Properties of

Scalars and Vectors

Scalar: A physical quantity that is completely
characterized by a real number (or by its
numerical value) is called a scalar. In other
words, a scalar possesses only a magnitude.

Mass, density, volume, temperature, time,

energy, area, speed and length are examples
to scalar quantities.
Vector: Several quantities that occur in mechanics require a
description in terms of their direction as well as the numerical value
of their magnitude. Such quantities behave as vectors. Therefore,
vectors possess both magnitude and direction; and they obey the
parallelogram law of addition. Force, moment, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, impulse and momentum are vector quantities.


V


V
V,

Types of Vectors:

Physical quantities that are vectors fall into one of the three
classifications as free, sliding or fixed.

A free vector is one whose action is not confined to or associated

with a unique line in space. For example if a body is in translational
motion, velocity of any point in the body may be taken as a vector
and this vector will describe equally well the velocity of every
point in the body. Hence, we may represent the velocity of such a
body by a free vector. In statics, couple moment is a free vector.

v
A  z
B  v
v

C  v
y
v

x
A sliding vector is one for which a unique line in space must
be maintained along which the quantity acts. When we deal
with the external action of a force on a rigid body, the force
may be applied at any point along its line of action without
changing its effect on the body as a whole and hence,
considered as a sliding vector.

 
F F   
A B
F F F
A fixed vector is one for which a unique point of
application is specified and therefore the vector occupies
a particular position in space. The action of a force on a
deformable body must be specified by a fixed vector.

elastic bar
F F

A B
Principle of Transmissibility: The external effect of a force
on a rigid body will remain unchanged if the force is moved to
act on its line of action. In other words, a force may be
applied at any point on its given line of action without altering
the resultant external effects on the rigid body on which it
acts.

push pull
Equality and Equivalence of Vectors

Two vectors are equal if they have the same

dimensions, magnitudes and directions.

Two vectors are equivalent in a certain capacity if each

produces the very same effect in this capacity.
To sum up, the equality of two vectors is determined by
the vectors themselves, but the equivalence between
two vectors is determined by the situation at hand.
 BB  BB 
F1 F1
1m 1m
 
F2 F2
A
A A
A
1m 1m
O O

F'1 = 5 N F'2 = 10 N
F1 = F2 = 10 N
   
F1 and F2 are equal but F1 and F2 are not equal but they are
equivalent since their moments about
not equivalent
the base O are equal (they create the
same twisting motion at the base)
Some Properties of
Vectors
Unit Vector

A unit vector is a free vector having a magnitude of 1 (one) as

 
   U U
n = (or e , u ) =  = . It describes direction. The most
U U
convenient way to describe a vector in a certain direction is to

multiply its magnitude with its unit vector.


  U
U = Un
U

n
1
Unit Vector
  
U
U = Un U

n
1


U and U have the same unit, hence the unit vector is

dimensionless. Therefore, U may be expressed in terms of both
its magnitude and direction separately. U (a scalar) expresses

the magnitude and n (a dimensionless vector) expresses the

directional sense of U .
Vector Components and Resultant Vector

    
Let the sum of U and V be W . Here, U and V are named as

the components and W is named as the resultant.

Sine Theorem
U V W 
= = W  
sin  sin  sin  V


Cosine Theorem

U
W 2 = U 2 + V 2 − 2UV cos 
Cartesian Coordinates

Cartesian coordinate system is composed of 90° (orthogonal)

axes. It consists of x and y axes in two dimensional (planar)
case, x, y and z axes in three dimensional (spatial) case. x – y
axes are generally taken within the plane of the paper, their
positive directions can be selected arbitrarily; the positive
direction of the z axis must be determined in accordance with
the right hand rule.

y z
y

x
x
2D 3D
Right hand rule:

z
y

z
y
x
x
x y
z
Vector Components in Two Dimensional (Planar) Cartesian Coordinates

y
   
j U = Ux +U y U = Ux +U y
2 2

 
U Uy
Uy t an =
 Ux
  x
Ux i
 
unit vector along the x axis, i , unit vector along the y axis, j

      
U x = U xi , U y =U y j U = U xi + U y j
( )
          
V = Vx i + V y j U + V = U x i + U y j + V x i + V y j = (U x + V x )i + U y + V y j
Vector Components in Three Dimensional (Spatial) Cartesian Coordinates


z unit vector along the x axis, i ,

  unit vector along the y axis, j ,
k U  
j y unit vector along the y axis, k ,
   
 
Uy U = U xi + U y j + U z k
Uz

Ux

i
x U= (U x
2
+U y +Uz
2 2
)
   
V = Vx i + Vy j + Vz k
  
U + V = (U x + Vx )i + (U y + Vy ) j + (U z + Vz )k
 
The relationship between a force and its
vector components must not be confused
with the relationship between a force
and its perpendicular (orthogonal)
projections onto the same axes.
For example, the perpendicular projections of
  
force F onto axes a and b are Fa and Fb ,
which are parallel to the vector components of
 
F1 and F2 . b

 
Fb F
 
F2  F
F1 a
A 
Fa
It is seen that the components of a vector are not
necessarily equal to the projections of the vector
onto the same axes. b
The components and

projections of F
 
are equal only when Fb F
the axes a and b are  
F2  F
perpendicular. a
F1
A 
Fa
 Position Vector

It is the vector that describes the location of one point with

respect to another point.

In Two Dimensional Case

y  
  

j
rB/A = rB/A x + rB/A y = rB/A x i + rB/A y j
yB 
rB/A
B (xB, yB)
rB/A = (rB/A x
2
+ rB/A y
2
)
(yB – yA)
yA rB/A x = xB − x A , rB/A y = y B − y A
A (xA, yA)  

xA xB  x rB/A = ( xB − x A )i + ( y B − y A ) j
(xB – xA) i
 z
 B (xB, yB , zB)
k
 y
In Three Dimensional Case rB/A 
j
A (xA, yA , zA)

x

i
      
rB/A = rB/A x + rB/A y + rB/A z = rB/A x i + rB/A y j + rB/A z k

rB/A = (rB/A x
2
+ rB/A y + rB/A z
2 2
)
rB/A x = xB − x A , rB/A y = y B − y A , r B/A z = z B − z A
   
rB/A = ( xB − x A )i + ( y B − y A ) j + (z B − z A )k
Dot (Scalar) Product

A scalar quantity is obtained from the dot product of two vectors.

   
 U V = a order of multiplication is irrelevant V U = a
V  
    U V
U V = U V cos cos =  
 UV

U
In terms of unit vectors in Cartesian Coordinates
      
i  i = i i cos 0 = 1 , j  j = 1, k  k = 1
       
i  j = i j cos 90 = 0 , j k = 0 , k i = 0
       
U = U xi + U y j + U z k V = Vx i + V y j + Vz k
 
U  V = U xVx + U yV y + U zVz
Normal and Parallel Components of a Vector with respect to a Line

 
 U // U⊥
n


U

Magnitude of parallel component U // = U cos

     
U  n = U n cos = U cos , U // = U  n

   
U // = (U  n ) n
1

Parallel component

  
Normal (Orthogonal) component U ⊥ = U − U //
Cross (Vector) Product
The multiplication of two vectors in cross product results in a vector.
This multiplication vector is normal to the plane containing the other two
vectors. Its direction is determined by the right hand rule. The order of
multiplication is important.

     
U V = W , V  U = −W
  
V      U V
U U  V = U V sin  sin  =  
 UV
     
a (U  V ) = (aU )  V = U  (aV )
      
 U  (V + Y ) = U  V + U  Y
W

V
 In terms of unit vectors in Cartesian Coordinates
      
 i  i = i i sin 0 = 0 , j  j = 0, k k = 0
U             
i  j = i j sin 90 = 1 , i  j = k , j k = i , k i = j
        
j  i = − k , k  j = −i , i k = −j
 
z
i

 y
 j
k  
k j
 x
i

( ) ( )
       
U  V = U x i + U y j + U z k  Vx i + V y j + Vz k
    
i j k i j
 
U V = U x U y U z U x U y
Vx V y Vz Vx V y
 
= i (U yVz ) + j (U zVx ) + k (U xV y ) - j (U xVz ) - i (U zV y ) - k (U yVx )
   

 
 
 

U  V = U yVz − U zV y i + U zVx − U xVz  j + U xV y − U yVx k 
or
 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
     
U  V = U xV y k - (U xVz ) j − U yVx k + U yVz i + (U zVx ) j − U zV y i
   
  
= U yVz − U zV y i + U zVx − U xVz  j + U xV y − U yVx k
   
Mixed Triple Product U  (V  W )

It is used when taking the moment of a force about a line or axis.

   
U = U xi + U y j + U z k
   
V = Vx i + V y j + Vz k
   
W = Wx i + W y j + Wz k
  
i j k
(

    
)
U  (V  W ) = U x i + U y j + U z k  Vx Vy Vz
Wx W y Wz
or
Ux Uy Uz
  
U  (V  W ) = Vx V y Vz
W x W y Wz