Pop result and stack frame; push new

result.

Return to call 1

Pop result and stack frame; push new

result.

Return to main program

Figure 25.07 Stack contents during recursive calls of Factorial

353

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 25.03

Use your program code from Task 25.01 and add the main program as shown in Worked
Example 25.03.

Amend your code in the following ways (line numbers are relative to the pseudocode in
Worked Example 25.03):

• Add a global integer variable CallNumber.

• Initialise CallNumber to zero (line 155).

• Increment CallNumber (line 35).

• Add a statement to output the values of CallNumber and n (line 36).

• Add a statement to output the value of Result (line 95).

Run the program and study the output.

25.05 Benefits and drawbacks of recursion

Recursion is an important technique in different programming paradigms (See Chapter 29,
Section 29.08). When designing a solution to a mathematical problem that is inherently
recursive, the easiest way to write a solution is to implement the recursive definition.

Recursive solutions are often more elegant and use less program code than iterative
solutions. However, repeated recursive calls can carry large overheads in terms of
memory usage and processor time (see Section 25.04). For example, the procedure call
CountDownFrom(ioo) will require 100 stack frames before it completes.

Chapter 25: Recursion

Exam-style Questions

1 a Distinguish between iteration and recursion.

b Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using recursive subroutines.

2 The following is a recursively defined function which calculates the result of Base
Exponent .

For example, 2 3 is 8.

FUNCTION Power (Base: INTEGER, Exponent : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER

IF Exponent = 0
THEN

Result 1
ELSE

Result <- Base * Power (Base, Exponent - 1)

ENDIF

RETURN Result
ENDFUNCTION

a What is meant by ‘recursively defined’?

b Trace the execution of the function call Power (2,4) showing for each re-entry into the
Power function, the

values passed to the function and the results returned.

c Explain the role of the stack in the execution of the Power function.

e Write a pseudocode non-recursive (iterative) version of the Power function.

f i Give one reason why a non-recursive Power function may be preferred to a recursive one.

ii Give one reason why a recursive Power function may be preferred to a non-recursive one.
3 The following is a recursively defined function which calculates the n th integer in the
sequence of Fibonacci
numbers.

01 FUNCTION Fibonacci (n : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER

02 IF (n = 0) OR (n = 1)

03 THEN

04 Result 1

05 ELSE

06 Result -e- Fibonacci(n - 1) + Fibonacci(n - 2)

07 ENDIF

08 RETURN Result

09 ENDFUNCTION

a i Which line is the base case?

ii Which line is the general case?

b Dry-run the function call Fibonacci (4).

[2]

[2]

[1]

[6]

[3]

355

[i]

[i]

[i]

[i]

Chapter 26

Further Programming
Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of what is meant by a programming

paradigm

■ show understanding of the characteristics of a number of

programming paradigms

(low-level, imperative, object-oriented, declarative)

■ write code to define a record structure

■ write code to perform file-processing operations: open or

close a file; read or write a record to a file

■ use pseudocode for random file handling

■ write code to perform file-processing operations on serial,

sequential and random files

■ show understanding of an exception and the importance

of exception handling

■ show understanding of when it is appropriate to use

exception handling

■ write code to use exception handling in practical

programming

■ describe features in editors that benefit programming

■ know when to use compilers and interpreters

■ describe facilities available in debuggers and how and

when they should be deployed.

Chapter 26: Further Programming

26.01 Programming paradigms

A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of programming. Each paradigm will

support a different way of thinking and problem solving. Paradigms are supported by
programming language features. Some programming languages support more than one
paradigm. There are many different paradigms, not all mutually exclusive. Here are just a
few
different paradigms.
Low-level programming paradigm

The features of low-level programming languages give us the ability to manipulate the
contents of memory addresses and registers directly and exploit the architecture of a given
processor. We solve problems in a very different way when we use the low-level
programming
paradigm than if we use a high-level paradigm. See Chapter 6 and Chapter 28 for low-level
programming examples. Note that each different type of processor has its own programming
language. There are ‘families’ of processors that are designed with similar architectures
and therefore use similar programming languages. For example, the Intel processor family
(present in many PC-type computers) uses the x86 instruction set.

Imperative programming paradigm

Imperative programming involves writing a program as a sequence of explicit steps that are
executed by the processor. Most of the programs in this book use imperative programming
(Chapters 11 to 15 and Chapters 23 to 26). An imperative program tells the computer how to
get a desired result, in contrast to declarative programming where a program describes what
the desired result should be. Note that the procedural programming paradigm belongs to
the imperative programming paradigm. There are many imperative programming languages,
Pascal, C and Basic to name just a few.

Object-oriented programming paradigm

The object-oriented paradigm is based on objects interacting with one another. These
objects are data structures with associated methods (see Chapter 27). Many programming
languages that were originally imperative have been developed further to support the object-
oriented paradigm. Examples include Pascal (under the name Delphi or Object Pascal) and
Visual Basic (the .NET version being the first fully object-oriented version). Newer
languages,
such as Python and Java, were designed to be object-oriented from the beginning.

Declarative programming paradigm

Declarative programs are expressed as formal logic and computations are deductions from
the formal logic statements (see Chapter 29). Declarative programming languages include
SQL (see Chapter 10, Section 10.07) and Prolog (Chapter 29).

26.02 Records

We used records in Chapter 23 (Section 23.06 onwards) to declare nodes. Records are
user-
defined types (discussed in Chapter 16, Section 16.01).

357

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WORKED EXAMPLE 26.01

Using records

A car manufacturer and seller wants to store details about cars. These details can
be stored in a record structure:

TYPE CarRecord

DECLARE VehiclelD
DECLARE Registration
DECLARE DateOfRegistration
DECLARE EngineSize
DECLARE PurchasePrice
ENDTYPE

To declare a variable of that type we write:

DECLARE ThisCar : CarRecord

Note that we can declare arrays of records. If we want to store the details of 100 cars,
we declare an array of type CarRecord

DECLARE Car [1:100] OF CarRecord

STRING // unique identifier and record key

STRING

DATE

INTEGER

CURRENCY

Python

Python does not have a record type. However, we can use a class definition
(see Chapter 27 for more about classes).

The pseudocode example of a car record described in Worked Example 26.01 can be
programmed as follows:

class CarRecord: # declaring a class without other methods

def init(self): # constructor

self .VehiclelD = ""

self.Registration = ""
self .DateOfRegistration = None

self.EngineSize = 0

self .PurchasePrice = 0.00

ThisCar = CarRecordO # instantiates a car record

ThisCar.EngineSize = 2500 # assigning a value to a field

ThisCar = CarRecordO # instantiates a car record

Car = [ThisCar for i in range(100)] # make a list of 100 car records

Car[1] .EngineSize = 2500 # assigning value to a field of the 2nd car in list

VB.NET

Structure CarRecord

Dim VehiclelD As String

Dim Registration As String

Dim DateOfRegistration As Date
Dim EngineSize As Integer

Dim PurchasePrice As Decimal

End Structure

Dim ThisCar As CarRecord ' declare a variable of CarRecord type

Dim Car(100) As CarRecord ' declare an array of CarRecord type

ThisCar.EngineSize = 2500 ' assign value to a field

Car(2) .EngineSize = 2500 ' assign value to a field of 2nd car in array

Chapter 26: Further Programming

Pascal

type

CarRecord = record

VehiclelD : string[20];

Registration : string[10];

DateOfRegistration : TDateTime;

EngineSize : integer;
PurchasePrice : currency;
end;

var ThisCar : CarRecord; // declare a variable of CarRecord type

var Car : array [1. .100] of CarRecord; // declare an array of CarRecord type

ThisCar.EngineSize := 2500; // assign value to a field

Car[2] .EngineSize := 2500; // assign value to a field of 2nd car in array

26.03 File processing

In Chapter 13 (Section 13.09) we used text files to store and read lines of text. Text files only
allow us to write strings in a serial or sequential manner. We can append strings to the end
of
the file.

When we want to store records in a file, we create a binary file (see Chapter 16, Section
16.02).
We can store records serially or sequentially. We can also store records using direct access
to
a random file. Table 26.01 lists the operations we use for processing files.

KEY TERMS

Random file: a file that stores records at specific addresses that can be accessed directly

Structured English

Pseudocode

Create a file and open it for writing

OPENFILE FOR WRITE

Open a file for reading

OPENFILE FOR READ

Open a file for random access

OPENFILE FOR RANDOM

Close a file

CLOSEFILE

Write a record to a file

PUTRECORD ,

Read a record from a file

GETRECORD , cidentifier>

Move to a specific disk address within the file

SEEK /

Test for end of file

EOF ()

Table 26.01 Operations for file processing

359

Sequential file processing

If we have an array of records, we may want to store the records on disk before the program
quits, so that we don’t lose the data. We can open a binary file and write one record after
another to the file. We can then read the records back into the array when the program is
run
again.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

WORKED EXAMPLE 26.02

Processing records in a sequential file

Table 26.02 shows the pseudocode for storing the car records from Worked Example 26.01
in a sequential file and accessing them.

Saving contents of array

Restoring contents of array

OPENFILE "CarFile" FOR WRITE

FOR i 1 TO MaxRecords

PUTRECORD "CarFile", Car[i]

ENDFOR

CLOSEFILE "CarFile"

OPENFILE "CarFile" FOR READ

FOR i «- 1 TO MaxRecords

GETRECORD "CarFile", Car[i]

ENDFOR

CLOSEFILE "CarFile"

Table 26.02 Pseudocode for processing records

Processing records sequentially in Python, VB.NET and Pascal

Python

import pickle # this library is required to create binary files

ThisCar = CarRecordO

Car = [ThisCar for i in range(100)]

CarFile = openCCars.DAT', 'wb') # open file for binary write

for i in range(100): # loop for each array element

pickle, dump (Car [i], CarFile) # write a whole record to the binary file

CarFile.close() # close file

CarFile = openpCars.DAT', 'rb') # open file for binary read

Car = [] # start with empty list

while True: # check for end of file

Car.append(pickle.load(CarFile)) # append record from file to end of list

CarFile.close()

VB.NET

Option Explicit On

Imports System. 10

Dim CarFileWriter As BinaryWriter

Dim CarFileReader As BinaryReader

Dim CarFile As FileStream

Dim Car(100) As CarRecord ' declare an array of CarRecord type

'link file to the filename

CarFile = New FileStream("CarFile.DAT", FileMode.Create)

' create a new file and open it for writing

CarFileWriter = New BinaryWriter (CarFile)

Chapter 26: Further Programming

For i = 1 To 100 ' loop for each array element

CarFileWriter. Write (Car (i) .VehiclelD) ' write a field to the binary file

CarFileWriter.Write (Car (i) .Registration)

CarFileWriter.Write (Car (i) .DateOfRegistration)

CarFileWriter.Write (Car (i) .EngineSize)

CarFileWriter.Write (Car (i) .PurchasePrice)

Next

CarFileWriter.CloseO 'close file channel

CarFile.Close()

'link file to the filename

CarFile = New FileStreamCCarFile.DAT", FileMode.Open)

' create a new file and open it for reading

CarFileReader = New BinaryReader(CarFile)

' loop until end of binary file reached

Do While CarFile .Position < CarFile.Length

' read fields from the binary file

Car (i) .VehiclelD = CarFileReader. Readstring ()

Car (i) .Registration = CarFileReader.Readstring()

Car (i) .DateOfRegistration = CarFileReader.Readstring()

Car (i) .EngineSize = CarFileReader.Readlnt32 ()

Car (i) .PurchasePrice = CarFileReader.ReadDecimalO

i=i+1
Loop

CarFileReader.CloseO 'close file channel

CarFile.CloseO

Pascal

var

CarFile : file of CarRecord; // declare a file channel to take car records

Car : array [1. .100] of CarRecord; // declare an array of CarRecord type

AssignFile(CarFile, 'CarFile.DAT'); // link the file channel to the filename

Rewrite (CarFile); // create a new file and open it for writing

for i := 1 to 100 do // loop for each array element

Write (CarFile, Car[i]); // write a whole record to the binary file

CloseFile (CarFile); // close file channel

AssignFile(CarFile, 'CarFile.DAT'); // link the file channel to the filename

Reset (CarFile); // open file for reading

i := 1;

while not Eof(CarFile) do // check for end of file

begin

Read(CarFile, Car[i]); // read a record from file into record variable

i := i + 1;

end;

CloseFile (CarFile); // close file channel

361

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TASK 26.01

1 Write a complete program to save several car records to a sequential file.

2 Write another program to read the file and display the contents on screen.

Random-access file processing

Instead of storing records in an array, we may want to store each record in a binary file as
the
record is created. We can then update the record in situ (read it, change it and save it back
in the same place). Note that this only works for fixed-length records. We can use a hashing
function to calculate an address from the record key and store the record at the calculated
address in the file (this is similar to using a hash table, see Chapter 23, Section 23.08). Just
as
with a hash table, collisions may occur and records need to be stored in the next free record
space.

WORKED EXAMPLE 26.03

Processing records in a random-access file

Table 26.03 shows the pseudocode for storing a car record from Worked Example 26.01
in a random-access file and accessing it.

Saving a record

Retrieving a record

OPENFILE "CarFile" FOR RANDOM

Address Hash(ThisCar.VehiclelD)

SEEK "CarFile", Address

PUTRECORD "CarFile", ThisCar

CLOSEFILE "CarFile"

OPENFILE "CarFile" FOR RANDOM

Address Hash(ThisCar.VehiclelD)

SEEK "CarFile", Address

GETRECORD "CarFile", ThisCar

CLOSEFILE "CarFile"

Table 26.03 Pseudocode for random-access file operations

seek moves a pointer to the given record address. The putrecord and getrecord
commands access the record at that address. After the command has been executed the
pointer points to the next record in the file.

Processing random-access records in Python.VB.NET and Pascal

Python
import pickle # this library is required to create binary files
ThisCar = CarRecordO

CarFile = open('Cars.DAT',’rb+') # open file for binary read and write

Address = hash(ThisCar.VehiclelD)

CarFileseek (Address)

pickle.dump (ThisCar, CarFile) # write a whole record to the binary file

CarFile.close() # close file

CarFile = open('Cars.DAT','rb') # open file for binary read

Chapter 26: Further Programming

Address = hash(VehiclelD)

CarFile.seek (Address)

ThisCar = pickle.load(CarFile) # load record from file

CarFile.closeO

In Python, the hash function needs to allow for the record size in bytes. For example, if the
record
size is 58 bytes, then the second record slot starts at position 59. The n th record slot starts
at
position (n -1) x 58 +1.

VB.NET

Dim CarFileWriter As Binary-Writer

Dim CarFileReader As BinaryReader

Dim CarFile As FileStream

Dim ThisCar, MyCar As CarRecord

1 link the file to the filename

CarFile = New FileStream ("CarFile. DAT", FileMode.Open)

' create a new file and open it for writing

CarFileWriter = New BinaryWriter (CarFile)

' get starting address for record

CarFile. Position = Hash(ThisCar.VehiclelD)

1 write fields to the binary file

CarFileWriter.Write (ThisCar.VehiclelD)

CarFileWriter.Write (ThisCar.Registration)

CarFileWriter.Write (ThisCar.DateOf Registration)

CarFileWriter.Write (ThisCar. EngineSize)

CarFileWriter .Write (ThisCar. PurchasePrice)

CarFileWriter.CloseO 'close file channel

CarFile.CloseO

CarFile = New FileStreamCCarFile.DAT", FileMode.Open)

CarFileReader = New BinaryReader (CarFile)

' get starting address for record

CarFile. Position = Hash(VehiclelD)

' read fields from the binary file

MyCar.VehiclelD = CarFileReader.ReadStringO

MyCar. Registration = CarFileReader. ReadStringO

MyCar. DateOf Registration = CarFileReader. ReadStringO

MyCar.EngineSize = CarFileReader.Readlnt32 ()

MyCar. PurchasePrice = CarFileReader. ReadDecimalO

CarFileReader.CloseO 'close file channel

CarFile.CloseO

In VB.NET, the hash function needs to allow for the record size in bytes. For example, if the
record
size is 58 bytes, then the second record slot starts at position 59. The n th record slot starts
at
position (n -1) x 58 +1.

363

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

364
Pascal

var

CarFile : file of CarRecord; // declare a file channel to take car records

ThisCar : CarRecord; // declare a variable of car record type

AssignFile(CarFile, 'CarFile.DAT'); // link the file channel to the filename

Reset (CarFile); // open file for updating (file must already exist)

Address := Hash(ThisCar.VehiclelD);

Seek(CarFile, Address);

Write(CarFile, ThisCar); // write a whole record to the binary file

CloseFile(CarFile); // close file channel

AssignFile(CarFile, 'CarFile.DAT'); // link the file channel to the filename

Reset (CarFile); // open file for reading

Address := Hash(ThisCar.VehiclelD);

Seek(CarFile, Address);

Read(CarFile, ThisCar); // read a record from file into record variable

CloseFile (CarFile); // close file channel

In Pascal, the file is of the given record type and the addresses for the records are slot
addresses
where each slot has the required number of bytes to accommodate the record.

TASK 26.02

Write a complete program to save several car records to a random-access file. Write another
program to find a record in the random-access file using the record key. Display the record
data on screen.

26.04 Exception handling

Run-time errors can occur for many reasons. Some examples are division by zero, invalid
array index or trying to open a non-existent file. Run-time errors are called 'exceptions’. They
can be handled (resolved) with an error subroutine (known as an 'exception handler’), rather
than let the program crash.

Using pseudocode, the error-handling structure is:

TRY

EXCEPT
ENDTRY

Any run-time error that occurs during the execution of is caught and handled
by executing . There can be more than one except block, each handling a
different type of exception. Sometimes a finally block follows the exception handlers. The
statements in this block will be executed regardless of whether there was an exception or
not.

VB.NET and Delphi are designed to treat exceptions as abnormal and unpredictable
erroneous situations. Python is designed to use exception handling as flow-control
structures. You may find you need to include exception handling in the code for Worked
Example 26.02. Otherwise the end of file is encountered and the program crashes.

Chapter 26: Further Programming

Python distinguishes between different types of exception, such as:

• iOError: for example, a file cannot be opened

• importError: Python cannot find the module

• vaiueError: an argument has an inappropriate value

• Keyboardinterrupt: the user presses Ctrl+C or Ctrl+Del

• EOFError: a file-read meets an end-of-file condition

• ZeroDivisionError.

WORKED EXAMPLE 26.04

Here is a simple example of exception handling. Asking the user to key in an integer could
result in a non-integer input. This should not crash the program.

Python

Numberstring = input ("enter an integer: ")

try:

n = int (Numberstring)
print (n)
except:

print ("This was not an integer")

VB.NET

Numberstring = Console. ReadLineO

Try
n = Int (Numberstring)

Console .WriteLine (n)

Catch

Console.WriteLine ("this was not an integer")

End Try

Pascal

The integrated debugger must be switched off for exception handling to work. In
the Tools menu, select Debugger Options and ensure the Integrated Debugger
option is not ticked.

ReadLn(NumberString) ;

try

n := StrToInt (Numberstring) ;

except

WriteLnpthis was not an integer');

end;

TASK 26.03

Add exception-handling code to your programs for Task 26.01 or Task 26.02. Test your code
handles exceptions without the program crashing.

26.05 Programming environments

Programming environments for Python, VB.NET and Pascal were introduced in Chapter 15.
Section 15.02 covered the features found in a typical integrated development environment
(IDE). Section 15.04 described the use of a debugger.

Chapter 7 (Section 7.05) discussed the operation of compilers and interpreters and their
relative merits. In theory, the ideal situation would be to use an interpreter while developing

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

a program, because partial programs can be tested and no time is wasted waiting for
compilation. When the program is finished the compiled object code could be distributed
without having to divulge the source code. Compiled code also runs faster than a program
executed using an interpreter. Compiled code will not contain any syntax errors. Unless
every
line of an interpreted program has been executed, it is possible that there are syntax errors
still present in the source code.

In practice, this choice rarely exists. Pascal programs can only be executed once compiled.
Similarly, VB.NET has to be compiled before it can be executed. Python programs, on the
other hand, run under an interpreter. Internally, Python source code is always translated
into a bytecode representation and this bytecode is then executed by the Python virtual
machine.

366

Summary

• Programming paradigms include low-level, imperative, procedural, object-oriented and

declarative.

• Records are user-defined types.

• Records can be stored in files in a serial, sequential or random (direct access) manner.

• Exception handling is advisable to avoid program crashes due to run-time errors.

• Pascal and VB.NET programs must be compiled before they can be executed.

• Python programs are executed using an interpreter (the Python virtual machine).

Exam-style Questions

1 A company stores details about their customers in a binary file of records.

• The key field of a customer record is the customer ID (a number between 100001 and
999999).

• The name of the customer is stored in a 30-character field.

• The customer’s telephone number is stored in a 14-character field.

• The total value of orders so far is stored in a currency (decimal) field.

a i Declare the record data type CustomerRecord required to store the data. Write program
code. [6]

ii Declare an array CustomerData [o : 999] to store customer records. [2]

b The array customerData is to be used as a hash table to store customer records.

The function Hash is used to calculate the address where a record is to be stored.

FUNCTION Hash(CustomerID : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER

Address <- CustomerlD MOD 1000
RETURN Address
ENDFUNCTION

i Write program code to implement the function Hash.

ii Write a procedure AddRecord(Customer : customerRecord) to add a customer record to

the
hash table CustomerData. Your solution should handle collisions by using the next available

slot in the hash table.

iii Write a function FindRecord(customeriD : integer) that returns the index of the hash table
slot where the record for the customer with CustomerlD is stored.

c Before the program stops, the hash table records must be stored in a sequential file, so
that the records can
be restored to the array when the program is re-entered.

Write program code to store the records of the array CustomerData sequentially into a
binary file
CustomerData. DAT

d Instead of using a hash table, the company decide they want to store customer records
in a direct-access binary file.

Explain what changes need to be made to your program to do this.

A program allows a user to enter a filename for accessing a data file. If the user types in a
filename that does
not exist, the program crashes. Write program code that includes exception handling to
replace the following
pseudocode:

OUTPUT "Which file do you want to use? "

INPUT FileName

OPENFILE FileName FOR RANDOM

368

Object-oriented Programming (OOP) I

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ solve a problem by designing appropriate classes * write code that demonstrates the use
of classes,

inheritance, polymorphism and containment

(aggregation).

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

27.01 Concept of OOP

Chapters 14 and 26 covered programming using the procedural aspect of our programming
languages. Procedural programming groups related programming statements into
subroutines. Related data items are grouped together into record data structures. To use a
record variable, we first define a record type. Then we declare variables of that record type.

OOP goes one step further and groups together the record data structure and the
subroutines that operate on the data items in this data structure. Such a group is called
an ‘object’. The feature of data being combined with the subroutines acting on the data is
known as encapsulation.

To use an object, we first define an object type. An object type is called a class.

KEY TERMS

Encapsulation: combining data and subroutines into a class

Class: a type that combines a record with the methods that operate on the properties in the
record

Example of using a record

A car manufacturer and seller wants to store details about cars. These details can be stored
in a record structure (see Chapter 16, Section 16.01 and Chapter 26, Section 26.02):

TYPE CarRecord

DECLARE VehiclelD : STRING

DECLARE Registration : STRING

DECLARE DateOfRegistration : DATE

DECLARE EngineSize : INTEGER

DECLARE PurchasePrice : CURRENCY

ENDTYPE
We can write program code to access and assign values to the fields of this record.

For example:

PROCEDURE UpdateRegistration(BYREF ThisCar : CarRecord,

BYVAL NewRegistration)

ThisCar.Registration NewRegistration
ENDPROCEDURE

We can call this procedure from anywhere in our program. This seems a well-regulated way
of operating on the data record. However, we can also access the record fields directly from
anywhere within the scope of ThisCar:

ThisCar. EngineSize 2500

369

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Classes in OOP

The idea behind classes in OOP is that attributes can only be accessed through methods
written as part of the class definition and validation can be part of these methods. The
direct path to the data is unavailable. Attributes are referred to as ‘private’. The methods to
access the data are made available to programmers, so these are ‘public’.

Classes are templates for objects. When a class type has been defined it can be used to
create one or more objects of this class type.

KEY TERMS

Attributes: the data items of a class

Methods: the subroutines of a class

Object: an instance of a class

The first stage of writing an object-oriented program to solve a problem is to design the
classes. This is part of object-oriented design. From this design, a program can be written
using an object-oriented programming (OOP) language.

The programming languages the syllabus prescribes can be used for OOP: Python 3,
VB.NET
and Delphi/ObjectPascal.

370

Advantages of OOP over procedural languages

The advantage of OOP is that it produces robust code. The attributes can only be •
manipulated using methods provided by the class definition. This means the attributes are
protected from accidental changes. Classes provided in module libraries are thoroughly
tested. If you use tried and tested building blocks to construct your program, you are less
likely to introduce bugs than when you write code from scratch.

27.02 Designing classes and objects

When designing a class, we need to think about the attributes we want to store. We also
need to think about the methods we need to access the data and assign values to the data
of an object. A data type is a blueprint when declaring a variable of that data type. A class
definition is a blueprint when declaring an object of that class. Creating a new object is
known as ‘instantiation’.

Any data that is held about an object must be accessible, otherwise there is no point in
storing it. We therefore need methods to access each one of these attributes. These
methods
are usually referred to as getters. They get an attribute of the object.

When we first set up an object of a particular class, we use a constructor. A constructor

instantiates the object and assigns initial values to the attributes.

Any properties that might be updated after instantiation will need subroutines to update
their values. These are referred to as setters. Some properties get set only at instantiation.
These don’t need setters. This makes an object more robust, because you cannot change
properties that were not designed to be changed.

KEY TERMS

Constructor: a special type of method that is called to create a new object and initialise its
attributes

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

WORKED EXAMPLE 27.01

Creating a class

Consider the car data from Section 27.01.

When a car is manufactured it is given a unique vehicle ID that will remain the same
throughout the car’s existence. The
engine size of the car is fixed at the time of manufacture. The registration ID will be given to
the car when the car is sold.

In our program, when a car is manufactured, we want to create a new car object. We need
to instantiate it using the
constructor. Any attributes that are already known at the time of instantiation can be set with
the constructor. In our
example, vehicieiD and Enginesize can be set by the constructor. The other attributes are
assigned values at the time
of purchase and registration. So we need setters for them. The identifier table for the car
class is shown in Table 27.01.

Identifier

Description

Car

Class identifier

VehicieiD

Unique ID assigned at time of manufacture

Registration

Unique ID assigned after time of purchase

DateOfRegistration

Date of registration

EngineSize

Engine size assigned at time of manufacture

PurchasePrice

Purchase price assigned at time of purchase

Constructor ()

Method to create a Car object and set properties

assigned at manufacture

SetPurchasePrice ()

Method to assign purchase price at time of purchase

SetRegistrationO

Method to assign registration ID

SetDateOfRegistrationO

Method to assign date of registration

GetVehicleID()

Method to access vehicle ID

GetRegistrationO

Method to access registration ID

GetDateOfRegistration)

Method to access date of registration

GetEngineSize()

Method to access engine size

GetPurchasePrice()

Method to access purchase price

Table 27.01 Identifier table for Car class

We can represent this information as a class diagram in Figure 27.01.

Figure 27.01 Car class diagram

371

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

372

27.03 Writing object-oriented code

Declaring a class

Attributes should always be declared as ‘Private’. This means they can only be accessed
through the class methods. So that the methods can be called from the main program, they
have to be declared as ‘Public’. There are other modifiers (such as ‘Protected’), but they are
beyond the scope of this book.

The syntax for declaring classes is quite different for the different programming languages.
We
will look at the three chosen languages. You are expected to write programs in one of these.

Python and VB.NET include the method body within the class declaration.

Declaring a class in Python

The code below shows how a constructor is declared in Python.

Two underscore characters
are required before and after
init to define the constructor

class Car:

Self is the first parameter

in the parameter list for
every method

def init(self, n, e): # constructor

self._VehiclelD = n

self._Registration = ""

self._DateOfRegistration = None

self._EngineSize = e

self. PurchasePrice = 0.00

def SetPurchasePrice(self, p):

self._PurchasePrice = p

def SetRegistration(self, r):

self._Registration = r

def SetDateOfRegistration(self, d):

self._DateOfRegistration = d

def GetVehicleID(self):

return(self. VehiclelD)

def GetRegistration(self):

return(self._Registration)

def GetDateOfRegistration(self):

return (self._DateOfRegistration)

def GetEngineSize(self):

return(self._EngineSize)

def GetPurchasePrice(self):
return (self.PurchasePrice)

Two underscore characters

before an attribute name
signify it is private

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

Declaring a class in VB.NET

The code below shows how properties and the constructor are declared in VB.NET.

VB.NET

Each attribute must be

S preceded by Private

Class Car

Private VehiclelD As String

Private Registration As String = ""

Private DateOfRegistration As Date = #1/1/1900 #

Private EngineSize As Integer
Private PurchasePrice As Decimal = 0.0

Every public method header

must start with Public

Public Sub New(ByVal n As String, ByVal e As String)

VehiclelD = n

EngineSize = e The constructor always

End sub | has identifier New

Public Sub SetPurchasePrice(ByVal p As Decimal)

PurchasePrice = p
End Sub

Public Sub SetRegistration(ByVal r As String)

Registration = r
End Sub

Public Sub SetDateOfRegistration(ByVal d As Date)

DateOfRegistration = d
End Sub
Public Function GetVehiclelD() As String
Return (VehiclelD)

End Function

Public Function GetRegistration() As String

Return (Registration)

End Function

Public Function GetDateOfRegistration() As Date

Return (DateOfRegistration)

End Function

Public Function GetEngineSize() As Integer

Return (EngineSize)

End Function

Public Function GetPurchasePrice() As Decimal

Return (PurchasePrice)

End Function

End Class

373

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

374

Declaring a class in Pascal

Pascal includes only the headers of the functions and procedures within the class definition.
The full method code follows the class definition. Note that the class name is included when
the method is coded after the class declaration.

The code below shows how properties and the constructor are declared in Pascal.

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

procedure Car.SetDateOfRegistration(d : TDateTime);

begin

DateOfRegistration := d;

end;
function Car.GetVehiclelD : string;
begin

GetVehiclelD := VehiclelD;

end;

function Car.GetRegistration : string;

begin

GetRegistration := Registration-

end;

function Car.GetDateOfRegistration : TDateTime;

begin

GetDateOfRegistration := DateOfRegistration;

end;

function Car.GetEngineSize : integer;

begin

GetEngineSize := EngineSize;

end;

function Car.GetPurchasePrice : currency;

begin

GetPurchasePrice := PurchasePrice;

end;

Instantiating a class

To use an object of a class type in a program the object must first be instantiated. This
means the memory space must be reserved to store the attributes.

The following code instantiates an object ThisCar of class car.

Python

ThisCar = Car("ABC1234", 2500)

VB.NET

Dim ThisCar As New Car("ABC1234", 2500)

Pascal
var ThisCar : Car;

ThisCar := Car.Create('ABC1234', 2500);

Using a method

To call a method in program code, the object identifier is followed by the method identifier
and the parameter list.

The following code sets the purchase price for an object ThisCar of class car.

Python

ThisCar. SetPurchasePrice (12000)

VB.NET

ThisCar.SetPurchasePrice (12000)

Pascal

ThisCar. SetPurchasePrice (12000);

The following code gets and prints the vehicle ID for an object ThisCar of class car.

Python

print (ThisCar. GetVehiclelD ())

VB.NET

Console .WriteLine (ThisCar.GetVehiclelD ())

Pascal

WriteLn(ThisCar.GetVehiclelD);

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 27.01

1 Copy the Car class definition into your program editor and write a simple program to test
that each method works.

2 A business wants to store data about companies they supply. The data to be stored
includes: company name, email address, date of last contact.

(a) Design a class Company and draw a class diagram.

(b) Write program code to declare the class. Company name and email address are to
be set by the constructor and will never be changed.
(c) Instantiate one object of this class and test your class code works.

27.04 Inheritance

The advantage of OOP is that we can design a class (a base class or a superclass) and then
derive further classes (subclasses) from this base class. This means that we write the code
for
the base class only once and the subclasses make use of the attributes and methods of the
base class, as well as having their own attributes and methods. This is known as inheritance
and can be represented by an inheritance diagram (Figure 27.02).

(a) (b)

Figure 27.02 Inheritance diagram (a) standard and (b) alternative

Inheritance: all attributes and methods of the base class are copied to the subclass

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

WORKED EXAMPLE 27.02

Implementing a library system

Consider the following problem:

• A college library has items for loan.

• The items are currently books and CDs.

• Items can be borrowed for three weeks.

• If a book is on loan, it can be requested by another borrower.

Table 27.02 shows the information to be stored.

Library item

Book

CD

Title of book*

Title of CD*

Author of book*

Artist of CD*,

Unique library reference number*

Unique library reference number*

Whether it is on loan*

Whether it is on loan*

The date the book is due for return*

The date the CD is due for return*

Whether the book is requested by another

borrower

The type of music on the CD (genre)

Table 27.02 Library system information

The information to be stored about books and CDs needs further analysis. Note that we
could
have a variable Title, which stores the book title or the CD title, depending on which type of
library item we are working with. There are further similarities (marked * in Table 27.02).

There are some items of data that are different for books and CDs. Books can be
requested by a borrower. For CDs, the genre is to be stored.

We can define a class Libraryitem and derive a Book class and a cd class from it. We can
draw the inheritance diagrams for the Libraryitem, Book and cd classes as in Figure 27.03.

Figure 27.03 Inheritance diagram for Library Item, Book and CD classes

377

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Analysing the attributes and methods required for all library items and those only
required for books and only for CDs, we arrive at the class diagram in Figure 27.04.

All library items have

these attributes

All library items have

these methods

Attribute specific
to Book class ^

Book

IsRequested : BOOLEAN
Constructor()
GetlsRequested()

’'Set IsRequested ()

Methods specific 1
to Book class ^

to CD class

to CD class

Figure 27.04 Class diagram for Library Item, Book and CD

A base class that is never used to create objects directly is known as an abstract class.
Libraryitem is an abstract class.

KEY TERMS

Abstract class: a base class that is never used to create objects directly

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

Declaring a base class and derived classes (subclasses) in Python

The code below shows how a base class and its subclasses are declared in Python.

Python

The base class

definition

initialiser method
import datetime
class Libraryltem:

def init(self, t, a, i):

self._Title = t

self._Author_Artist = a

self._ItemID = i

self._OnLoan = False

self._DueDate = datetime.date.today ()
def GetTitle(self):

return (self._Title)

other Get methods go here

def Borrowing (self):

self._OnLoan = True

self._DueDate = self._DueDate + datetime. timedelta(weeks=3)

def Returning (self):

self._OnLoan = False

def PrintDetails(self):

print (self._Title,'; ', self. Author_Artist,'; end= M )

print (self._ItemID,'; ', self._OnLoan, '; ', self. DueDate)

A subclass definition

class Book (Libraryltem): 1 _

def init(self, t, a, i):

Libraryltem. init (self, t, a, i)

self._IsRequested = False

self._RequestedBy = 0

def GetIsRequested(self) :

return (self. IsRequested)

def SetIsRequested(self):

self._IsRequested = True

class CD(Libraryltem):

def init(self, t, a, i):

Libraryltem. init (self, t, a, i)

self._Genre = ""
def GetGenre(self):

return (self._Genre)

def SetGenre(self, g):

self._Genre = g

initialiser method
initialiser method
379

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Declaring a base class and derived classes (subclasses) in VB.NET

The code below shows how a base class and its subclasses are declared in VB.NET.

VB.NET

Class Libraryltem

Private Title As

i ne Dase class
definition

Private Author_Artist As String

Private ItemID As Integer
Private OnLoan As Boolean = False
Private DueDate As Date = Today

Sub Create (ByVal t As String, ByVal a As String, ByVal i As Integer)

Title = t
Author_Artist = a
ItemID = i
End Sub

Public Function GetTitleO As String.

Return (Title)

End Function

' other Get methods go here

Public Sub Borrowing()

OnLoan = True

DueDate = DateAdd(DateInterval.Day, 21, Today()) '3 weeks from today

End Sub

Public Sub Returning()

OnLoan = False
End Sub

Sub PrintDetailsO

Console.WriteLine(Title &
End Sub
End Class

& ItemID &

& OnLoan Sc

A subclass definition

Class Book'

Inherits Libraryltem

The Inherits statement is

the first statement of a
subclass definition

Private IsRequested As Boolean = False

Public Function GetlsRequestedO As Boolean

Return (IsRequested)

End Function

Public Sub SetlsRequestedO

IsRequested = True
End Sub
End Class

Sc DueDate)

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

Class CD

Inherits Libraryltem
Private Genre As String = ""
Public Function GetGenreO As String
Return (Genre)

End Function

Public Sub SetGenre(ByVal g As String)

Genre = g
End Sub
End Class

Declaring a base class and derived classes (subclasses) in Pascal

The code below shows how a base class and its subclasses are declared in Pascal.

Pascal

Base class
definition

type

Libraryltem = class
private

Title : STRING;

Author_Artist : STRING;

ItemID : INTEGER;

OnLoan : BOOLEAN;

DueDate : TDATETIME; -

public

constructor Create (t, a : STRING; i

function GetTitle : STRING;
function GetAuthor_Artist : STRING;
function GetItemID : INTEGER;
function GetOnLoan : BOOLEAN;
function GetDueDate : TDATETIME;
procedure Borrowing;
procedure Returning;
procedure PrintDetails;
end;

The keyword virtual allows a

subclass to redefine the constructor
INTEGER); virtual;

Subclass definition shows

the base class in brackets

Book = class (Libraryltem)

private

IsRequested : BOOLEAN;
public

constructor Create (t, a : STRING; i

function GetlsRequested : BOOLEAN;
procedure SetlsRequested;

end;

The keyword override shows

that the constructor is redefined

7^

INTEGER); override;

CD = class (Libraryltem)

private

Genre : STRING;
public

constructor Create(t, a : STRING; i : INTEGER); override;

function GetGenre : STRING;
procedure SetGenre(g : STRING);
end;

381

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

// implementation of methods

constructor Libraryltem.Create(t, a : STRING; i : INTEGER);

begin

Title := t;

Author_Artist := a;
ItemID := i;

OnLoan := FALSE;

DueDate := 0;
end;

function Libraryltem.GetTitle : STRING;

begin

GetTitle := Title;

end;

// other Get methods go here

procedure Libraryltem.Borrowing;

begin

OnLoan : = TRUE;

DueDate := Date() + 21;

end;

procedure Libraryltem.Returning;

begin

OnLoan := FALSE;

end;

procedure Libraryltem.PrintDetails;

begin

Write(Title,'; ItemID,'; 1 , OnLoan,'; ', DateToStr(DueDate))

end;

The subclass constructor

constructor Book.Create(t, a : STRING; i : INTEGER);

begin

inherited Create(t, a, i);

IsRequested := FALSE;
end;

This statements calls the

constructor for the base class

procedure Book.SetlsRequested;

begin

IsRequested := TRUE;

end;

function Book.GetlsRequested : BOOLEAN;

begin

GetlsRequested := IsRequested;

end;

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

constructor CD.Create (t, a : STRING; i : INTEGER);

begin

inherited Create (t, a, i);

Genre := g;

end;

function CD.GetGenre : STRING;

begin

GetGenre := Genre;

end;

procedure CD.SetGenre(g : STRING);

begin

Genre := g;

end;

Instantiating a subclass

Creating an object of a subclass is done in the same way as with any class (See Section
27.03).
Python

ThisBook = Book(Title, Author, ItemlD)

ThisCD = CD(Title, Artist, ItemlD)

VB.NET

Dim ThisBook As New Book()

Dim ThisCD As New CD()

ThisBook.Create (Title, Author, ItemlD)

ThisCD.Create (Title, Artist, ItemlD)

Pascal

var ThisBook : Book;

var ThisCD : CD;

ThisBook := Book.Create (Title, Author, ItemlD);

ThisCD := CD.Create (Title, Artist, ItemlD);

Using a method

Using an object created from a subclass is exactly the same as an object created from any
class.

TASK 27.02

Copy the class definitions for Libraryitem, Book and CD into your program editor. Write
the additional get methods. Write a simple program to test that each method works.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 27.03

Write code to define a Borrower class as shown in the class diagram in Figure 27.05.

Borrower

BorrowerName

: STRING

EmailAddress

: STRING
BorrowerlD

: INTEGER

ItemsOnLoan

: INTEGER

Constructor()

GetBorrowerName()
GetEmailAddress()
GetBorrowerlD()
GetltemsOnLoan()
UpdateltemsOnLoan()
PrintDetails()

Figure 27.05 Borrower class diagram

The constructor should initialise ItemsOnLoan to 0. UpdateltemsOnLoan () should

increment ItemsOnLoan by an integer passed as parameter.

Write a simple program to test the methods.

27.05 Polymorphism

Look at Worked Example 27.02 and the code that implements it in Section 27.04. The
constructor method of the base class is redefined in the subclasses. The constructor
for the Book class calls the constructor of the Libraryitem class and also initialises
the isRequested attribute. The constructor for the cd class calls the constructor of the
Libraryitem class and also initialises the Genre attribute.

The PrintDetails method is currently only defined in the base class. This means we
can only get information on the attributes that are part of the base class. To include the
additional attributes from the subclass, we need to declare the method again. Although the
method in the subclass will have the same identifier as in the base class, the method will
actually behave differently. This is known as polymorphism.

KEY TERMS

Polymorphism: the method behaves differently for different classes in the hierarchy

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

The way the programming languages re-define a method varies.

The code shown here includes a call to the base class method with the same name. You can
completely re-write the method if required.

Python

define the print details method for Book

def PrintDetails(self):
print("Book Details")

Libraryltem.PrintDetails(self)

-=4

This line calls the base class

method with the same name.

print(self._IsRequested)

VB.NET

' in base class, add the keyword Overridable

' to the method to be redefined
OverridableSub PrintDetails()

' in subclass, add the redefined method:

Public Overrides Sub PrintDetails()

Console. WriteLine ("Book Detai ls") j —■—--

MyBase. PrintDetails () . This line calls the base class

Console. WriteLine (IsRequested) method with the same name.

End Sub

Pascal

// in base class, add the keyword virtual

// to method header to be redefined:
procedure PrintDetails; virtual;

// add the procedure header to the Book class

procedure PrintDetails; override;

// define
procedure
begin

WriteLn('Book

inherited

the method

Book.PrintDetails;

Details')

WriteLn(IsRequested)

This line calls the base class

method with the same name.

end;

385

TASK 27.04

Use your program code from Task 27.02. Re-define the PrintDetail methods for the Book
class and the CD class. Test your code.

TASK 27.05

Use your program code from Task 27.03. Add another attribute, BorroweriD, to the
Libraryltem class so that the item being loaned can have the borrower recorded.

Change the Libraryltem.Loanltem and Libraryltem.Returnltem methods, SO that

Loanltem.BorroweriD and Borrower.ItemsOnLoan are updated when a library item is
borrowed or returned.

TASK 27.06

Use your code from Task 27.02 or Task 27.04. Add another attribute, RequestedBy, to the
Book class so that the borrower making the request can be recorded.

Change the method Book.RequestBook, so that Book.RequestedBy is updated when a

book is requested.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 27.07

Use your code from Task 27.06 to write the complete program to implement a simplified
library system.
Write code to provide the user with a menu to choose an option. An example of a menu that
would be suitable is shown in Figure 27.06.

1 - Add a new borrower

2 - Add a new book

3 - Add a new CD

4 - Borrow a book

5 - Return a book

6 - Borrow a CD

7 - Return a CD

8 - Request book

9 - Print all details

99 - Exit program
Enter your menu choice:

Figure 27.06 Library system menu

27.06 Garbage collection

386

When objects are created they occupy memory. When they are no longer needed, they
should
be made to release that memory, so it can be re-used. If objects do not let go of memory,
we eventually end up with no free memory when we try and run a program. This is known as
‘memory leakage’.

How do our programming languages handle this?

Table 27.03 Garbage collection strategies

Python

Memory management involves a private heap containing all Python objects

and data structures. The management of the Python heap is performed by the
interpreter itself. The programmer does not need to do any housekeeping.

VB.NET

A garbage collector automatically reclaims memory from objects that are no

longer referred to by the running program.
Pascal

When an object is no longer required, the programmer can use the method
.Free. For example, ThisBook.Free.

27.07 Containment (aggregation)

In Section 27.04 we covered how a subclass inherits from a base class. This can be seen
as generalisation and specialisation. The base class is the most general class, subclasses
derived from this base class are more specialised.

We have other kinds of relationships between classes. Containment means that one class
contains other classes. For example, a car is made up of different parts and each part will be
an object based on a class. The wheels are objects of a different class to the engine object.

The engine is also made up of different parts. Together, all these parts make up one big
object.

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

Containment: a relationship in which one class has a component that is of another class type

The containment relationship is shown in Figure 27.07.

Car

Wheel

Figure 27.07 Containment (aggregation) class diagram

387

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Assuming that all attributes for the Lesson and Assessment class are set by values
passed as parameters to the constructor, the code for declaring the Lesson and
Assessment classes are straightforward.

The code below shows how the course class is declared.

Python Course class declaration

class Course:

def init(self, t, m): # sets up a new course

self._CourseTitle = t
self._MaxStudents = m

self._NumberOfLessons = 0

self._CourseLesson = []

self._CourseAssessment = Assessment

def AddLesson(self, t, d, r):

self._NumberOfLessons = self._NumberOfLessons + 1

self._CourseLesson.append(Lesson(t, d, r))

def AddAssessment(self, t, m):

self._CourseAssessment = Assessment(t, m)

def OutputCourseDetails (self):

print(self._CourseTitle, "Maximum number: ", self._MaxStudents)

for i in range (self._NumberOfLessons):

print (self._CourseLesson [i] .OutputLessonDetails ())

VB.NET Course class declaration

Class Course

Private CourseTitle As String

Private MaxStudents As Integer
Private NumberOfLessons As Integer = 0
Private CourseLesson(50) As Lesson
Private CourseAssessment As Assessment

Public Sub Create (ByVal t As String, ByVal m As Integer)

CourseTitle = t
MaxStudents = m
End Sub

Sub AddLesson (ByVal t As String, ByVal d As Integer, ByVal r As Boolean)

NumberOfLessons = NumberOfLessons + 1
CourseLesson(NumberOfLessons) = New Lesson
CourseLesson(NumberOf Lessons) .Create(t, d, r)

End Sub
Public Sub AddAssessment(ByVal t As String, ByVal m As Integer)
CourseAssessment = New Assessment
CourseAssessment.Create(t, m)

End Sub

Public Sub OutputCourseDetails ()

Console.WriteLine(CourseTitle & "Maximum number: " & MaxStudents)

For i = 1 To NumberOfLessons

CourseLesson(i) .OutputLessonDetails ()

Next
End Sub
End Class

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

Pascal Course class declaration

Course = class
private

CourseTitle : string;

MaxStudents : integer;

NumberOfLessons : integer;

CourseLesson : [1..50] of Lesson;

CourseAssessment Array; Assessment;

public

constructor Create(t : string; m : integer);

procedure AddLesson(t : string; d : integer; r : boolean);
procedure AddAssessment(t : string; m : integer);
procedure OutputCourseDetails;

end;

// * class implementation starts here *

constructor Create(t : string; m : integer);

begin
CourseTitle := t;

MaxStudents := m;

end;

procedure Course.AddLesson(t : string; d : integer; r : boolean);

begin

NumberOfLessons := NumberOfLessons + 1;

CourseLesson [NumberOfLessons] := Lesson.Create(t, d, r);

end;

procedure Course.AddAssessment(t : string; m : integer);

begin

CourseAssessment := Assessment .Create (t, int¬

end;

procedure Course.OutputCourseDetails;

var i : integer;
begin

WriteLn(CourseTitle, ' Maximum number: MaxStudents);

for i := 1 to NumberOfLessons do
WriteLn(CourseLesson[i].LessonTitle) ;

end;

Here are simple test programs to check it works.

Python test program

def Main():

MyCourse = Course ("Computing", 10) # sets up a new course

MyCourse. AddAssessment ("Programming", 100) # adds an assignment

add 3 lessons
MyCourse.AddLessonC'Problem Solving", 60, False)

MyCourse. AddLes son ("Programming", 120, True)

MyCourse.AddLesson("Theory", 60, False)

check it all works
MyCourse.OutputCourseDetails ()

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

390

VB.NET test program

Dim MyCourse As New Course

MyCourse.Create ("Computing", 10) ' sets up a new course

MyCourse.AddAssessment("Programming", 100) ' adds an assessment

' add 3 lessons

MyCourse.AddLesson("Problem Solving", 60, False)

MyCourse.AddLesson("Programming", 120, True)

MyCourse. AddLesson( "Theory", 60, False)

’check it all works

MyCourse. OutputCourseDetails ()

Console. ReadLine()

Pascal test program

var MyCourse : Course;

begin

MyCourse := Course. Create ('Computing', 10); // sets up a new course

MyCourse. AddAssessment ('Programming', 100); // adds an assessment
// add 3 lessons

MyCourse.AddLesson( 1 Problem Solving',60, FALSE);

MyCourse.AddLesson('Programming', 120, TRUE) ;

MyCourse. AddLesson( 'Theory', 60, FALSE);

// check it all works

MyCourse .OutputCourseDetails;

ReadLn;
MyCourse.Free; // free memory

end.

TASK 27.08

Write the code required for the Lesson and Assessment classes. Add the code for the
Course class and test your program with the appropriate simple program from Worked
Example 27.03.

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

A class has attributes (declared as private) and methods (declared as public) that operate on
the
attributes. This is known as encapsulation.

A class is a blueprint for creating objects.

An object is an instance of a class.

A constructor is a method that instantiates a new object.

A class and its attributes and methods can be represented by a class diagram.

Classes (subclasses) can inherit from another class (the base class or superclass). This
relationship between a base
class and its subclasses can be represented using an inheritance diagram.

A subclass has all the attributes and methods of its base class. It also has additional
attributes and/or methods.
Polymorphism describes the different behaviour of a subclass method with the same name
as the base class
method.

Containment is a relationship between two classes where one class has a component that is
of the
other class type. This can be represented using a containment diagram.

Exam-style Questions

391

1 A program is to be written using an object-oriented programming language. A bank

account class is designed.

Two subclasses have been identified:

• Personal Account: the account holder pays a monthly fee and may overdraw the account
up to an agreed
overdraft limit.

• savingsAccount: the account holder must maintain a positive balance and gets paid
interest on the balance at
an agreed interest rate.

a Draw an inheritance diagram for these classes. [3]

The design for the BankAccount class consists of:

• attributes:

• AccountHolderName

• iban: International Bank Account Number

• methods

• CreateNewAccount

• SetAccountHolderName

• GetAccountHolderName

• GetIBAN

b Write program code for the class definition of the superclass BankAccount. [5]

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

392

c i State the attributes and/or methods required for the subclass PersonaiAccount [4]

ii State the attributes and/or methods required for the subclass SavingsAccount. [4]

iii Name the feature of object-oriented program design that combines the attributes and
methods into

a class. [1]

2 A bus company in a town has two types of season ticket for their regular customers: pay-
as-you-go and contract.

All season ticket holders have their name and email address recorded.

A pay-as-you-go ticket holder pays a chosen amount into their account. Each time the ticket
holder makes a
journey on the bus, the price of the fare is deducted from the amount held in the account.
They can top up the amount
at any time.

A contract ticket holder pays a fixed fee per month. They can then make unlimited journeys
on the bus.

The bus company wants a program to process the season ticket data. The program will be
written using an object-oriented
programming language.

a Complete the class diagram showing the appropriate attributes and methods.

Pay-As-You-Go-TicketHolder

ContractTicketHolder

Constructor (Name: STRING,

email : STRING, Fee : CURRENCY)

b Attributes and methods can be declared as either public or private.

i Explain why the SeasonTicketHolder attributes are declared as private.

ii Explain why the SeasonTicketHolder methods have been declared as public.

[7]

[2]

[2]

Chapter 27: Object-oriented Programming (OOP)

c Write program code to create a new instance of contractTicketHoider with:

• Identifier: NewCustomer

• name: A. Smith

• email address: [email protected]

• monthly fee: $10

3 A queue abstract data type (ADT) is to be implemented using object-oriented

programming.
Two classes have been identified: Queue and Node. The class diagrams
are as follows:
QueueClass

NodeClass

Queue : ARRAY[0 : 50] OF NodeClass

Data : STRING

Head : INTEGER

Pointer : INTEGER

Tail : INTEGER

Constructor()

Constructor()

SetData(d : STRING)

JoinQueue(Newltem : NodeClass)

SetPointer(x : INTEGER)

LeaveQueue() : STRING

GetData() : STRING

GetPointer() : INTEGER

a State the relationship between these two classes.

b The Nodeciass constructor is to

• create a new node

• initialise the Data attribute to the empty string

• initialise the Pointer attribute to -1.

Write program code to define Nodeciass, including the get and set methods.

c The QueueClass constructor is to

• create a new queue

• initialise the Head and Tail attributes to -1.

Write program code to define the constructor for QueueClass.

d TheJoinQueue method is to
• create a new object, Node, of Nodeciass

• assign the value passed as parameter to the Data attribute of Node

• assign Node to the end of Queue.

Write program code to define the JoinQueue method.

[3]

[1]

393

[io]

[3]

[5]

7\

394

Low-level Programming

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ write low-level code that uses various address modes:

immediate, direct, indirect, indexed and relative.

Chapter 28: Low-level Programming

28.01 Processor instruction set

For the purposes of this chapter, the instruction set used is given in Table 28.01.

Instruction

Explanation

Label

Op code

Operand

Data movement instructions

LDM
 #n

Immediate addressing. Load the number n

to ACC

LDD

Direct addressing. Load the contents of the

location at the given address to acc

LDI

Indirect addressing. The address to be used

is at the given address. Load the contents
of this second address to acc

LDX

Indexed addressing. Form the address

from

+ the contents of the

index register. Copy the contents of this
calculated address to acc

LDR

#n

Immediate addressing. Load the number n

to IX

STO

Store the contents of acc at the given

address

STX

Indexed addressing. Form the address from

+ the contents of the index register. Copy the contents from acc to this calculated address

STI

Indirect addressing. The address to be used

is at the given address. Store the contents
of acc at this second address
Arithmetic operations

ADD

Add the contents of the given address to

the acc

INC

Add 1 to the contents of the register (acc

or ix)

DEC

Subtract 1 from the contents of the register

(acc orix)

Comparison and jump instructions

JMP

Jump to the given address

CMP

Compare the contents of acc with the

Contents of

CMP

#n

Compare the contents of acc with number n

JPE

Following a compare instruction, jump to

if the compare was True

JPN

Following a compare instruction, jump to

if the compare was False

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Input/output instructions
IN

Key in a character and store its ASCII value

in acc

OUT

Output to the screen the character whose

ASCII value is stored in acc

Bit manipulation instructions

AND

#n

Bitwise and operation of the contents of

acc with the operand

AND

Bitwise and operation of the contents of

ACC with the contents Of

XOR

#n

Bitwise xor operation of the contents of

acc with the operand

XOR

Bitwise xor operation of the contents of

acc with the contents of

OR

#n

Bitwise or operation of the contents of acc

with the operand

OR

Bitwise or operation of the contents of acc

with the contents of

LSL
 #n

Bits in acc are shifted n places to the left.

Zeros are introduced on the right hand end

LSR

#n

Bits in acc are shifted n places to the right.

Zeros are introduced on the left hand end

Other

END

Return control to the operating system

Labels an instruction

Gives a symbolic address to the

memory location with contents

Table 28.01 Processor instruction set

In the assembly code in this chapter:

• acc denotes the Accumulator.

• ix denotes the Index Register.

• # denotes immediate addressing.

• b denotes a binary number, e.g. boiooioio.

• & denotes a hexadecimal number, e.g. &4A.

can be an absolute address or a symbolic address.

The data movement, arithmetic operation, comparison and jump instructions were
introduced in Chapter 6. The bit-wise manipulation instructions were introduced in
Chapter 22.
To write useful programs, we need instructions for input and output, in and out are
provided here to input and output single characters, represented internally by their
ASCII codes.

Chapter 28: Low-level Programming

28.02 Symbolic addresses

A label is a symbolic name for the memory location that it represents. You can treat it like a
variable name. When writing low-level programs, we can give absolute addresses of
memory
locations. This is very restrictive, especially if we want to change the program by adding
extra
instructions. Writing low-level instructions using symbolic addresses (labels), allows us to
think at a higher level. The assembler will allocate absolute addresses during the assembly
process (see Chapter 7, Section 7.05).

28.03 Problem-solving and assembly-language programs

When writing a solution to a problem using low-level programming, we need to break down
the problem into simple steps that can be programmed using the instruction set available.

One approach is to think in terms of the basic constructs we discussed for high-level
languages. You can use the following examples as design patterns.

Assignment

Table 28.02 shows some examples of assembly language assignments that match the
pseudocode.

Pseudocode

examples

Assembly code
examples

Explanation

A 34

LDM #34

STO A

To store a value in a memory location, the value

must first be generated in the accumulator

B «- B + 1
LDD B

INC ACC

STO B

To increment the value stored at a memory

location: first load the value into the accumulator,
increment the value and then store the contents of
the accumulator back to the memory location

BB+A

LDD B

ADD A

STO B

To calculate a value: load the first value from a

memory location into the accumulator, then add
the value stored at the second memory location to
the accumulator and then store the contents of the
accumulator to the required memory location

A <- -A

LDD A

XOR #&FF

INC ACC

STO A

Load the value (assuming eight bits),

xor with liiiim to produce the one’s complement.

Add 1 to get the two’s complement.

Table 28.02 Using assignment instructions

TASK 28.01

Write assembly code instructions for this sequence of pseudocode statements:

A2
B <- 10
CA+B
DA-B

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Selection

Table 28.03 shows some examples of assembly language selections that match the
pseudocode.

Pseudocode

examples

Assembly code
examples

Explanation

IF A = 0

THEN

B <- B + 1

ENDIF

LDD A

CMP #0

JPN ENDIF

THEN: LDD B

INC ACC

STO B

ENDIF: ...

Load the contents of the memory

location to be tested. Compare it with
the required value (in this example 0).

If the comparison result is false (A does

not equal 0), a jump over the then part is
required; if the comparison result is true
(A = 0) then the following instructions are
executed. For ease of understanding, the
labels then and endif are used.
IF A = B

THEN

OUTPUT "Y"

ELSE

OUTPUT "N"

ENDIF

LDD A

XOR #&FF

INC ACC

ADD B

CMP #0

JPN ELSE

THEN: LDM #89

OUT

JMP ENDIF

ELSE: LDM #78

OUT

ENDIF: ...

Load the contents of A.

Get the negative equivalent.

Add B.

If the result is zero, A = B.

If the comparison result is false (A does

not equal B), jump to the else part; if
the comparison result is true (A = B) the
instructions following the then label are
executed.
Note that a jump over the else part is
required.

Table 28.03 Using selection instructions

TASK 28.02

Write assembly code instructions forthis sequence of pseudocode statements:

if a <> o

THEN

BA
ELSE

BB-1

Repetition

Table 28.04 shows an example of repetition in assembly language that matches the
pseudocode.

Pseudocode

examples

Assembly code
examples

Explanation

A=0

REPEAT

OUTPUT

AA+ 1

UNTIL A = 5

LDM #0

STO A

LOOP: LDM #42

OUT

LDD A
INC ACC

STO A

CMP #5

JPN LOOP

Store the initial value of the counter in A.

Generate the ASCII code for the character
and output it.

Load the countervalue,

increment the counter,
save it,

test for final value.

If final value has not been reached, jump back

to beginning of loop.

Table 28.04 Using repetition instructions

Chapter 28: Low-level Programming

TASK 28.03

Write assembly code instructions for this sequence of pseudocode statements:

Number 1

Total 0

Max <e- 5

REPEAT

Total Total + Number

Number Number + 1
UNTIL Number = Max

Input/output

Table 28.05 shows some examples of input and output in assembly language that match the
pseudocode.

Pseudocode
examples

Assembly code
examples

Explanation

INPUT A

IN

STO A

Store a character input from the keyboard at

memory location A

OUTPUT B

LDR #-l

LOOP: INC IX

LDX B

OUT

CMP #13

JPN LOOP

To output a string of characters stored in

consecutive locations, a loop and indexed
addressing are used.

The first time round the loop the index register is

0 and the character in memory location B will be

loaded into the accumulator and output to the
screen. Then a check is made for the end of the
string (the carriage return character with ASCII
code 13). If it is notthe end of the string, jump
back to the beginning of the loop.

To output a number, the number must first be

changed into its equivalent string and stored in
consecutive memory locations. Then the above
method can be used.

INPUT A
LDR #-l

LOOP: INC IX

IN

STX A

CMP #13

JPN LOOP

Store a string of characters input from the

keyboard into consecutive memory locations
starting from A.

Table 28.05 Using input and output instructions

TASK 28.04

Write assembly code instructions for this sequence of pseudocode statements:

Count <- 0

REPEAT

Count <- Count + 1

INPUT Character
UNTIL Character = "N"

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 28.05

Modify your assembly code instructions from Task 28.04 to implement this sequence of
pseudocode statements:

Count <- o
REPEAT

Count Count + 1
INPUT Character
UNTIL Character = "N"

OUTPUT Count

28.04 Absolute and relative addressing

An absolute address is the numeric address of a memory location. A program using absolute
addresses cannot be loaded anywhere else in memory. Some assemblers produce relative
addresses, so that the program can be loaded anywhere in memory.

Relative addresses are addresses relative to a base address, for example the first
instruction
of the program. When the program is loaded into memory the base address is stored
in a base register br. Instructions that refer to addresses then use the value in the base
register, modified by the offset. For example, sto [br] + 10 will store the contents of the
accumulator at the address calculated from (contents of the base register) +10.

Table 28.06 shows an example of instructions using symbolic, relative and absolute
addressing.

Symbolic addressing

Offset from
base (start)

Relative addressing (base address

stored in base register)

Absolute addressing

START: LDM #0

LDM #0

100 LDM #0

STO A

STO [BR] + 10

201 STO 210

LOOP: LDM #42

LDM #42

202 LDM #42

OUT

3
OUT

203 OUT

LDD A

LDD [BR] + 10

204 LDD 210

INC ACC

INC ACC

205 INC ACC

STO A

STO [BR] + 10

206 STO 210

CMP #5

CMP #5

207 CMP #5

JPN LOOP

JPN [BR] + 2

208 JPN 202

END

END

209 END
A: 0

10

210 0

Table 28.06 Symbolic, relative and absolute addressing

It is very important that, at the end of the program, control is passed back to the operating
system. Otherwise the binary pattern held in the next memory location will be interpreted as
an
instruction. If the content of that memory location does not correspond to a valid instruction,
the
processor will crash. The instruction end signals the end of the program instructions.

28.05 Indirect addressing

Indirect addressing is useful if the memory address to be used in an instruction is changed

during the execution of the program.

One example is when programming subroutines to which parameters are passed by

reference (this is beyond the scope of this book).

Another use of indirect addressing is for a pointer variable.

Chapter 28: Low-level Programming

WORKED EXAMPLE 28.01

Writing a program for a simple queue

At the top level, we can write the problem using structured English:

Add a character to the queue:

1 Store the contents of the accumulator in the memory location

pointed to by the tail pointer.

2 Increment the tail pointer.

Remove a character from the queue:

1 Load contents of the memory location at the head of the queue.

2 Increment the head pointer.

Table 28.07 shows an example of instructions that implement the above queue¬
processing algorithms.
Instruction

Explanation

Label

Op code

Operand

JOINQ:

STI

TAILPTR

Store contents of acc in the memory

location pointed to by the tail pointer

LDD

TAILPTR

Increment the tail pointer

INC

ACC

STO

TAILPTR

JMP

ENDQ

LEAVEQ:

LDI

HEADPTR

Load contents of memory location at the

head of the queue

OUT

Output the character

LDD
HEADPTR

Increment the head pointer

INC

ACC

STO

HEADPTR

JMP

ENDQ

ENDQ:

HEADPTR:

QSTART

Pointer to start of queue

TAILPTR:

QSTART

Pointer to next free location in queue

QSTART:

n ii

Start of memory reserved for queue,

currently empty

Table 28.07 Queue processing

Note that the value shown in Table 28.07 at the memory locations labelled headptr and
tailptr is the address of the start of the memory locations reserved for the queue. As
values are added to the queue, the tailptr value will increase to point to the memory
location at the end of the queue data. When a value is taken from the queue, the headptr
value will increase to point to the memory location at the head of the queue data.

TASK 28.06

Write instructions to reverse a word entered at the keyboard. This requires access to an
area
of memory treated as a stack.
Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Summary

• A problem to be solved must be broken down into simple steps that can be programmed
using the
processor’s given instruction set.

• A value must be copied into the accumulator before it can be processed.

• Processing includes:

o arithmetic: adding, incrementing, decrementing

o comparison: equal or not equal
o bitwise operations: AND, OR, XOR, shifting
o output to screen.

• To set a value in the accumulator it can be:

o input from the keyboard

o created using immediate addressing

o loaded from a memory location using direct, relative, indirect or indexed addressing.

• An address can be absolute (a number) or symbolic (a label).

402

Exam-style Questions

1 The instruction set of a processor with one general-purpose register, the accumulator,
includes the following instructions.

Instruction

Explanation

Label

Op code

Operand

LDD

Direct addressing. Load the contents of the

location at the given address to acc

STO
Store the contents of acc at the given
address

ADD

Add the contents of the given address to the

ACC

IN

Key in a character and store its ASCII value in

ACC

AND

Bitwise and operation of the contents of acc

with the contents of

LSL

#n

Bits in acc are shifted n places to the left.

Zeros are introduced on the right hand end

END

Return control to the operating system

Gives a symbolic address to the

memory location with contents

Chapter 28: Low-level Programming

• acc denotes the Accumulator.

• # denotes immediate addressing.

• & denotes a hexadecimal number, e.g. &4A.

can be an absolute address or a symbolic address.

a Explain the operation of the and instruction. [1]

b The ASCII code for ‘O’ is the binary value 00110000 . The ASCII code for T is the binary
value 00110001 .

Write an and instruction to convert any numeric digit stored in acc in the form of an ASCII
code to its eight-bit

binary integer equivalent. [1]

c Write the assembly code instructions to convert a two-digit number keyed in at the
keyboard to its BCD

representation. Store the result in the memory location labelled Result. [7]

Instruction

Explanation

Label

Op code

Operand

Input first digit

Convert from ASCII to its digit value

Move to upper nibble

Store in location Result

Input second digit

Convert from ASCII to its digit value

Combine the two values

Store result

End of program

Mask:

Mask to convert from ASCII to digit equivalent

Result:
&00

Memory location for result

2 A given processor has one general-purpose register, the accumulator acc, and one index
register, ix. Part of the

instruction set for this processor is as follows. [8]

Instruction

Explanation

Label

Op code

Operand

LDM

#n

Immediate addressing. Load the numbern to acc

LDD

Direct addressing. Load the contents of the

location at the given address to acc

LDX

Indexed addressing. Form the address from

+ the contents of the index register. Copy the contents of this calculated address to

ACC

LDR

#n

Immediate addressing. Load the number n to ix

STO

Store the contents of acc at the given address

STX

Indexed addressing. Form the address from

+ the contents of the index register. Copy the contents from acc to this calculated address

ADD

Add the contents of the given address to the

ACC

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

INC

Add 1 to the contents of the register (acc or ix)

JMP

Jump to the given address

CMP

Compare the contents of acc with the contents

of

CMP

#n

Compare the contents of acc with number n

JPE

Following a compare instruction, jump to

if the compare was True

JPN

Following a compare instruction, jump to

if the compare was False

IN

Key in a character and store its ASCII value in

ACC

END

Return control to the operating system

:
cop code>

Labels an instruction

Gives a symbolic address to the

memory location with contents

• # denotes immediate addressing.

can be an absolute address or a symbolic address.

Write an assembly language program that takes a sequence of characters as input from the
keyboard and stores each character in successive locations, starting at the location labelled:
STRING. Input ends when the input character is T (ASCII code 33).

Instruction

Explanation

Label

Op code

Operand

set index register to zero

input character

store it at string (modified by index register)

increment index register

is this character the ! key?

No - jump to beginning of loop

End of program

STRING:

store input characters from here onwards

Chapter 29

Declarative Programming
Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ solve a problem by writing appropriate facts and rules ■ write code that can satisfy a goal
using facts and rules,

based on supplied information

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

29.01 Imperative and declarative programming languages

Programming languages such as Pascal, VB and Python are referred to as ‘imperative

programming languages’ because the programmer writes sequences of statements that
reflect how to solve the problem. When a programmer uses a declarative programming
language, the programmer writes down (in the language of logic) a declarative specification
that describes the situation of interest: what the problem is. The programmer doesn’t tell the
computer what to do. To get information, the programmer poses a query (sets a goal). It’s up
to the logic programming system to work out how to get the answer.

Declarative languages include database query languages (such as SQL, see Chapter 10,

Section 10.07), regular expressions, logic programming and functional programming.

Prolog is a logic programming language widely used for artificial intelligence and expert
systems.

The Prolog programs in this chapter have been prepared using the SWI-Prolog environment
shown in Figure 29.01 (see www.swi-prolog.org for a free download).

406

SWI-Prolog (AMD64, Multi threaded, version 6.6,6)

File Edit Settings Run Debug Help

Jnjxj

Welcome to SWI-Prolog (Multi-threaded, 64 bits. Version 6.6.6)

Copyright (c) 1990-2013 University of Amsterdam, VU Amsterdam
SWI-Prolog comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY. This is free software,
and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions.
Please visit http://www.swi-prolog.org for details.

For help, use ?- help(Topic). or ?- apropos(Word).

1 ?-
d

Figure 29.01 SWI-Prolog environment

29.02 Prolog basics

There are three basic constructs in Prolog: facts, rules and queries.

The program logic is expressed using clauses (facts and rules). Problems are solved by
running a query (goal).

A collection of clauses is called a ‘knowledge base’. Writing a Prolog program means writing
a
knowledge base as a collection of clauses. We use the program by writing queries.

A clause is of the form:

Head Body.

Note that a clause always terminates with a full stop (.)

Prolog has a single data type, called a ‘term’. A term can be:

• an atom, a general-purpose name with no inherent meaning that always starts with a
lower case letter

• a number, integer or float (real)

Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

• a variable, denoted by an identifier that starts with a capital letter or an underscore (_)

• a compound term, a predicate, consisting of an atom and a number of arguments in

parentheses.

The arguments themselves can be compound terms. A predicate has an arity (that is, the
number of arguments in parentheses).

Prolog is case sensitive.

29.03 Facts in Prolog

A clause without a body is a fact, for example:

01 capitalCity (paris).

02 capitalCity(berlin).

03 capitalCity (cairo).
The meaning of clause oi is: Paris is a capital city.

capitalCity (paris) is a compound term. Both capitalCity and paris are atoms.
capitalCity is called a predicate and paris is the argument.

capitalCity has arity 1, as it has just one argument. This can be written as capitaicity/i,
the /i showing that it takes one argument.

TASK 29.01

Launch the editor (File, New...) from the SWI-Prolog environment. Enter the three clauses
above, as shown in Figure 29.02. Then save the file (File, Save buffer) as Exl.

Figure 29.02 Example facts in SWI-Prolog editor

Clauses 01 to 03 are a knowledge base. We can run a query on this knowledge base.
To ask the question whether Paris is a capital city, we write:

capitalCity(paris).

Prolog answers true.

This means: yes, Paris is a capital city.

To ask the question whether London is a capital city, we write:

capitalCity (london).

Prolog answers false.

This means: no, London is not a capital city.

407

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

This is because the fact that London is a capital city has not been included in our knowledge
base.

TASK 29.02

Run your own queries. You first need to consult the knowledge base (File, Consult...) from
within the Prolog environment. Note that SWI-Prolog uses the prompt ?- (see Figure 29.03).

SWI-Prolog (AM064, Mufti threaded, version 6.6-6)

File Edit Settings Run Debug Help

Welcome to SWI-Prolog (Multi-threaded, 64 bits. Version 6.6.6)

Copyright (c) 1990-2013 University of Amsterdam, VU Amsterdam
SWI-Prolog comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY. This is free software,
and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions.
Please visit http://www.swi-prolog.org for details.

For help, use ?- help(Topic). or ?- apropos(Word).

1 ?-

% c:/Users/Sylvia/My Programming/C IE Book/Prolog/Exl.pi compiled 0.00

sec, 4 clauses

1 ?- capitalCity(paris).

true.

2 ?- capitalCity(london).

false.

Figure 29.03 Example queries in SWI-Prolog

If your query does not get a response, check that you have:

• consulted your knowledge base (green text in Figure 29.03)

• used lower-case letters appropriately

• used a full stop at the end of your query.

29.04 Prolog variables

Let’s add some more facts to our knowledge base. Comments in Prolog are enclosed in /
and /•

04 citylnCountry (paris, f ranee). / Paris is a city in France /

05 cityInCountry(berlin / germany).

06 citylnCountry (cairo, egypt).

07 citylnCountry(munich, germany).

To find out which country Berlin is in, we can run the query (see Figure 29.04):

citylnCountry (berlin, Country).

Note that country is a variable (it starts with a capital letter).

To find out which cities are in Germany, we can run the query (see Figure 29.04):
citylnCountry (City, germany).

Part 4

Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

M SWI-Prolog (AHD64, Mufti-threaded.- verston 6.6.6)

File Edit Settings Run Debug Help

X c:/Users/Sylvia/My Programming/CIE Book/Prolog/Exi.pi compiled 0.00

sec, 8 clauses

1 ?- cityInCountry(berlin,Country).

Country = germany.

2 ?- cityInCountry(City, germany).
City = berlin ;

City = munich.

3 ?-

Figure 29.04 Instantiations of a variable

Note how Prolog responds when running a query that includes a variable. When there is
more
than one answer, you need to type a semicolon after the first answer and Prolog will give the
second answer. The semicolon has the meaning OR. First city is instantiated to berlin and
then city is instantiated to munich.

WORKED EXAMPLE 29.01

Using a knowledge base

Consider the following knowledge base:

01 vegetable (aubergine). / aubergine is a vegetable /

02 vegetable (potato).

03 vegetable (tomato).

04 meat (chicken). / chicken is a type of meat /

05 meat(beef).
06 meat (lamb).

07 ingredient(tagine, aubergine, 250). / tagine contains 250g aubergine /

08 ingredient (tagine, tomato, 100).

09 ingredient (stew, beef, 400).

10 ingredient (stew, potato, 600).

We can check the ingredients of tagine by asking:

ingredient (tagine, Ingredient, Amount).

Look at the response Prolog gives in Figure 29.05.

SWI Prokxj (AMD64, Mufti-threaded version >.€-.6)

File Edit Settings Run Debug Help

7 ?- ingredient(tagine. Ingredient, Amount).

Ingred lent = aubergine,

Amount - 250 ;

Ingredient = tomato.

Amount = 100.

8 ?-

Figure 29.05 Instantiation of variables

dmi*!

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

29.05 The anonymous variable

Consider the knowledge base from Worked Example 29.01. If we are not interested in
the amount of each ingredient, we can use the anonymous variable (represented by the
underscore character). The query then becomes

ingredient(tagine. Ingredient, _).

29.06 Rules in Prolog

Remember a clause is of the form Head Body.

A rule’s body consists of calls to predicates, which are called the rule’s goals. A predicate is
either true or false, based on its terms. If the body of the rule is true, then the head of the
rule
is true too.

410

WORKED EXAMPLE 29.02

Using rules in a knowledge base

Consider the following knowledge base:

01

parent (f red,

jack). / Fred is the father of Jack /

02

parent (f red,

alia).

03

parent (f red,

paul).

04

parent (dave,

f red).

We know that G is a grandparent of S, if G is a parent of P and P is a parent of S.

We could write this as a rule:

grandparent (G, S) IF parent (G, P) AND parent(P, S).

However, in Prolog the if is replaced by and the and is replaced with a comma:

grandparent (G, S) parent (G, P), parent (P, S).

A person has a sibling (brother or sister) if they have the same parent. We can write this as
the Prolog rule:

sibling (A, B)
parent(P, A),
parent (P, B).

If we run the query sibiing( jack, x)., we get the answers we expect, but we also get the

answer that Jack is his own sibling. To avoid this we modify the query to ensure that A is

not equal to B:

sibling (A, B)
parent (P, A),
parent (P, B),
not(A=B).

Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

Question 29.01

What answer do you expect to get from Prolog to the following query:

sibling(dave, X).

TASK 29.03

Write a knowledge base for your own family. You can include more predicates, for example:

Predicate

Meaning

male(fred).

Fred is male

female(alia).

Alia is female

Write a rule for father.

Test your program.

WORKED EXAMPLE 29.03

Adding a rule to a knowledge base

Using the knowledge base from Worked Example 29.01, we want to know which dishes
contain meat. We are not interested how much meat, so we don’t need to know the value
of the third argument of the predicate ingredient/ 3 . We can write the rule:

containsMeat (X)

ingredient(X, Meat, _ ),
meat(Meat).

The query containsMeat (x). returns x = stew.

411

29.07 Instantiation and backtracking

Prolog respondsto a query with an answer, such astheonein Worked Example 29.03: x =
stew.

The = sign is not an assignment as in imperative programs. The = sign shows instantiation.

How does Prolog use the knowledge base to arrive at the answers? One way to see exactly
what Prolog is doing is to use the graphical debugger.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

WORKED EXAMPLE 29.04

Use the knowledge base from Worked Example 29.03. After consulting the knowledge
base, start the debugger (Debug, Graphical debugger) from the Prolog environment.
Then type: trace, and then the goal as shown in Figure 29.06.

SWI Prok>g (AMD64, Multi threaded, version 6,6.6)

File Edit Settings Run Debug Help

Welcome to SWI-Prolog (Multi-threaded, 64 bits. Version 6.6.6)

Copyright (c) 1990-2013 University of Amsterdam, VU Amsterdam
SWI-Prolog comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY. This is free software,
and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions.
Please visit http://www.swi-prolog.org for details.

For help, use ?- help(Topic). or ?- apropos(Word).

1 ?-

X c:/Users/Sylvia/My Programming/CIE Book/Prolog/Ex3.pi compiled 0.00

sec, 12 clauses

X The graphical front-end will be used for subsequent tracing

1 ?- trace.
true,

[trace] 1 ?- containsMeat(X).

Figure 29.06 Switching on the trace facility

The graphical debugger window opens as shown in Figure 29.07.

ppiwpp

JnjxJ

lool Edit View Compile Help

ikNM fj iilalB 1 ?-Ib 1 k 1 m\ ->4f laftfl ^

Bindings Call Stack

containsMeat/1

vegetable (aubergine).
vegetable (potato).
vegetable (tomato).

meat (chicken). / chicken is a type of meat /

meat (beef).
meat (lamb).

ingredient (tagine, aubergine, 250).

ingredient (tagine, tomato, 100).
ingredient (stew, beef, 400).
ingredient (stew, potato, 600).

containsMeat (X) :-

ingredient(X, Meat, _) ,
meat(Meat).

Figure 29.07 Graphical debugger

Using the space bar you can step through the program. When Prolog gives an answer in
the Prolog Environment window, remember to input a semicolon, so that Prolog will go
and check for another possible answer.

If you don’t use the graphical debugger but type trace, you can see the trace in the SWI-
Prolog window, as shown in Figure 29.08.
Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

SWI-Prolog — c/Users/Sylvia/f !y Program«itftg/€l£

File Edit Settings Run Debug Help

1 ?-

X c:/User.s/Syl via/My Programming/CIE Book/Prolog/Ex3 pi compiled 0.00

sec, 1 clauses

1 ?- trace.

true.

^JgJxJ

.d

[trace]

1 ?-

Call:

(6)

Call:

(7)

Exit:

(7)

Call:

(7)

Fail:

(7)

Redo

(7)

Exit:

(7)

Call:
(7)

Fail:

(7)

Redo

(7)

Exit:

(7)

Call:

(7)

Exit:

(7)

Exit:

(6)

X = stew ;

Redo:

(7)

Exit:

(7)

Call:

(7)

Fail:

(7)

Fail:

(6)

false.

[trace]
2 ?-

containsMeat(X).

containsMeat(_G464) ? creep

ingredient(_G464, _G536, _G537) ? creep

ingredient(tagine, aubergine, 250) ? creep

mea t(aubergine) ? creep

meat(aubergine) ? creep

ingredient(_G464, _G536, _G537) ? creep

ingredient(tagine, tomato, 100) ? creep

meat(tomato) ? creep

meat(tomato) ? creep

ingredient(_G464, _G536, _G537) ? creep

ingredient(stew, beef, 400) ? creep
meat(beef) ? creep
meat(beef) ? creep
containsMeat(stew) ? creep

ingredient(_G464, _G536, _G537) ? creep

ingredient(stew, potato, 600) ? creep
meat(potato) ? creep
meat(potato) ? creep
containsMeat(_G464) ? creep

zl

Figure 29.08 SWI-Prolog trace of goal containsMeat (x).

The following terminology is used when discussing a trace:

• call is the initial entry to a predicate.

• creep indicates that Prolog is moving to the next predicate.

• Exit is a successful return.

• Redo indicates that the predicate is backed into for another answer.

• Fail indicates that Prolog can find no more solutions.

29.08 Recursion

Recursion for imperative languages is covered in Chapter 25. Recursion for declarative
languages is where a rule is defined by itself, or more precisely, a rule uses itself as a sub-
goal.

Let us expand the Family knowledge base from Worked Example 29.02.

We want a rule that defines whether person A is an ancestor of person B. If A is a parent of

B,
then A is an ancestor of B. Similarly, if person A is the parent of P, who is the parent of B,
then
A is an ancestor of B. This is true for the parent of a parent of a parent of B. In general, if A is
a
parent of X and X is an ancestor of B, then A is an ancestor of B. We can write this
information
as the rules shown in Figure 29.09.

ancestor(A, B) parent(A,

ancestor(A, B) parent(A,

B)

The base case

X), ancestor(X, B).

The general case

Figure 29.09 Recursive rules

Note that recursion in declarative programming must follow the equivalent rules that
imperative programming must follow. A recursive rule must:

• have a base case

• have a general case

• reach the base case after a finite number of calls to itself.

413

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

TASK 29.04

Add the ancestor rules to the Family knowledge base and check that the following query
gives
the correct results:
ancestor (A, jack).

WORKED EXAMPLE 29.05

Creating the Factorial function in Prolog

In Chapter 25, Worked Example 25.01, we programmed the factorial function using
recursion with imperative programming. We can also program this function using
recursion in Prolog.

factorial(0, 1). / base case: 0! = 1 /

factorial(N, Result) / Result = N! /

M is N - 1, / assign N-l to Mf /

factorial(M, PartResult), / PartResult = (N-l)! /

Result is PartResult N. / Result = N (N-l)! /

414

TASK 29.05

Enter the code from Worked Example 29.05 into the Prolog editor. Save it and consult it.
Then
pose the following query:
factorials, Answer).

Do you get the correct answer?

29.09 Lists

A list is an ordered collection of terms. It is denoted by square brackets with the terms
separated by commas or in the case of the empty list, []. For example [1,2,3] or [red, green,
blue]. An element can be any type of Prolog object. Different types can be mixed within one
list. Lists are used in Prolog where arrays may be used in procedural languages.

Any non-empty list can be thought of as consisting of two parts: the head and the tail. The
head is the first item in the list; the tail is the list that remains when we take the first element
away. This means that the tail of a list is always a list.

Lists are manipulated by separating the head from the tail. The separator used is a vertical
line (a bar):|

If Prolog tries to match [h|t] to [car, lorry, boat, ship] , it will instantiate h to car and
T to [lorry, boat, ship].
The clause definition showHeadAndTaii([H|T], h, t). can be used to pose the query:
showHeadAndTail( [fred, jack, emma], Head, Tail).

Prolog responds with:

Head = fred,

Tail = [jack, emma].

Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

The clause definition myList( [1,2,3]). can be used to pose the query:
myList ([H|T]).

Prolog responds with:

H = 1,

T = [2, 3].

The clause definition emptyList (a) a = []. can be used to pose the query:
emptyList ( [1] ).

Prolog responds with:

false.

List-processing predicate: append

The built-in predicate append(A, b, c) joins list A and list Band produces list C.

append([a, b], [c, d], MyList).

produces MyList = [a, b, c, d].

append(FirstList, [c, d], [a, b, c, d]).

produces FirstList = [a, b].

List-processing predicate: member

The built-in predicate member (a, b) returns true if item A is in list B.

member(c, [a, b, c, d, e]).

produces:

true.

member (X, [a, b, c, d]).

produces:

X=a;
X=b;

X=C;

X = d.

List-processing predicates: write and read

The built-in predicate write (A) outputs A to the screen.

write ('message: '). outputs message: .

write (x). outputs the value currently instantiated with the variable X.

The built-in predicate read(A) reads a value from the keyboard into variable A.

read (Name) . waits for an atom to be input from the keyboard and instantiates the variable
Name with that value.

Note that the input must start with a lower case letter and not have spaces or be enclosed in
quotes.

ni moves the output to a new line.

We can write user-friendly programs using the read and write predicates.

415

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

416

WORKED EXAMPLE 29.06

Using the read and write predicates

Note how the interface with the user in the code below is written as a rule with the
separate steps separated by commas (representing AND).

assert/i adds the clause given as the argument to the knowledge base.

retractaii/i takes the given clause out of the knowledge base, so the next time the
program is run, the new facts will be added and used in the goal.

/ Weather knowledge base /

weather (good): -
temp (high),
humidity (dry),
sky (sunny).
weather (bad)
(humidity (wet) ;
temp (low);
sky (cloudy)).

/ interface /
go:-

write('Is the temperature high or low?'),

read(Temp), nl,

write ('Is the sky sunny or cloudy?'),

read (Sky), nl,

write ('Is the humidity dry or wet?'),

read (Humidity), nl,

assert (temp (Temp)),

assert(sky(Sky)),

assert (humidity (Humidity)),

weather(Weather),

write ('The weather is '), write (Weather),

retractall (temp ()),
retractall(sky ()),
retractall (humidity (_)).

To run the program, type go.

TASK 29.06

Test the recursively defined rule writeiist/i to output the elements of a list.
writeList( •[]).

writeList ([H|T]):-write(H), nl, writeList (T).

Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

1 A logic programming language is used to represent, as a set of facts and rules, details of
cities of the world. The set of
facts and rules are shown below in clauses labelled 1 to 17.

01 capital (vienna).

02 capital (london).

03 capital(Santiago).
04 capital (Caracas).

05 capital (tokyo).

06 cityln(vienna, austria).

07 cityIn(santiago / chile).

08 cityln(salzburg, austria).

09 cityIn(maracaibo, Venezuela).

10 continent (austria, europe).

11 continent (chile, southAmerica).

12 continent(uk, europe).

13 continent(argentina, southAmerica).

14 iVisited(vienna).

15 ivisited(tokyo).

16 capitalOf (City, Country) IF capital (City) AND cityIn(City, Country).

17 europeanCity (City)

IF city!n(City, Country) AND continent (Country, europe).

These clauses have the following meanings:

Clause

Meaning

01

Vienna is a capital.

06

Vienna is in Austria.

10

Austria is in the continent of Europe.

14

1 visited the city of Vienna.

16

City is the Capital Of Country if

city is a capital and it is in country.

17

city is a city in Europe if city is in country and

country is in Europe.

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

a Write down the extra clauses needed to express the following facts:

i London is in the UK. [1]

ii I visited the city of Strasbourg. [1]

b The clause cityIn(City, austria) would return the result: Vienna, salzburg.

Write down the result returned by the clause:

continent (Country, southAmerica). [2]

c Complete the rule to list countries that I have visited

countriesIVisited(Country) IF ... [3]

2 In a particular country, to become a qualified driver you must:

• have a licence: there is a minimum age at which a person can be issued with a licence
and it is different for cars and trucks

• pass a theory test: it is the same test for cars and trucks

• pass a driving test for a specific vehicle (car or truck).

A declarative programming language is to be used to represent the knowledge base shown

below:

01 minimumAge (car, 18).

02 minimumAge (truck, 21).

03 age (f red, 19).

04 age (jack, 22).

05 age (mike, 17).

06 age(jhon, 20).
07 age(emma, 22).

08 age(sheena, 19).

09 hasLicence (f red).

10 hasLicence (jack).

11 hasLicence (mike).

12 hasLicence (jhon).

13 hasLicence (emma).

14 hasLicence (sheena).

15 allowedToDrive(X, V)

IF hasLicence (X) AND minimumAge (V, L)

AND age(X, A)

AND A >= L.

16 passedTheoryTest(jack).

17 passedTheoryTest (emma).

18 passedTheoryTest (jhon).

19 passedTheoryTest (f red).

20 passedDrivingTest (jhon, car).

21 passedDrivingTest(fred, car).

22 passedDrivingTest(jack, car).

23 passedDrivingTest (jack, truck).

24 passedDrivingTest (sheena, car).

25 qualifiedDriver(X, V)

IF allowedToDrive(X, V)

AND passedTheoryTest(X)

AND passedDrivingTest(X, V).

Chapter 29: Declarative Programming

These clauses have the following meanings:

Clause

Meaning

01

The minimum age for a car licence is 18.

03

Fred is aged 19.

09

Fred has a licence.

15

Person x is able to drive vehicle v if person x has a licence and the age a of
person x is greater than or equal to the minimum age l to drive vehicle v.

a i give one example of a fact in this knowledge base. [1]

ii Give one example of a rule in this knowledge base. [1]

b Show the output produced from these clauses:

i passedDrivingTest (Who, truck). [1]

ii allowedToDrive(mike, car). [1]

iii NOT(hasLicence(sheena)). [1]

c Write a clause to output:

i all qualified car drivers [2]

ii all drivers who have passed the theory test but not a driving test. [3]

d To produce the output from a clause, the inference engine uses a process called
backtracking.

Consider the clause:

AllowedToDrive(mike, car).

List the order in which clauses are used to produce the output. For each clause, describe the
result that it returns. [5]
419

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

■ show understanding of the possible role of program

generators and program libraries in the development
process

■ show awareness of why errors occur

■ show understanding of how testing can expose possible

errors

■ appreciate the significance of testing throughout software

development

■ show understanding of the methods of testing available:

dry run, walkthrough, white-box, black-box, integration,
alpha, beta, acceptance

■ show understanding of the need for a test strategy and

test plan and their likely contents

■ choose appropriate test data (normal, abnormal and

extreme/boundary) for a test plan

■ show understanding that large developments will involve

teams

■ show understanding of the need for project management

■ show understanding of project planning techniques

including the use of Gantt and Program Evaluation and
Review Technique (PERT) charts

■ describe the information that Gantt and PERT charts

provide

■ construct and edit Gantt and PERT charts.

♦
Chapter 30: Software development

30.01 Program generators and program libraries

The first computers had to be programmed using machine code. This is a very tedious
method for writing programs. Assemblers were invented to generate a computer program
in machine code from assembly code instructions. Later interpreters and compilers were
invented to generate low-level code from high-level programs written by people. So you can
see that program generators have been around for a very long time.

Development is ongoing to invent program generators that will take ever more abstract
models and translate them into executable code. An integrated development environment
(IDE) fora modern high-level language provides facilities for software development, such as
a
source code editor with intelligent code completion, build automation and a debugger. Some
IDEs have more advanced forms of code generation. For example, programmers can design
GUIs interactively or generate code from a wizard or template. Computer-aided software
engineering (CASE) tools are also used to generate code.

In Chapter 13 (Section 13.08) we covered built-in functions. These are part of a program
library.

KEY TERMS

Program generator: a computer program that can be used to create other computer
programs
Program library: a collection of pre-compiled routines or modules that a program can use

30.02 Why errors occur and how to find them

Software may not perform as expected for a number of reasons:

• The programmer has made a coding mistake.

• The requirement specification was not drawn up correctly.

• The software designer has made a design error.

• The user interface is poorly designed and the user makes mistakes.

• Computer hardware experiences failure.

How are errors found? The end user may report an error. This is not good for the reputation
of the software developer. Testing software before it is released for general use is essential.
Research has shown that the earlier an error can be found, the cheaper it is to fix it. It is very
important that software is tested throughout its development.
The purpose of testing is to discover errors. Edsger Dijkstra, a famous Dutch computer
scientist, said ‘Program testing can be used to show the presence of bugs, but never to
show
their absence!’.

30.03 Testing methods

We covered logic errors and run-time errors in Chapter 15. In Section 15.03 we discussed
black-box and white-box testing. In Section 15.04 we used debugging facilities in an IDE. In
Section 15.05 we worked through program code by dry-running it and recording the steps in
a trace table. Dry-running program code is also sometimes referred to as a ‘walkthrough’.

These testing methods are used early on in software development, for example when
individual modules are written. Sometimes programmers themselves use these testing

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

methods. In larger software development organisations, separate software testers will be

employed.

422

Discussion Point:

Do you think that a program tester will find errors the programmer did not know about? You
can try out the idea by letting your friends test a program that you think works perfectly.

Software often consists of many modules, sometimes written by different programmers.

Each individual module may have passed all the tests, but when modules are joined
together
into one program, it is vital that the whole program is tested. This is known as integration
testing. Integration testing is usually done incrementally. This means that a module at a time
is added and further testing is carried out before the next module is added.

Software will be tested in-house by software testers before being released to customers.
This
type of testing is called alpha testing.

Bespoke software (written for a specific customer) will then be released to the customer.

The customer will check that it meets their requirements and works as expected. This
stage is referred to as acceptance testing. It is generally part of the hand-over process. On
successful acceptance testing, the customer will sign off the software.

When software is not bespoke but produced for general sale, there is no specific customer
to perform acceptance testing and sign off the software. So, after alpha testing, a version is
released to a limited audience of potential users, known as ‘beta testers’. These beta testers
will use the software and test it in their own environments. This early release version is
called
a beta version and the chosen users perform beta testing. During beta testing, the users will
feed back to the software house any problems they have found, so that the software house
can correct any reported faults.

KEYTERMS

Integration testing: individually tested modules are joined into one program and tested to
ensure the
modules interact correctly

Alpha testing: testing of software in-house by dedicated testers

Acceptance testing: testing of software by customers before sign-off

Beta testing: testing of software by a limited number of chosen users before general release

30.04 Test plans and test data

During the design stage of a software project, a suitable testing strategy must be worked
out to ensure rigorous testing of the software from the very beginning. Consideration should
be given to which testing methods are appropriate for the project in question. A carefully
designed test plan has to be produced.

It is important to recognise that large programs cannot be exhaustively tested but it is

important that systematic testing finds as many errors as possible. We therefore need a test
plan. In the first instance, an outline plan is designed, for example:

• flow of control: does the user get appropriate choices and does the chosen option go to
the correct module?

• validation of input: has all data been entered into the system correctly?

Chapter 30: Software development

• do loops and decisions perform correctly?

• is data saved into the correct files?

• does the system produce the correct results?

This outline test plan needs to be made into a detailed test plan.

How can we carry out these tests? We need to select data that will allow us to see whether
it is handled correctly. This type of data is called ‘test data’. It differs from real, live data
because it is specifically chosen with a view of testing different possibilities. We distinguish
between different types of test data, listed in Table 30.01.
Type of test data

Explanation

Normal (valid)

Typical data values that are valid

Abnormal (erroneous)

Data values that the system should not accept

Boundary (extreme)

Data values that are at a boundary or an extreme end of the range of normal data; test
data should include values just within the boundary (that is, valid data) and just outside
the boundary (that is, invalid data)"

Table 30.01 Types of test data

WORKED EXAMPLE 30.01

Designing test data

Look at the Pyramid Problem (code shown in Section 14.07). This is a simple program,
but we can use it to illustrate how to choose test data. There are just two user inputs: the
number of symbols that make up the base and the symbol that is to be used to construct
the pyramid. Let’s consider just the test data for the number of symbols (Table 30.02).

Type of test
data

Example
test values

Explanation

Normal

(valid)

7 is an odd integer, so should be accepted.

Any odd positive integer would be suitable as test data. However, it should be bigger
than 1 to check that the pyramid is correctly formed. More than one different value to
test would be a good idea.

Abnormal
(erroneous)

Any number that is not a positive odd integer. This will require several tests to ensure
that the following types of data are not accepted:

-7

• negative integer

• even integer

7.5

• real number

i*i

• non-numeric input

You should not take shortcuts and choose one negative even integer or one negative
real number and think you can test two things at the same time. You will not know
whether the test fails for just one reason or both.

423

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Boundary

What is a boundary value? The smallest possible pyramid is a single symbol. So the

(extreme)

value 1 is just within the boundary.

Sometimes choosing test data throws up some interesting questions that need to be
considered when designing the solution:

• Should 0 be accepted? Is 0 an even number?

Is it outside the boundary because a pyramid of 0

symbols is not really a pyramid?

• Is there just one boundary? Should the program

reject numbers that are too large?
79

The output would not look like a pyramid if there is a wrap-around. So the program

81

really should check how many symbols fit onto one line and notallow the user to input
a number greater than this. If the number of characters across the screen is 80, then 79
would be just within the boundary but 81 would be outside the boundary, and should
not be accepted.

Note that by testing with values within the boundary you are also testing normal data,
albeit at the extreme ends of the normal range.

Table 30.02 Test data for the pyramid problem

424

Look at the programs you wrote in Chapter 14 (Task 14.04).

1 Design test data for the number-guessing game.

2 Design test data for the Connect 4 game.

30.05 How to prevent errors

The best way to write a program that works correctly is to prevent errors in the first place.
How can we minimise the errors in a program? A major cause of errors is poor requirements
analysis. When designing a solution it is very important that we understand the problem and
what the user of the system wants or needs. We should use:

• tried and tested design techniques such as structured programming or object-oriented

design

• conventions such as identifier tables, data structures and standard algorithms

• tried and tested modules or objects from program libraries.

30.06 Project management

If you embark on writing a large program, you may wish to map out stages and a schedule
when you should achieve certain milestones. This is especially important if you are working
to a deadline.

Commercial software consists of very large programs that require many people to work on
them. Usually there are programmers to write code designed by senior program designers.
There will be software testers and document writers. If new hardware is required, there will
be engineers and installers. To manage people and resources and schedule activities, a
project manager is usually appointed.
r

Chapter 30: Software development

Discussion Point:

Explore the job titles of people involved in producing computer software.

The first task of a project management team is to breakdown the project into individual
activities that need to be completed to produce the final product. These activities will take a
certain amount of time and will need to be done in a certain order. Some activities can only
start
when other activities have been completed. This is where scheduling becomes very
important.

Project managers can use various methods to help them. They can make use of the
Program
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) to establish the critical path. Then they can use a
Gantt chart to schedule activities.

PERT charts

PERT was developed for the US Navy to simplify the planning and scheduling of a large and
complex project. It is a method to analyse the activities required to complete a project,
especially the time required to complete each activity. It also helps to identify the minimum
time needed to complete the project (critical path analysis).

An activity may result in a document, a report or some other building block of the project.
Such a building block is called a deliverable.

A milestone is a scheduled event signifying the completion or submission of a deliverable.

KEY TERMS

Deliverable: the result of an activity, such as a document or a report

Milestone: a scheduled event signifying the completion or submission of a deliverable

WORKED EXAMPLE 30.02

Reading a PERT chart

A software developer is to produce software for a customer. The activities, deliverables and
milestones in Table 30.03 have been identified.

Activity

Description
Weeks to complete

Deliverables

Milestone

Start

Identify requirements

Requirement specification

Produce design

Program design

Write program code

Complete program code

Test modules

Tested program modules

E
Integration testing

Tested integrated software

Install software

Software ready to use

Acceptance testing

Software signed off

Write documentation

Technical documentation

Write training material

User documentation

Train users
3

Users trained

10

Go live

Finish

11

Table 30.03 Breakdown of project into activities, deliverables and milestones

425

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

426

The project manager produces the PERT chart shown in Figure 30.01 for this project.

Figure 30.01 PERT chart

Figure 30.01 demonstrates the following features:

• Milestones are shown as numbered nodes.

• Activities are represented by arrows linking the milestones. The arrows are labelled with
the activity code below the arrow and the duration above the arrow.

• Nodes 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,10 and 11 are joined by solid arrows. These activities must be
completed in sequence; they are called ‘dependent activities’.

• Activities that must be completed in sequence but that don’t require resources or
completion time are represented by dotted lines and are called ‘dummy activities’. The
dotted line between milestones 3 and 4 indicates that the program modules must be
tested before software installation can begin, but the time required to do the testing is
on another path (path D).

Critical path

The critical path is the longest possible continuous pathway from Start to Finish. It
determines the shortest time required to complete the project. Any time delays along the
critical path will delay the final milestone.
KEY TERMS

Critical path: the longest possible continuous pathway from Start to Finish

In Worked Example 30.02, the critical path is A, B, C, E, F, G, K, L. This means the shortest
possible time to complete the project is 20 weeks.

Question 30.01

What would be the effect of Activity H taking six weeks instead of the original four weeks?
Explain.

Gantt charts

A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart developed by Henry Gantt. It is a graphical

representation of a project schedule and helps to plan specific activities in a project.

Gantt charts can be produced on paper, in spreadsheet software or in specific project

management software.

Chapter 30: Software development

WORKED EXAMPLE 30.03

Reading a Gantt chart

Following on from Worked Example 30.02, the Gantt chart for the project is shown in
Figure 30.02.

Activity

Identify requirements 1

Produce design

Write program code

Test modules

Integration testing

Install software

Acceptance testing

Write documentation

Write training material

Train users
Go live

<N

Week Number

t-H

CM

CO

LD

LD

Is-

00

CD

rH

t-H

rH

CM

rH

CO

rH

1—1

LO

rH

CD

1—1

Is-
1—1

CO

rH

CD

i-H

Figure 30.2 Gantt chart

Figure 30.02 demonstrates the following features:

• The horizontal axis represents time. In this example the schedule is worked out in
weekly steps. This could be done on a daily or monthly basis, depending on the overall
length of the project.

• Individual activities are shown as horizontal bars, one activity per row.

• Activities can overlap. In this example, module testing can begin before all the program
code has been written. The documentation can be started before all the testing has
been completed.

• Some activities can only begin when others have been completed. In this example,
integration testing can only start after all modules have been successfully tested.
Software can only be installed after integration testing has been successfully completed.

If any activities take longer than planned, the chart may need to be modified to represent the
revised schedule. For example, if serious problems are encountered during acceptance
testing,
further design, program coding, module testing and integration testing may be required.

Question 30.02

Redraw the Gantt chart from Figure 30.02 to show the position if the acceptance testing
failed and an extra week of design, two extra weeks of coding, one week of module testing
and a further week of integration testing are required before the software can be re-installed.

427

Cambridge International AS and A level Computer Science

Exam-style Questions

428

1 A procedure to output a row in a tally chart has been written using pseudocode:

PROCEDURE OutputTallyRow(NumberToDraw : INTEGER)

IF Count > 0
THEN

FOR Count <- 1 TO NumberToDraw

IF (Count MOD 5) = 0
THEN

OUTPUT('') // every 5th bar slants the other way

ELSE

OUTPUT (■/')

ENDIF

ENDFOR

ENDIF

OUTPUT NewLine // move to next row

ENDPROCEDURE

Design suitable test data that will test the procedure adequately. Justify your choices in each
case.

[9]

Chapter 30: Software development

2 A business approaches a software house for a bespoke system. The systems analyst for
this
project has drawn up the following outline activities:

Activity

Description

Weeks to complete

dependent on activity

Identify requirements

Produce program design

5

Produce hardware requirements

Programming

10

Order hardware

Module testing

Technical documentation

Install hardware

E
P

Convert data files

Integration testing

Alpha testing

Acceptance testing

User documentation

Train users

Go live
1

K, L, P

a i Complete the PERT chart, showing all activities and durations. [8]

ii Use the PERT chart to work out the critical path. [3]

b i Draw a Gantt chart from the information in the above table. [8]

ii Using the information from the Gantt chart, calculate the time required for the project from
start
to completion.

[3]

Glossary

430

Glossary

Abstract class: a base class that is never used to create

objects directly

Abstract data type: a collection of data with associated

operations

Acceptance testing: testing of software by customers

before sign-off

Accumulator: a general-purpose register that stores a

value before and after the execution of an instruction by the
ALU

Actuator: a hardware device that receives a signal from a

computer and adjusts the setting of a controlling device

Adaptive maintenance: amending a program to enhance

functionality or in response to specification changes

Address bus: a component that carries an address to the

memory controller to identify a location in memory which
is to be read from or written to

Algorithm: a sequence of steps that can be carried out to

perform a task
Alpha testing: testing of software in-house by dedicated
testers

Attribute: a column in a relation that contains values

Attributes: the data items of a class

Authentication: verification of a user’s identity

Authorisation: definition of a user’s access rights to

system components

Base case: an explicit solution to a recursive function

Beta testing: testing of software by a limited number of

chosen users before general release

Binary file: a file designed for storing data to be used by a

computer program

Binary search: repeated checking of the middle item in an

ordered search list and discardingthe half of the list which
does not contain the search item

Black-box testing: comparing expected results with

actual results when a program is run

Bubble sort: a sort method where adjacent pairs of values

are compared and swapped

By reference: the address of the variable is passed into the

procedure

By value: the actual value is passed into the procedure

Byte: a group of eight bits treated as a single unit

Capacitive touch screen: a rigid surface above a

conductive layer which undergoes a change in electrical
state when a finger touches the screen

Ciphertext: the result of applying an encryption algorithm

to data

Combinational circuit: a circuit in which the output is

dependent only on the input values

Constructor: a special type of method that is called to

create a new object and initialise its properties
Containment: a relationship in which one class has a
component that is of another class type

Copyright: a formal recognition of ownership of a created

and published work

Corrective maintenance: correcting identified errors

Critical path: the longest possible continuous pathway

from Start to Finish

Data bus: a component that carries data to and from the

processor

Data integrity: a requirement for data to be accurate and

up to date

Data management system (DBMS): software that

controls access to data in a database

Data privacy: a requirement for data to be available only

to authorised users

Data protection law: a law that relates to data privacy

Data redundancy: the same data stored more than once

Data security: a requirement for data to be recoverable if

lost or corrupted

Database administrator (DBA): a person who uses

the DBMS to customise the database to suit user and
programmer requirements

Debugging: finding and correcting errors in a program

Glossary

Deliverable: the result of an activity, such as a document

ora report

Directive: an instruction to the assembler program

Domain name system (DNS): a hierarchical distributed

database installed on domain name servers that is
responsible for mapping a domain name to an IP address

Dry-run: the process of checking the execution of an

algorithm or program by recording variable values in a
trace table

Enumerated data type: a list of possible data values

Finite state machine (FSM): a machine that consists of a

fixed set of possible states with a set of inputs that change
the state and a set of possible outputs

Floating-point representation: a representation of real

numbers that stores a value for the mantissa and a value
for the exponent

Flowchart: shapes linked together to represent the

sequential steps of an algorithm

Foreign key: an attribute in one table that refers to the

primary key in another table

Freeware: software free with unlimited use allowed but no

source code provided

Function: a sequence of steps that is given an identifier

and returns a single value; function call is part of an
expression

Gateway: a device that connects networks of different

underlying technologies

General case: a definition of a recursive function in terms

of itself

Gibi: a prefix representing the factor 230 written as the

symbol Gi

Global variable: a variable that is accessible from all

modules

Identifier table: a table listing the variable identifiers

required for the solution, with explanations

Inheritance: all properties and methods of the base class

are copied to the subclass

Integration testing: individually tested modules are

joined into one program and tested to ensure the modules
interact correctly
IPv4 address: a 32-bit long, hierarchical address of a
device on the Internet

Kibi: a prefix representing the factor 210 (1024) written as

the symbol Ki

Linear search: checking each element of an array in turn

fora required value

Liquid-crystal display (LCD): a screen back-lit by light-

emitting diodes and with liquid crystal cells sandwiched
between polarisers

Local variable: a variable that is only accessible within the

module in which it is declared

Logic error: an error in the logic of the solution that causes

it not to behave as intended

Logic expression: logic propositions combined using

Boolean operators, which may be written with a defined
outcome

Logic gate: a component of a logic circuit that has an

operation matching that of a Boolean operator

Logic proposition: a statement that is either TRUE or

FALSE

Lossless compression: coding techniques that allow

subsequent decoding to recreate exactly the original file

Lossy compression: coding techniques that cause some

information to be lost so that the exact original file cannot
be recovered in subsequent decoding

Machine code instruction: a binary code with a defined

number of bits that comprises an opcode and, most often,
one operand

Mebi: a prefix representing the factor 220 (1048 576) written

as the symbol Mi

Methods: the subroutines of a class

Milestone: a scheduled event signifying the completion or

submission of a deliverable
Nested IF statements: conditional statements within
conditional statements

Nested loop: loop containing another loop

Node: an element of a list

Null pointer: a pointerthat does not point at anything

Object: an instance of a class

One’s complement: the binary number obtained by

subtracting each digit in a binary numberfrom 1

Open source software: software free with unlimited use

allowed and access to source code

431

Glossary

Operating system: a software platform that provides

facilities for programs to be run which are of benefit to a
user

432

Parameter: a value passed between modules

Picture element (pixel): the smallest identifiable

component of a bitmap image, defined by just two
properties: its position in the bitmap matrix and its colour

Pipelining: instruction-level parallelism

Plaintext: data before encryption

Pointer: a variable that stores the address of the node it

points to

Polymorphism: the method behaves differently for

different classes in the hierarchy

Primary key: an attribute or a combination of attributes

for which there is a value in each tuple and that value is
unique

Problem statement: an informal definition of an

outcome which is dependent on one logic proposition or a
combination of two or more logic propositions

Procedure: a sequence of steps that is given an identifier

and can be called to perform a sub-task

Process control block (PCB): a complex data structure

containing all data relevant to the running of a process

Process: a program in memory that has an associated

process control block

Process: a program that has begun execution

Protocol: a set of rules for data transmission which are

agreed by sender and receiver

Relation: the special type of table which is used in a

relational database

Repeating group: a set of attributes that have more than

one set of values when the other attributes each have a
single value

Resistive touch screen: a flexible surface which causes

contact between electrically resistive layers beneath when
touched

Rogue value: a value used to terminate a sequence of

values

Router: a device that acts as a node on the Internet

Rules of precedence: define the order of the calculations

to be performed

Run-time error: an error that causes program execution

to crash or freeze

Sensor: a hardware device that measures a property and

transmits a value to a controlling computer

Sequential circuit: a circuit in which the output depends

on the input values and the previous output

Server: a device that provides services via a network

Shareware: software free for use for a limited period but

no source code provided
Start pointer: a variable that stores the address of the first
element of a linked list

State-transition diagram: a diagram that describes the

behaviourof an FSM

State-transition table: a table that gives information

about the states of an FSM

Pseudocode: a way of using keywords and identifiers to

describe an algorithm without following the syntax of a
particular programming language

Random-access memory (RAM): volatile memory that

can be read from or written to any number of times

Read-only memory (ROM): non-volatile memory that

cannot be written to but can be read from any number of
times

Record data type: a data type that contains a fixed

number of components, which can be of different types

Record: a collection of fields containing data values

Recursive routine: a function or procedure defined in

terms of itself

Stepwise refinement: breaking down the steps of an

outline solution into smaller and smaller steps

Structure chart: a graphical representation of the

modular structure of a solution

Structured English: a subset of the English language

that consists of command statements used to describe an
algorithm

Symbol table: a data structure in which each record

contains the name and attributes of an identifier

Syntax error: an error in which a program statement does

not follow the rules of the language

Test data: carefully chosen values that will test a program

Thread: part of a process being executed

Glossary
l

Trace table: a table with a column for each variable that

records their changing values

Two’s complement: the one’s complement of a binary

number plus 1

Validation: a check that data entered is of the correct type

and format; it does not guarantee that data is accurate

Verification: confirmation of data received by a system

Virtual memory: a paging mechanism that allows a

program to use more memory addresses than are available
in main memory

White-box testing: testing every path through the

program code

Variable: a storage location for a data value that has an Word: a small number of bytes
handled as a unit by the
r identifier computer system

r Vector graphic: a graphic consisting of components

defined by geometric formulae and associated properties,

such as line colour and style

433

Index

Index

absolute addressing, 400

abstract classes, 378

abstract data types (ADTs), 322-334

abstraction, 318

acceptance testing, 422

access restrictions, 92

accumulators, 61
ACM (Association for Computing
Machinery), 100-101
actuator heads, 39
actuators, 311
adaptive maintenance, 244

ADCs (analogue-to-digital converters),

13-14

address bus, 63
addressing modes, 71-72
ADTs (abstract data types), 322-334
aggregation (containment), 386-390
algebraic expressions, 297-300
algorithms, 126-130,319-322
design methods, 338-344
dry-running, 240-43
scheduling, 292
alpha testing, 422
ALU (arithmetic and logic unit), 60
American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) code,
9-10

amplitude, sound, 13-14

analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs),

13-14

AND operator, 50-51

API (application programming

interface), 289

appending to text files, 208-9

application-layer protocols, 263,
264-66

application programming interface

(API), 289

arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), 60

arithmetic operations, 73,182,395
arrays, 144-150,198-201

ASCII (American Standard Code for

Information Interchange) code, 9-10
assemblers, 71,84
assembly languages, 71-75

problem solving and, 397-400

assignments

algorithms, 128-29,130-33
assembly languages, 397
constants and variables, 181-82
Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM), 100-101

asymmetric key encryption, 305

atoms (Prolog), 406
attributes (object-oriented
programming), 370,372

attributes (relational databases), 113

authentication, user, 90-91
authorisation policies, 92
average calculation, 142-43,168

back-end synthesis, 297

backtracking (Prolog), 411-13
backup procedures, 92
backup software, 83
Backus-Naur Form (BNF), 296
bandwidth, 25

base-10 number system, 3-4

base-16 number system, 3
base case solutions, 348
base classes (superclasses), 379-383
basic input output system (BIOS), 288

BCD (binary coded decimal)

representation, 7-8

beta testing, 422

binary coded decimal (BCD)

representation, 7-8
binary digits (bits), 3,5
binary files, 249
binary number system, 3-4
binary search, 320-21
binary trees, 329-331
biometric authentication, 91
bit manipulation, 313-14,396
bit streaming, 24-25
bitmap files, 11-13
bits (binary digits), 3,5
BitTorrent protocol, 267
black-box testing, 235-36
Blu-ray discs, 40
Bluetooth, 267

BNF (Backus-Naur Form), 296

Boolean algebra, 271-72,275-79
Boolean operators, 50-51,187-88
bootstrap programs, 288
bots, 307

broadband network connections, 22

broadcasts, 260

bubble sort, 147,149,242,319

buffer overflow, 308

buffers, 25

built-in data types, 186-87

built-in functions, 202-6
bus networks, 259
buses, 63-65
by reference, 220,221-22
by value, 220-21
bytes, 5

cables, 19,20-21

CAD (computer-aided design), 47

calls, procedure, 159

434

Index

CAM (computer-aided manufacture), 47

capacitive touch screens, 44
carry flag, 62
CAs (Certification Authorities), 306
CASE statements, 192-93
CCDs (charge-coupled devices), 46
CD-ROMs, 40

cell (mobile) phones, 22,268

cellular networks, 268

central processing unit (CPU), 60-62,

288-89

Certification Authorities (CAs), 306

charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 46
check bits, 94
checksum verification, 94
CIDR (classless inter-domain routing), 27
ciphertext, 304

CIR (current instruction register), 61-62

circuit switching, 260-61
circular queues, 323
CISC processors, 283-85
classes, 369,370-76
classless inter-domain routing (CIDR), 27
clauses (Prolog), 406
client-server architecture, 23-24
scripting and HTML, 31-33
clock (CPU component), 60,64

closed-loop feedback control

systems, 312

cluster computing, 285

coaxial cables, 19
coding

integers, 5-8
text, 9-10
coding stage, 229
collapsed code blocks, 233-34
collisions, 332

colour representation, 11-12

combinational circuits, 274
comments (in programs), 185
compact discs, 40
comparison instructions, 73-74,395
compilers, 85-86,294-300,365-66
composite data types, 248-49
compression, file, 15-16,83
computational thinking, 318-19
computer-aided design (CAD), 47
computer-aided manufacture (CAM), 47
computer graphics, 41-42
Connect 4 game, 160-67,170
constants, 181-82
constructors, 370

containment (aggregation), 386-390

context-sensitive prompts, 232-33

control bus, 64

control systems, 311-14

control units, 283

copying values, 131

copyright, 104-5

corrective maintenance, 243

corruption, data, 93-94

cost overrun, 103

count-controlled loops, 194-96

CPU (central processing unit), 60-62,

288-89

critical paths, 426

CRTs (cathode ray tubes), 43

CSMA/CD, 266

currency values, 8,187

current instruction register (CIR), 61-62

data bus, 63-64

data communication systems, 259-260
data definition languages (DDLs), 120
data dependency, 111
data dictionaries, 122
data integrity, 89,110-11

data manipulation languages (DMLs),

121

data modelling, 318

data movement instructions, 72-73,395

data privacy, 89,110-11

data protection laws, 89

data redundancy, 111
data security, 89,92-93
data types

built in, 186-87

user defined, 247-49
data validation and verification, 93-94
database administrators (DBAs), 112

database management systems

(DBMS), 112

databases, 111-122
dates, 187,205-6

DBAs (database administrators), 112

DBMS (database management
systems), 112

DDLs (data definition languages), 120

debugging, 237-38
in Prolog, 412-13
decimal number system, 3-4
decision tables, 338-39

declaration, constants and variables,

180-82

declarative programming languages,

357,406
decomposition, 318
defragmenter utility programs, 82
deliverables, 425

denary number system, 3-4,254-55

derived classes (subclasses), 376,
379-383

design stage, 229

device drivers, 39
device management, 80
dictionaries, 334
digital certificates, 305-6
digital rights management (DRM), 105
digital signatures, 305-6
direct-access files, 250
directives, 71

disaster recovery contingency

planning, 90

435

Index

disk drives, magnetic see hard disk

drives

DLLs (dynamic link libraries), 84

DMLs (data manipulation languages),
121

DNS (domain name system), 30-31

domain name system (DNS), 30-31
DRAM (dynamic RAM), 38
drives (storage devices), 39-41
dry-running, 240-43
duplex mode, 260
DVDs, 40

dynamic link libraries (DLLs), 84

dynamic RAM (DRAM), 38
dynamic syntax checks, 233

electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM),

38
email protocols, 265
encapsulation, 369
encryption, 304-5
end-of-file (EoF) markers, 209-10
entity-relationship modelling, 114-18
enumerated data types, 247
EoF (end-of-file) markers, 209-10
erasable PROM (EPROM), 38
errors

detection, 81,421
prevention, 424
Ethernet protocol, 266-67
ethics, 100-107
exception handling, 364-65
executable code, 84
execution stage, 230
expanded code blocks, 233-34
exponent, 251-53
expressions, algebraic, 297-300
exrad (exponent), 251-53

factorial functions, 348

facts (Prolog), 407-8

FCFS (first come first served), 292

feedback control, 311-12

fetch-decode-execute cycle, 65-66,284
fibre-optic cables, 19,21
fields, 113

FIFO (first-in first-out), 292

file access, 250-51
file management, 81
file organisation, 249-251
file processing, 359-364
file size

bitmaps, 12-13
compression, 15-16,83
sound,14

File Transfer Protocol (FTP), 265-66

finite state machines (FSMs), 341
firewalls, 91

first come first served (FCFS), 292

first-in first-out (FIFO), 292
fixed-point representation, 251-52
flags, 62

'flash' memory, 41
flip-flop circuits, 274-75
floating-point representation, 251-52,
254-56

flowcharts, 128
for loops, 139,194-96
foreign keys, 114
formatting utility programs, 82
fragmentation, disk, 40
freeware, 106
frequency, sound, 13-14
front-end analysis, 294-96
FSMs (finite state machines), 341
FTP (File Transfer Protocol), 265-66
full adder circuits, 274
functions, 162-63,167,215-18
passing parameters to, 218-19

Gantt charts, 426-27

garbage collection, 386
gateways, 23

general case solutions, 348

436

geostationary-Earth-orbit (GEO)
satellites, 22
getters, 370
gibi prefix, 13

global variables, 167,216-17

goals (Prolog), 406

grammar rules, 296

graphical user interfaces (GUIs), 42

graphics plotters, 47

guided media, 20

GUIs (graphical user interfaces), 42

half adder circuits, 273,276-77

half duplex mode, 260
halftoning, 42
Handshake Protocol, 307
hard diskdrives
mirroring, 92
technology, 39-40
utility programs, 82
hash tables, 332-33
hexadecimal number system, 3,4
'hot sites,' 90

HTML (HyperText Markup Language),

31-32

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol),

264-65
HTTPS, 307
hubs, 262

Huffman coding, 15
HyperText Markup Language (HTML),
31-32

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP),

264-65

IDE (integrated development

environment), 230-34
identifier tables, 133
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers), 100-101

IEEE 802.3 standard, 266-67

IF.THEN statements, 188

Index

IF.THEN.ELSE statements, 129,134-36,

189-190
images, 10-13

IMAP (Internet Message Access

Protocol), 265

imperative programming languages,

357,406

INCREMENT statements, 129

index register (IX), 61-62
index tables, 122
indirect addressing, 400
infix expressions, 297-300
infrared transmission, 20
inheritance, 376-384
inkjet printers, 45-46
input/output (I/O) system, 288-89
input statements

algorithms, 128-29,132-33

assembly languages, 74-75,396,

399

high-level languages, 184-85

insertion sort, 319-320
instantiation, 370,375,383
in Prolog, 411-13

Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers (IEEE), 100-101,266-67
instruction sets, 395-96
integers, coding, 5-8

integrated development environment

(IDE), 230-34

integration testing, 422

interlaced encoding, 15
intermediate codes, 296
Internet

ethical issues, 105

technology, 21-22

Internet Message Access Protocol

(IMAP), 265
Internet Protocol (IP), 264
Internet Service Providers (ISPs), 21
interpreters, 85-86,365-66
interrupt handling, 66-67,284

interrupt service routine (ISR)

programs, 67
interrupts, 291

intrusion detection systems, 91

IP (Internet Protocol), 264

IPv4 addressing, 26-29

IPv6 addressing, 30

ISPs (Internet Service Providers), 21

ISR (interrupt service routine)

programs, 67

iteration see loops

IX (index register), 61-62

Jackson structured programming

(JSP), 340-41
Java, 86
JavaScript, 32
JK flip-flop circuits, 275
JSP (Jackson structured
programming), 340-41

jump instructions, 73-74,395

Karnaugh maps (K-maps), 277-79

kernel mode, 289-290
keyboards, 44-45
keyloggers, 308
keypads, 44-45
kibi prefix, 13

knowledge bases, 406,409,410,411

labels, 397

language translators, 84-86,229,

294-300
LANs (local area networks), 21,266-67
laser printers, 46
latch circuits, 274-75
LCDs (liquid-crystal displays), 43
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 43
LEO (low-Earth-orbit) satellites, 22
lexical analysis, 295
library programs, 83-84
licensing, software, 106

light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 43

linear search, 146

linked lists, 323-28

liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), 43

lists (Prolog), 414-16

local area networks (LANs), 21,266-67

local variables, 167,216-17

logic bombs, 307

logic circuits, 52-56,272-75,276-77

logic errors, 234

logic expressions, 51,53-56

logic gates, 52-53,56

logic programming languages, 406

logic propositions, 50

logic statements, 134-38

loops

algorithms, 128-29,138-144
assembly languages, 398
high-level languages, 194-98
lossless compression, 15
lossy compression, 15
loudspeakers, 47-48
low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites, 22
low-level programming languages,

357, 395-401

MAC addresses, 266-67

machine code instructions, 70

magnetic storage media see hard disk

drives

maintenance, 243-44
malware, 307-8
mantissa, 251-54

MAR (memory address register), 61

massively parallel computers, 285
MBR (memory buffer register), 61-62
MDR (memory data register), 61-62
mebi prefix, 13
media streaming, 24-25
medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites, 22
memory, 37-38,288-89
memory address register (MAR), 61

437

Index

438

memory buffer register (MBR), 61-62

memory data register (MDR), 61-62
memory leakage, 386
memory management, 80,292-93
MEO (medium-Earth-orbit) satellites, 22
mesh networks, 259
methods, 370,372,375,383-84
mice, 42-43
microphones, 47
microwave transmission, 20
middleware, 23-24
milestones, 425

MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple

Data stream), 285
mirroring, disk, 92

MISD (Multiple Instruction Single Data

stream), 285

mobile (cell) phones, 22,268

modules, 159-167
monitoring systems, 311-14
multicasts, 260
multi-functional devices, 46
multimedia

files, 15-16,25
streaming, 24-25
multi-programming, 288

NAG (Numerical Algorithms Group)

library, 83

name resolution, 30-31

NAND memory, 41

NAT (network address translation), 29

negative flag, 62

nested IF statements, 136,190-91

nested loops, 143-44,149-150
network address translation (NAT), 29
network interface cards (NICs), 261,266
network-layer protocols, 263
nibbles, 7,8

NICs (network interface cards), 261,266

nodes, 323

non-composite data types, 247-48

normalisation, 118-120,253-54
NOT operator, 50-51
null pointers, 323

number-guessing game, 135,140-42,

168,241
numbers
coding, 5-8
held as strings, 204
output statements, 204-5
random, 205
representation systems, 3-4,254-55
rounding, 203
truncating, 204

Numerical Algorithms Group (NAG)

library, 83

Nyquist's theorem, 14

object code, 84
object-oriented design, 370
object-oriented programming (OOP),
357,369-390
objects, 370-71

OLEDs (organic light-emitting diodes),

44

one-dimensional arrays, 144-49,

199-200

one's complement representation, 5

opcodes, 70

open source software, 106

operating systems
activities, 79-81
purpose, 288-290
security, 308

optical storage media, 40-41

optimisation, 297
OR operator, 50-51
organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs),
44

output statements

algorithms, 128-29,132-33

assembly languages, 74-75,396,

399

high-level languages, 183-84,

204-5

overflow flag, 62
ownership, 104-5
P2P (peer-to-peer) file sharing, 105,267
packet switching, 261
parallel processing, 285
parameters, 167,218-223
parity bits, 94
parity block checks, 94-95
Pascal/Delphi Console Mode, 179-180
passwords, 90,308
pattern recognition, 319
PCBs (process control blocks), 290-91
PCT (projective capacitive touch)
screens, 44

peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing, 105,267

PERT charts, 425-26

pharming, 308

phishing, 308

phosphors, 43

PHP, 33,122

picture elements (pixels), 11-12

pipelining, 284
piracy, 105

pixels (picture elements), 11-12

plaintext, 304
platters, disk, 39
point-to-point networks, 259
pointer data types, 247-48
pointers, 323
pointing devices, 42-43
polymorphism, 384-86
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3),
265

portable storage devices, 91

post-condition loops, 196-97
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3),
265

precision, 253-54
pre-condition loops, 197-98
predicates (Prolog), 407,410
prettyprinting, 230-32
primary keys, 114
printers, 45-47

priority-based scheduling algorithms,

292

privacy, data, 89,110-11

private properties, 370,372
privileged mode, 289-290
problem-solving stage, 229
problem statements, 50,53-54
procedures, 159,213-15

passing parameters to, 220-23

process control blocks (PCBs), 290-91
process scheduling, 290-92
processes, 80,290-91
program counter, 61
program development cycle, 229-230
program generators, 421
program-hardware interfaces, 80
program libraries, 83-84,421
programmable ROM (PROM), 38
programming languages, 177-180
programming paradigms, 357
progressive encoding, 15
project management, 424-27

projective capacitive touch (PCT)

screens, 44

Prolog, 406-16

PROM (programmable ROM), 38

protocols, data transmission, 262-66
proxy servers, 23
pseudocode, 128,170-71

PSTNs (public switched telephone

networks), 21

public good, 102-4

public methods, 370,372
public switched telephone networks
(PSTNs), 21

pyramid-drawing program, 156-160,

169-171,221-26,423-24

Python, 177-78

queries (Prolog), 406

queues, 322-23

radio transmission, 20

RAM (random-access memory), 38

random-access file processing, 362-64

random-access files, 250

random-access memory (RAM), 38

random files, 359

random number generators, 205

read heads, 39

read-only memory (ROM), 38

read-write heads, 39

reading from text files, 208

real numbers, 251-56

real-time programming, 312-13

record data types, 248

records, 113,249,357-59,369

recursion

declarative languages, 413-14

imperative languages, 348-354

recursive routines, 348
recursive subroutines, 349-353
redundancies, in decision tables, 338-39
redundancy, data, 111
reference, by, 220,221-22
register transfer notation, 66
registers, 61-62
relational databases, 113-122
relational operators, 134
relations (databases), 113
relative addressing, 400
repetition see loops
representation of numbers, 3-4,254-55
resistive touch screens, 44
resource management, 80,288-89
Reverse Polish Notation (RPN), 297-300

ring networks, 259

RISC processors, 283-85

rogue values, 139-140

ROM (read-only memory), 38

round-robin algorithms, 292

rounding numbers, 203

routers, 22-23,262,264

RPN (Reverse Polish Notation), 297-300

rules of precedence, 182

rules (Prolog), 406,410-11

run-length encoding, 15

run-time errors, 234,364-65

running totals, 142-43

satellites, 22
scanners, 46

scheduling algorithms, 292

screen displays, 43-44
sectors, disk, 39-40
Secure Socket Layer (SSL), 307
security
data, 89,92-93
databases, 122
systems, 90-92
security tokens, 91
selection

algorithms, 128-29,136-37
assembly languages, 398
high-level languages, 188-194
semantic analysis, 295-96
sensors, 311

sequences, 128-29,132-33
sequential circuits, 274-75
sequential file processing, 359-361
sequential files, 250
serial files, 249-250
servers, 23

set data types, 248-49

SET statements, 129
setters, 370
shareware, 106

Index

shunting-yard algorithm, 299

sign and magnitude representation, 5-6
significand (mantissa), 251-52
SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data
stream), 285

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),

265

simplex mode, 260

SISD (Single Instruction Single Data
stream), 285

slices, 203

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol),

265

software development, 229-244,421-27

Software Engineering Code of Ethics,
100-101
software licensing, 106
solid-state storage media, 41
sound

input and output, 47-48

representation, 13-14
speakers, 47-48
spyware, 307

SQLs (structured query languages),

120-22

SR (status register), 61-62

SR flip-flop circuits, 274-75
SRAM (static RAM), 38
SSL (Secure Socket Layer), 307
stacks, 299-300,322
star topology, 260
start pointers, 323
state-transition diagrams, 341-44
state-transition tables, 341
static RAM (SRAM), 38
status register (SR), 61-62
stepwise refinement, 156-58
streaming media, 24-25
strings, 186,202,204
structure charts, 167-171
structured English, 128
structured query languages (SQLs),
120-22

stub testing, 235

sub-netting, 27-29
subclasses (derived classes), 376,
379-383
subroutines

built-in functions, 202-6

passing parameters to, 218
recursive, 349-354
terminology, 213

superclasses (base classes), 379-383

swappingvalues, 131-32
SWI-Prolog,406

switches, 262

symbol tables, 295

symbolic addresses, 397

symmetric key encryption, 304-5

syntax analysis, 295,298

syntax diagrams, 296

syntax errors, 229-230

syntax trees, 298

system bus, 63-65

system security, 90-92

system software, 79-86,288-300

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol),

263-64

TCP/IP protocol suite, 262-66

test data, 236,422-24

test plans, 422-24

testing, software, 234-240,421-24

text, coding, 9-10

text files, 207-10,249

threads, 291

three dimensional (3D) printers, 47

three-input problems, 278-79
times, 187,205-6

TLS (Transport Layer Security), 307

tokens, security, 91
touch screens, 44
trace tables, 240-43
translators, language, 84-86,229,
294-300

transmission, data, 93-94

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
263-64

transmission media, 19-21

transport-layer protocols, 263
Transport Layer Security (TLS), 307
Trojan horses, 307
truncating numbers, 204
truth tables, 51,54-56,275-79
tuples, 113-14
twisted pair cables, 19
two-dimensional arrays, 149-150,
200-201

two's complement representations,

5-7,344

unguided media, 20
unicasts, 260
Unicode, 10

universal resource allocators (URLs), 30

universal serial bus (USB), 64-65
updatingvalues, 131
URLs (universal resource allocators), 30
USB (universal serial bus), 64-65
user authentication, 90-91
user-defined data types, 247-49
user interfaces, 289
user-system interfaces, 79
utility programs, 81-83

validation, data, 93
value, by, 220-21
values, 130-32
variables

in Prolog, 407,408-9
programming, 180-81,182
storage locations, 130-32
VB.NET (Visual Basic Console Mode),
178-79
vector graphics, 11
verification, data, 93
video, representation, 14-15

virtual machine, 293-94

virtual memory, 292-93
virus checkers, 83,91
viruses, 307

Visual Basic Console Mode (VB.NET),

178-79

von Neumann model, 60

WANs (wide area networks), 21

waves, sound, 13-14

web servers, 24
white-box testing, 236-37
wide area networks (WANs), 21
WiFi hotspots, 22
WiFi networks, 267-68
WiMAX protocol, 268
wireless networks, 267-68
wireless transmission, 20-21
words (data), 64

World Wide Web (WWW)

definition, 22
ethical issues, 105
worms, 307
write heads, 39
writing to text files, 207
WWW see World Wide Web (WWW)