UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

BISHOP BARHAM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT NOTES

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

An Overview
Human resource management encompasses the traditional personnel functions of
recruitment, selection, training, motivation, compensation, evaluation, discipline, and
termination of employees. Each of those tasks demands particular skills. Increasingly,
human resource management is being recognized for its strategic importance to
organizations and jurisdictions, and is moving beyond its traditional position as a
monitor of compliance. This course is designed to provide participants of MBA with an
understanding of the importance of human resource management policies and
practices, and how crucial it is for every administrator to acquire knowledge and skill of
how to manage the only “immutable” resource - the people! The emphasis is on
improving understanding of the historical context and current conditions of
public/private sector and developing basic skills necessary to effectively manage the
human resources in both public & private sectors. Within an organization, many of the
most visible and interesting controversies, such as affirmative action, employee ethics,
sexual harassment, and labor-management relations, are part of human resource
management. Human resources also account for the largest percentage of the budget
operating budget for most organizations; administrators must have both an
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appreciation for the costs of personnel decisions and the ability to project those costs.
In addition, constitutional, statutory and regulatory requirements often constrain
personnel decisions and actions in organizations, and administrators must have a
working knowledge of these legal guidelines. Hence, as administrators you must the
political aspect of human resource management.

It’s commitments in relation to regulation and corporate governance. For example, in

order to dismiss an employee in accordance with employment law requirements,
amongst other considerations, it will normally be necessary to meet provisions within
employment contracts and collective bargaining agreements. The establishment of an
HR Policy which sets out obligations, standards of behavior and document disciplinary
procedures, is now the standard approach to meeting these obligations. HR policies can
also be very effective at supporting and building the desired organizational culture.
HR policies provide an organization with a mechanism to manage risk by staying up to
date with current trends in employment standards and legislation. The policies must be
framed in a manner that the companies vision & the human resource helping the
company to archive it or work towards it are at all levels benefited and at the same ,
time not deviated from their main objective.

The Concept of HRM Policies

Human resource policies are the formal rules and guidelines that businesses put in place
to hire, train, assess, and reward the members of their work force. These policies, when
organized and disseminated in an easily used form can go far toward eliminating any
misunderstandings between employees and employers about their rights and
obligations in the work environment. Sound human resource policy is a necessity in the
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growth of any organization or company. This should the management's concern
especially when there are increasing amounts of time being devoted to human resource
issues: time that could be devoted to other pertinent and productive issues for the
sector.

Effective, consistent, and fair human resource decisions are often made more time
consuming by a lack of written, standardized policies and procedures. When issue:
concerning employee rights and company policies come before courts of law, the
decisions generally regard company policies, whether written or verbal, as being a part
of an employment contract between the employee and the company. Hence, without
clearly written policies, the company is at a disadvantage. It is particularly important for
a business sector to implement and maintain fairly applied human resource policies in
their everyday operations.
Business sectors – and especially the upcoming decentralization – cannot afford to
fritter away valuable time and resources on drawn-out policy disputes or potentially
expensive lawsuits. The government body which takes the time to establish sound,
comprehensive human resource management policies will be far better equipped to
succeed over the long run than will those who deal with each policy decision as it
erupts; the latter ad hoc style is much more likely to produce inconsistent, uninformed,
and legally questionable decisions that will cripple - or even kill - an otherwise
prosperous sector.

In many government agencies, human resource policies that are inconsistently applied
or based on faulty or incomplete data will almost inevitably result in declines in worker
morale, deterioration in employee loyalty, and increased vulnerability to legal penalties.
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To help ensure that HRM policies are fairly applied, business sectors should produce and
maintain a written record of its HR policies and of instances in which those policies came
into play.

Subjects Covered By HR Policies

Government agencies should therefore make sure that they address the following basic
human resource issues when putting together their HR policies:
 Equal Employment Opportunity policies-(at recruitment selection, remuneration
and training)
 Workdays, paydays, and pay advances
 Overtime compensation
 Meal periods and break periods
 Payroll deductions
 Travel
 Holidays
 Sick days and personal leave (for bereavement, jury duty, voting, etc.)
 Performance evaluations and salary increases
 Performance improvement and Promotion
 Termination policies

In addition, a broad spectrum of other issues can be addressed via human resource
policies, depending on the nature of the sector. Examples of such issues include,
promotion policies; medical/dental benefits provided to employees; use of company
equipment/resources (access to Internet, personal use of fax machines and telephones,
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etc.); sexual harassment; substance abuse and/or drug testing; smoking; flextime and
telecommuting policies; pension, profit-sharing, and retirement plans; reimbursement
of employee expenses (for traveling expenses and other expenses associated with
carrying out the sector's business); child or elder care; educational assistance: grievance
procedures; employee privacy; dress codes; parking; and sponsorship of recreational
activities.

Advantages of Formal Human Resource Policies

Government agencies which have prepared and updated good HR policies have cited
several important ways in which they contribute to their success. Many observers have
pointed out that even the best policies will falter if the administrators charged with
administering those policies are careless or incompetent in doing so. But for those
sectors that are able to administer their HR policies in an intelligent and consistent
manner, benefits can accrue in several areas:
 Curbing litigation. Members of the legal and business communities agree that
organizations can do a lot to cut off legal threats from disgruntled current or ex-
employees simply by creating – and applying – a fair and comprehensive set of
personnel policies.
 Communication with employees. A good, written human resource policy manual
can be an enormously effective tool in disseminating employer expectations
regarding worker performance and behavior.
 Communication with managers and supervisors. Formal policies can be helpful
to managers and other supervisory personnel faced with hiring, promotion, and
reward decisions concerning people who work under them.
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 Time Savings. Prudent and comprehensive human resource management policies
can save companies significant amounts of management time that can then be
spent on other business activities, such as new product development,
competitive analysis, marketing campaigns, etc.

Revision of Human Resource Policies

Organizations typically have to make revisions to established HR policies on a regular
basis, as the sector grows and as the regulatory and working environments in which it
operates evolve. When confronted with the challenge of updating HR policies, however,
it is important for small businesses to proceed cautiously. For example, if an employee
asks administrators if she might telecommute from his home one day a week, the officer
may view the request as a reasonable, relatively innocuous one. But even minor
variations in personnel policy can have repercussions that extend far beyond the initially
visible parameters of the request. If the employee is granted permission to work from
home one day a week, will other employees ask for the same benefit?
Business sectors need to recognize that changes in HR policy have the potential to
impact, in one way or another, every person in the sector including the government.
Proposed changes should be examined carefully and in consultation with others within
the Management which may recognize potential pitfalls that other managers, might not
detect. Once a change in policy is made, it should be disseminated widely and effectively
so that all employees are made aware of it.

The HR Teams should be readily armed with HR Policies

Is it necessary for the Chief Executives, the HR practitioners and the Line Managers to
have the staffing policies on their finger tips? Why is it important?
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The aims of the HR policies are to:
 Recruit and retain employees of the highest quality and motivation in order to
fulfill the institution's aspiration to maintain its position;
 Ensure that employees receive the necessary opportunities and incentives to
develop relevant skills and thus realize their full potential as productive members
of an organization;
 Provide employment conditions and practices that both enable the development
of the organization and respect the rights and dignity of individuals, and
provide safe and healthy working environments;
 Encourage the development of working practices and procedures that recognize
the creativity, skill and commitment of individuals and ensure that these abilities
are employed in the test and most efficient manner to further the objectives of
the organization as laid out in its Mission Statement and Plan.

The process for the recruitment, selection and appointment of staff must therefore be
within budget and based on the principles of merit and equal opportunity. The process
must comply with legislative requirements and be equitable, transparent, accountable
and confidential with clearly defined procedures. Recruitment should be treated as a
key public relations exercise as the way it is managed affects the institution's image and
consequently its ability to attract and appoint high caliber staff. Once legislation is in
place and policies have been developed, the organizational guidelines and more specific
policies required to conform to those legislative and larger policies must be considered.
Just as national issues will vary from country to country, institutional issues will vary
nations. Recruitment and selection should include procedures directed to analyze the
need and purpose of a position, the culture of the institution, and ultimately to select
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and hire the person that best fits the position. Recruitment and selection policy should
then, be directed toward the following objectives:
 Hire the right person;
 Conduct a wide and extensive search of the potential position candidates;
 Recruit staff members who are compatible with the college or university
environment and culture;
 Hire individuals by using a model that focuses on student learning and education
of the whole person;
 Place individuals in positions with responsibilities that will enhance their personal
development.

(iii) Main Steps for Writing HR Policies

Preparing - collecting information, opinions and examining the options. Policies are
more likely to be accepted if staff are involved in drawing them up. Involve unions, staff
associations, especially if you have collective agreements that specify they should be
consulted, or existing elected employee representatives. Alternatively, set up a joint
working group.
 Developing - policies should suit the specific needs of the business.
Implementing - inform staff and provide training for employees.
 Reviewing - this is to check that the policy is being used and is not damaging the
business.
Introducing new policies
When introducing new policies, the following should be taken into account:
 What is the purpose of the policy?
 Have you consulted with the government, members of staff and stakeholders?
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 Has someone been given overall responsibility for the policy?
 How are you going to communicate the policy to all workers and to the public?
 Have you given employees enough notice about the new policy?
 Have you thought through the potential cost of the policy?
 Does the policy change anyone's employment contract?
 How are you going to monitor and maintain the policy?
The following are the HR policies to be taken into consideration:
 Recruitment Policies
 Equality Policies
 Staff Development and Training Policies
 Health and safety policies
 Performance Appraisal Policies
 Disciplinary and conduct policies - harassment, bullying and disputes
 Promotional Policies
 Pay, rewards and benefits Policies
 Termination of Employment Policy

The government therefore, in order to embrace and support the HR staff in carrying out
their HRM functions, should be equipped with what actually affects successful
implementation of HRM strategies in the various sectors. In the best of worlds
employees would love their jobs, like their coworkers, work hard for their employers get
paid well for their work, have ample chances for advancement, and flexible schedules so
they could attend to personal or family needs when necessary. And never leave. Those
are the words of Aycan, 2001. But then there's the real world. And in the real world,
employees, do leave, either because they want more money, hate the working
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conditions, dissatisfied with career development and promotional procedures,
injustices, hate their coworkers, want a change, or because their turn to leave
(voluntary or otherwise) has come. So, what does all that turnover cost? And what
employees are likely to have the highest turnover? Who is likely to stay the longest?

(iv) Steps for the Introduction of New Policies

Human beings are creatures of habit. If something has worked just fine for eons, they're
going to be balky and resistant if you suggest they do something differently. In the
workplace, the combination of confusion and stubbornness can affect productivity and
morale unless new policies and procedures are introduced in a way that makes sense
and doesn't feel threatening.

Identify the Need for Change

1. Whether your sector is undergoing such internal changes as growing, shrinking or
introducing new services, is being affected by such external factors as changes in
state or federal laws, or is the subject of a lawsuit, i.e., discrimination or
harassment, it's time to meet with the human resources department and draft new
rules to address these circumstances. Determine whether a policy or procedure
exists but is not being followed, or whether the circumstance in question has never
occurred and there is no precedent insofar as reward or disciplinary action.

Identifying the Affected Employees

2. While generic policies regarding ethics, professionalism, safety and personal
hygiene apply to all employees, there may be times when a new rule affects only a
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 handful of people. For instance, if you establish a policy that protective goggles and
helmets must be worn on the premises at all times and distribute this as a memo
to every employee, you're going to have a lot of white collar managers,
accountants and clerical workers scratching their heads and saying, "Huh?"
Conversely, if you single out a group of employees who now are required to follow
a rule, you need to be able to support that rationale with an explanation, such as
statistics, that enables them to see why the rule is exclusive to them.

Assemble a Think Tank

3. People are more amenable to change if they feel they've been instruments of that
change. If, for example, you’re thinking of initiating a new policy to accommodate
job-sharing, i.e., two people doing the same job part-time vs. one fall-time worker,
you'd want to assemble a small committee of those who favor the policy and those
who think it might cause disruptions in the continuity and the delivery of services
to the company's clientele. This committee's objective is to explore alternatives
and compromises, and determine whether job-sharing could be successful.

Establishing Clarity
4. Saying you want employees to be more productive is one thing, telling them how
you expect to measure their productivity in quantitative and qualitative terms is
another. In writing policies and procedures, spell out your expectations, i.e., “25
percent more listings each year” and define the steps to be taken to achieve that
goal, i.e., continuing education classes, and mentoring and peer reviews. Be clear in
procedural manuals what the employee will learn, how it will be learned, how long

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 it will take to learn and how employees will be evaluated to determine if they
learned everything correctly.

Creating a Draft
5. Based on the suggestions and recommendations of the committee, the first draft of
a new policy or procedure should contain six elements: (1) An explanation of why
the new policy or procedure is necessary. (2) Who is affected. (3) The date of
implementation (which is usually "effective immediately"). (4) An explanation of
how the policy or procedure works. (5) The consequences of not adhering to the
new rules. (6) Who the employee is to contact if anything in the policy isn’t clear.

Legal and Human Resources Review

6. Before a policy is finalized, have it examined by the human resources
department and an attorney. While not every way a new rule might be broken can
be anticipated, those with expertise in personnel and legal language are more likely
to catch loopholes that could later trip you up. Where potential, disciplinary issues
could arise, it's essential that your expectations of performance are reasonable and
the consequences of failing to meet those expectations are fair and equitable. In
mastering new procedures, not everyone learns at the same speed and there is
always an adjustment period as employees transition from old ways to new. In the
matter of policies involving ethical behavior, there may need to be a case-by-case
review to determine whether transgressions are an occasional lapse of judgment
or a habitual misuse of power or company resources.

Getting Everyone on the Same Page

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7. It's easy for a worker to feign ignorance and say, "Oh, I didn't know we changed
that" if you don't have any proof that he or she received the memo. Whenever you
create a policy or procedure, disseminate two copies of the document – one for
the worker to keep in a file at the workspace and the other to sign and return as
proof of receipt. The acknowledgment that an employee received the information
and will take responsibility for reading it should appear at the bottom of the
document along with the date signed. While this may seem like extra work to cover
your bases, it's that small percentage of cases where there wasn't a paper trail in
force that ends up costing companies more than they can afford to lose.

How should policies be communicated to staff?

Policies can be:
 Displayed on notice boards
 Added to the company network or intranet
 Communicated via presentations
 Included in a staff handbook
 Included in a collective agreement with a union
 Emailed to staff
 Sent as a letter to staff

It is important to take care when introducing policies that affect your employees
contracts of employment. If the contract allows you to vary terms such as hours, place
of work and duties, then a minor variation relating to these will generally be legal if you
are reasonable in your demands. Where there is no express or implied right to vary the
contract, you must seek consent from your employees, otherwise they may be entitled
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to sue for breach of contract or resign and claim constructive dismissal. Be careful that
your policies do not unlawfully discriminate against employees. Make sure that your
policies are inclusive (e.g. equity, equality and diversity issues).

SECTION C: Recruitment and Selection Introduction

Every organization must be able to identify, recruit and acquire qualified people able to
develop new skills. Therefore, modern, streamlined recruitment and selection practices
are integral to hiring the right people at the right time to deliver public services to most
organizations, and especially, to the business sectors. Success in acquiring and retaining
needed HR in business sector depends on several factors. Hence Business sector
personnel must develop recruitment and selection techniques that are in conformance
with merit principle. Finding and attracting qualified Candidates for the business sector
13 not an easy one. For this matter the manner in which recruitment and selection is
conducted – should be viewed as a mirror of fairness and transparency within
government departments and it is of paramount importance. Hence, the nature of
recruitment and selection makes it susceptible to corruption and malpractices.
Thorough procedures are thus necessary to minimize subjectivity. Furthermore,
recruitment and selection within the government tends to be under sharp public
scrutiny, and any aspersions are likely to negate the thrust of clean administration
professed by government. This also undermines the morale and effectiveness of staff.
With this in mind, recruitment and selection in the Public Service should be seriously
taken into consideration. It is important to emphasize that for service delivery to
improve and for transformation to be taken forward, business sector's appointments, at
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all levels, need to be above reproach. It is also when the right and competent people are
selected that governments can overcome a number of mitigating legal factors. For
example, employment equity is required to enable governments provide the leadership
and skills required to advance the nation's democracy. The aim of this module therefore
is to highlight the importance and techniques required for recruitment and selection in
organizations. The section e is hoped to help participants to play their important roles in
driving the collective action -of government towards improving the overall quality of its
public service and its performance.

The central role of HRM is now recognized by practitioners and business commentators
alike. From the theoretical perspective its contribution flows naturally from the kind of
emphasis now given in mainstream business strategy courses to concepts such as core
competences, intangible assets, intellectual capital, organizational capability and
knowledge management.
The whole idea of the resource based view of the firm inevitably accords a primacy to
the role of people who, fundamentally, are the ultimate source of unique and hard-to-
imitate capabilities. Likewise, the competitive advantage to be derived from learning
also places HEM at centre stage. While business courses on corporate strategy now
routinely cover such ideas in general terms, HR courses are needed in order to explore
their fuller meanings, their dimensions and their complexities. Recruiting and retaining
excellent staff requires sufficient human resource management skills (Bowen &
Schuster, 1986).

It is widely acknowledged that a dearth of human resources is available to contribute to

the production of research and knowledge in key fields, and to perpetuate the
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effectiveness of the university as an organization – including the theory and praxis of
teaching, research and service. Suitable HRM strategies are required by human resource
practitioners in institutions of higher learning.

The Concept of Recruitment

There are various definitions of recruitment as there are scholars in literature.
 Gros and Sonntag (2002) define recruitment as the process of generating a pool of
qualified candidates for a particular job. It is a set of activities an organization uses
to attract candidates who have the abilities and the attitudes needed to help the
organization achieve its objectives.
 Whereas Armstrong (2006) defines recruitment as the process of identifying
organizational needs to employ someone up to the point at which application
forms for the post have arrived at the organization. Therefore, recruitment is the
process whereby an organization attracts or finds capable individuals to apply for
employment. Of course, the objective is to find these applicants at the lowest
possible cost.

This process begins when new recruits are sought, and ends when applicants have
submitted application forms or resumes. The result is a pool of job-seekers from which
the firm can then select the most qualified candidates. Smart organizations recruit
employees they can retain, and retention depends on getting the right people in the
right job in the first place. So, while getting a large pool of applicants is important,
getting the right type of applicant is even more important. This is a very challenging task
for any organization and a critical stage to whereby any slight mistake in decision-
making will cost the organization quite dearly.
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Constraints on the Recruitment Process
Logically, organizations would seek to recruit in a manner that guarantees the greatest
number of qualified applicants. However, there are often constraints on the recruitment
process which prohibit some methods. Some of these constraints are:
 Organizational/Institutional Policies
 Recruiter Habits
 Environmental Conditions
 Job Requirements

(a) Company Policies

An example of an HR policy might be a "promote-from-within" policy. Frequently, such
policies are encountered in the business sector where the collective agreement
stipulates that job openings must be posted internally prior to seeking applicants from
outside the organization. Further, in many unionized environments, policies may restrict
the number of part-time employees in an organization. This is clearly a recruitment
constraint insofar as it places limitations on the firm. However, it may well also limit the
number of applicants because some very highly qualified applicants may simply prefer
part-time employment.
Another organizational policy which could, potentially, constrain recruitment efforts is
dual employment policy – sometimes a government policy. This is because no public
servant is supposed to hold two government positions concurrently, yet the
compensation from one organization is insufficient.

(b) Affirmative Action Plan

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Occasionally, organizations may adopt affirmative-action policies in an effort to attain a
workforce that is more representative of the general populace. In efforts to increase
workforce diversity, institutions may choose to voluntarily hire persons with specific
characteristics. More often, such affirmative action policies are mandated by law, yet
these candidates may not necessarily be suitable for the position.

(c) Employers' Obligations

Ideally, Employment Equity planning is adopted voluntarily by employers who
understand and endorse the concept of fairness in the workplace, who see the business
advantages of full utilization of a changing work force and who are alert to the steps
being taken towards enforcing equality in employment by the courts, governments and
all levels and the human rights agencies and tribunals. However all employers are legally
obligated by law or universal human rights statutes and employment standards
legislation to ensure that no qualified individual is treated unfairly because of
assumptions associated with sex, ancestry, disability status, or other non-bona fide
occupational requirements.

(d) Environmental Conditions

Few organizations function in a vacuum, or a closed system. Institutions are generally
subject to changes in their environment. This includes changes in the labor market. The
rate of unemployment in an area can have a profound influence on recruitment. High
unemployment, or a surplus of labor supply, may result in a larger number of skilled
applicants for a particular job than would be the case in times of full employment. On
the other hand, the recruiting activities of competitors can limit the, supply of qualified
applicants. Spot shortages in certain skills also influence recruitment insofar as such
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shortages may require the institution to look for less-skilled individuals, and then to
compensate for deficiencies through training programs, especially the non-teaching
staff. Changes in legislation governing the employment of certain classes of employees
can also constrain recruitment activities. If, for example, the degree of qualification
necessary to do a particular job is changed by way of legislation, then the institution's
recruitment activities may also need to change.
(e) Job Requirements
Generally, skilled, experienced and qualified workers are more difficult to find than
unskilled workers. A limited pool of potential applicants causes organizations to use
different recruiting techniques. Whereas an advertisement placed in a newspaper's
classified section may serve to attract unskilled workers, recruitment of skilled and
highly specialized workers may require more sophisticated techniques.

Internal Recruitment
One question organizations must address early in the recruitment process, is whether or
not to recruit internally or externally. As was mentioned earlier, government policies
may mandate internal recruitment. There is nothing inherently better about either
internal or external recruitment. However, there are some advantages to internal
recruitment.

Advantages of Internal Recruitment

First, internal recruitment may lead to increased morale for employees; an institutions
therefore is perceived to reward good performance or loyalty. Often, one promotion
leads to, another vacant position and this chain effect contributes further to increase
morale as there are openings for staff and opportunities. Another advantage to the
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organization is that Human Resource data is immediately available for any employee
recruited internally. Further, the employee's competencies and work habits are known
and previous performance appraisals are on record. Similarly, an internal recruit will be
familiar with the institution. The organization might be able to save money in sofa as
orientation sessions for such an employee may not be necessary.

Recruiting costs: Since the recruiting machinery is focused on an already existing pool of
employees to fill a vacant position, and therefore selection and socializing processes are
Jess time and money consuming, internal recruiting tends to be less expensive than
external recruiting.
Motivation: The prospect of potential promotion or transfers provides a clear sigh to
the current work force that the organization offers room for advancement. This
addresses the employee's need for self-achievement.
Familiarity: The familiarity of the employee has a two-side effect: On the one hand the
employee is familiar with the organization's policies, procedures, and customs.
At the same time, the organization has established an employment history showing the
workers formal and informal skills and abilities. The implication here is a continuous and
effective performance appraisals whose results or outcome are securely recorded and
information readily available. This has to relate to the organization's employment
policies. Whereas the organization saves money by eliminating orientation sessions for
employees recruited internally, other training costs may go up.

Disadvantages of-Internal Recruitment

If organization policies mandate internal recruitment, then employees promoted from
within may not have all the requisite skills required for the job. In such' cases,
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employees will have to be trained for their new jobs and most times lack exposure. This
can be a costly process. It becomes even more costly if the chain-effect of successive
internal promotions requires a series of training sessions to be implemented.
Inbreeding: One drawback of extensive internal recruiting is the reduced likelihood of
innovation and new perspectives. A lack of new employees from the outsides leads to a-
lack of new ideas and approaches.
Inter-Personal Conflicts: A use of the internal pool for the consideration of vacant
positions can lead to serious conflicts as sometimes internal recruiting poses challenges
to HR professionals on who to consider and why that person and not the other one.

This may occur when more than one employee aspires to the job vacancy. Those not
getting the promotion will be disappointed and may be unwilling to grant the new job-
holder the authority required to do the job. Further, the unsuccessful applicants'
coworkers may also resent the successful candidate and demonstrate that resentment
through less than satisfactory work output, and this can be quite disastrous both for the
individual and the institution as a whole.

More training: Internal recruiting demands a higher degree of employee training. In

order to develop the skills needed to train the current workforce in new processes and
technologies, the organization has to provide a more expensive training program.

A succession of internal recruitments may, in fact, result; in- the Peter Principle ("In a
hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.
“–The Peter Principle by Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, 1969).
 This can be avoided by initially promoting internal recruits on a temporary
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 basis. On the other hand, demotions for incompetence can have a demoralizing
effect on the organization.
 To avoid such disappointments, the temporary appointment or contracts serve to
give the internal employee an opportunity to show their worth.
 However, it also provides the employer with an opportunity to replace that
employee with a more qualified individual if necessary, in the shortest possible
time.
Another unintended negative consequence of internal recruitment might be
organizational politics.

External Recruitment
The opposite of internal recruitment is external recruitment. The most obvious
advantage of external recruitment is the availability of a greater pool of applicants.
Thus, only those applicants who have the exact qualifications will apply and be
selected. This has consequences for the organization's training budget. Whereas
external recruits will require orientation upon being hired, they will not require any
extra training (assuming they were selected for their capabilities). External recruits
also bring new ideas and external contacts to the institution hiring them. Also, if
political infighting over a promotion might be a possibility, then external recruitment is
one way of eliminating that occurrence. Finally, with external recruitment, an
organization does not have to worn 1 about the "Peter Principle"

Internal vs External Recruitment

Internal recruiting is the search for in-house employees who have the abilities and
the attitudes to fulfill the requirements needed and to help the organization achieve its
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objectives. Although internal recruiting is often neglected, it is crucial not to overlook
this strategy. The discussion on internal recruiting provides the advantages and
disadvantages of this recruiting technique in comparison to the external method. It is
important to note that both “internal” and “external” recruitments have advantages
and disadvantages.

Job Posting
One of the most common means of filling open positions within a firm is by using
internal job postings. Job postings have all of the advantages of internal recruitment,
discussed above. Further, job postings help employees feel they have some control
over their future in the institution, insofar as they can decide when to apply for job
openings (and which ones). By permitting employees to choose which jobs to apply
for, the employer avoids being put into the awkward position of promoting an
employee into a job they never wanted. Here are some guidelines for job postings:
 Procedure should be clearly explained to all employees
 Procedure must be consistent to avoid employee suspicion
 Job specifications must be clear - which results in fewer and better applicants
 Must be specific with respect to the length of time the positions will be open
 Application procedure must be made clear
 Ensure that applicants get adequate feedback once a selection is made
o Reasons for non-acceptance

o Suggested remedial measures

o Information concerning possible future openings

o Assistance in the posting process

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Employee Referrals
Another common recruitment methodology is the employee "referral. To fill job
vacancies, present employees refer jobseekers to the HR department as potential
employees. There are some clear advantages to using employee referrals. First, there
is a good chance that an institution's current employees know others in the same line
of work. Further, if the recruits are acquainted with the referring employee, there is
also a good chance that the recruits already know something about the organization. In
many cases, the present employee also takes an active interest in helping the new
employee become successful. Finally, this method of recruitment is quick and
inexpensive.

Conversely, the disadvantages of employee referrals include inbreeding, nepotism,

and maintaining the "old boys network." Also, institutions using this methodology
may tend to maintain the ethnicity, religious, or sex features of the current group of
employees.

Internet Recruitment
Finding well-qualified applicants quickly at the lowest possible cost is a primary goal for
recruiters. Recent trends indicate that, if you're looking for a job in the technical field
or to fill a technical job, you need to consider using the Internet. The same may well
be true for nontechnical jobs. A majority of firms that have actually used the Internet
for recruiting consider the Internet more cost-effective than most recruitment
methods.

Advantages of Internet Recruitment.

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There are a number of advantages with internal recruitment such as;
 Access to more people and a broader selection of applicants
 The ability to target the type of people needed
 Access to people with a technical background who know computers
 Convenience
 Quicker response and turnaround
 Ease of use

Disadvantages of Internet Recruitment

Using the Internet to recruit poses a dilemma with respect to attracting the 'passive job
seeker' – the person who is not actively searching on the Internet, but may nonetheless
be interested in openings in your institution. Therefore, to find these passive job
seekers, institutions might consider setting up their own Web sites which welcome
applicants. An increased volume of applicants may also become a problem if Internet
recruiting is used. An institution must ensure that it uses an adequate tracking
mechanism to deal with this increased volume. A further disadvantage is that not
everyone has access to or uses the Internet.

Integrating the Internet and the HRMIS

There are other techniques that can import, store, sort, and retrieve electronic data
from a variety of sources. Resumes can be imported into these systems by e-mail and
fax or scanning. These data are then converted into text (if necessary). Resume
imaging and scanning is becoming much more common.

Webpage generated resumes

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Another approach to Internet recruitment is to permit people to generate a resume
while online. Using the appropriate textboxes on the institution's Webpage, all
applicant would be able to complete and application form and resume and then submit
that data directly to the firm from the Webpage. It is clear that, as the Web become:
more of a mainstream activity, more people will look there for jobs.

To recruit and hire the best available and most qualified candidate for each position
and provide an equal opportunity for consideration to all qualified and interested
persons, paying particular attention to reach out to suitable candidates for senior
positions is an uphill task. For any organization to gain a competitive edge, it must
have a suitable recruitment policy and there is need -for procedure in place to support
the various sectors of the public. This must include a commitment to transparency,
equality, equity and diversity in all stages of recruitment and to the proper training of
appointment panels. Recruitment initiatives are often influenced by the staffing profile
and staffing needs of any sector.
Therefore, careful consideration of the level and type of posts to be filled is critical
rather than simple replacements of staff who have left. Greater attention must be
given to the balance between achieving the requirements of the service unit, and
providing the flexibility in employment practice that may enable the organization to
respond to changing needs. Hence, in order to develop a recruitment policy to attract
new staff to these business sectors, there is need to pay attention to the retention of
the valued staff who are already in the employment. For legal, ethical, and practical
reasons, it is critical for the recruiter to be acutely aware of the organization's external
environment. All of these factors will play a hand in the recruiter's strategy:

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 Legal: The, legal environment is constantly changing, as new laws arid regulations
are passed affecting all aspects of Human Resource Management. The recruiter
must abide by the rules to avoid unpleasant government actions.
 Ethical: In keeping with the corporate philosophy identified internally, the
recruiter has a moral obligation to follow the guidelines that facilitate and
further the company's positive corporate image.
 Practical: A wide array of avenues is open for the recruiter in seeking
appropriate job candidates. Having updated information on the composition of
the labour market and economy on both a national and local level will
improve the efficiency of the effort.

All of the above Recommendations will lead to an efficient and effective recruiting
effort for the HR professional. It should be noted that there are numerous benefits of
expanding recruitment sources to reach a wider group of qualified candidates,
including international applicants, as this will result in a larger pool of qualified
candidates to consider for the vacant position and will assist in the selection of the
best candidate for the position. However, organizations of a specific nation is better
understood by the citizens. Sufficient time should be set aside to carry out a complete
and effective affirmative search;
 Ensure that the requirements for the position are not more specialized than
necessary so that the largest possible number of qualified people can be
considered;
 Use inclusive language to describe the position so as not to exclude possible
designated group candidates;
 Use an "Equal Opportunity" approach while advertising. Consider to contact
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 professional and advocacy associations representing the designated group: and
ask them to advertise the position, or to recommend possible candidates;
 Use a personal approach in recruiting candidates - often outstanding potential
candidates do not apply for advertised positions and must be approached by
appointments' Boards/Search Committees;
 Contact past applicants in order to notify them of the position;
 Secure contacts within government departments and agencies, and within
business and industry to circulate your advertisement;
 As an on-going process, responsibility for recruiting rests with all members of the
department. Encourage qualified members of staff to apply for present and
future positions;

Writing a Job Description

After completing steps one and two, you can begin to draft a job description.
Although many small businesses do not take the time to draft job descriptions, it is a
worthwhile exercise. Hiring Strategies for a detailed explanation on how to write a job
description. Set an Appropriate Salary Start by adopting a general salary range to help
you determine what you will need to budget - and whether potential candidates are
within your budget. You may want to complete a job evaluation, whereby you rank
jobs and their corresponding salaries. Weigh the importance of critical skills and
knowledge for each position, compare positions, and rank the new position on the pay
scale accordingly. If you already employ an administrative assistant and plan to hire
another, you will probably pay him/her approximately the same rate, depending on
experience. If, on the other hand, you decide to create a new position and recruit

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an employee with a unique skill set, you will need to do a comparison between the new
and existing positions.-
Is the new position more junior/senior?
 Will the new position require more specialized skills and knowledge?
 Will the position have more complex tasks and different working relationships?
 Will the new position have more or less responsibility?

The external market is another useful resource for determining salary. Look at similar
positions in other organizations by checking - Hiring, Managing and Keeping the Best,
job postings on the Internet, talking to others in the industry, reading career ads in the
newspaper or purchasing salary surveys.
Tips for Conducting a Job Analysis
 Ask employees about each position within the business and how they are (or are
not) connected
 Ask employees if they think hiring a new employee or creating a new position
would be a good idea
 Observe employees at work and earnestly ask for their ideas about better ways to
operate, be prepared to put good suggestions into action
 Talk to customers about which employees are easiest to deal with or provide the
best service
 Find out and understand why past employees have left - be truthful with
 yourself
 Talk to customers about their needs
 Understand the needs of people the new employee will be working with
 Differentiate between "nice to have" and "must have" skills and experiences

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 Look at employees who are performing at a superior level and try to assess the
skills and behaviours that distinguish them; look for evidence of these behaviours
during the interview.
 Look at similar positions in other companies and the requirements they have read
books or articles about companies that may have found themselves h similar
situations

Determine the Feasibility of Hiring

Before you hire, you must understand (1) the costs of hiring, (2) the benefits of hiring
and (3) the risks of not hiring. When calculating the fall cost of hiring a new employee
you must consider: Labour costs, such as salary and benefits. Recruiting costs, which
may include advertising in addition to time spent on recruiting activities, orientation and
training. Weigh the costs of hiring against the value of having an employee contributing
to the business. Potential benefits include:

 Improved morale of other employees, if a departing employee was a problem or if

the area has been understaffed for some time.
 Improved morale of existing staff if the growth means new business and
opportunities.
 Improved productivity if a departing employee was not productive or if employees
believed that you have made the decision to hire as a result of their input.
 Increased revenues once a new employee is performing at an acceptable level.
 A new employee who is more qualified than current employees can help train
 The existing employees.
 Increased customer satisfaction and potentially saved business.
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Some of the potential risks associated with choosing not to hire despite the need for
additional staff include:
o Loss of revenues because of an inability to keep up with demand

o Loss of employees because they are unwilling to continue being overworked or to

do the work of a departed employee

o No new ideas or knowledge brought in through new employees

If you decide that hiring a new employee is feasible, you are ready to begin the
recruitment process. If not, you might need to revisit your strategic plan or business
objectives. Use the checklist as you carry out the human resource planning process.

Step 1: Identify Business Strategy and Needs

 Identify pressures and opportunities
 Clarify your business strategy and direction
 Identify aspects of the business that need help

Step 2: Conduct a Job Analysis and Write a Job Description

 Review your current workforce
 Identify any skills and knowledge gaps
 Write a job description S Set an appropriate salary

Step 3: Determine the Feasibility of Hiring

 Understand the costs of hiring v
 Understand the benefits of hiring
 Understand the risks of not hiring
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Remember: There should be a strong relationship between how many additional
employees you hire and how much of an increase in sales, production, etc. that you can
expect. If hiring, is feasible, you are ready to begin the recruitment process. Once you
have determined that hiring new staff is desirable and feasible, you must decide what
type of employment arrangements would best suit your company. Consider the
following questions:
 Are there candidates in-house or is an external search required?
 When mapping out your HR requirements for the coming months or years,
determine whether or not any of your current employees might be suitable for
these newly created positions.
 Will training be provided, or will candidates be required to have the skills needed
for the position?
 Training is often required when a particular skill is needed or there is a shortage of
qualified people.

Many organizations prefer to hire people who already have the skills in order to avoid
training costs. Will the position be full-time, part-time, or contract? Your decision to hire
full-time, part-time, seasonal, temporary, peak, contract employees or independent
contractors should depend primarily on the type of work and the timing of the work.
You should also consider the payment structures; full-time employees are more likely to
require benefits than part-time and contract people.

Definition of Job Analysis

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In simple terms, job analysis may be understood as a process of collecting information
about a job. The process of job analysis results in two sets of data:
i) Job description and
ii) Job specification.
 This means that someone wishing to work in the private sector could also benefit
from studying organizations.
 Organizations are one of those careers in which those that choose it can actually
make a profound difference in the world around them. They have the opportunity
to locate flows and short comings in public and business policy and then have the
tools and ability to work towards change.
 Administrators care more about people and the work they do can improve the lives
of many.
Who is a public Administrator?
A general description of what a public Administrator does is to develop policy,
implement and over see those policies with the goal of improving the public and private
sector agencies as well as the services offered.
 However, that broad description does not adequately cover all Public
Administration.
 There are a variety of tasks that may be completed by a public Administrator and
they can be found in every level of the organization. Here are just a few
examples of what an administrator may do.
 Organizations may mean public or private business because today, also
governmental organizations that are not acting out of self interest can be seen as
business enterprises. In other words, a public Administrator is that officer who
deals with the implementation of government business.
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 Although, today business organizations is often regarded as including also some
responsibility for determining the policies and programs of governments.
Specifically, it is the planning, organizing, directing coordinating and controlling of
government business.

Government creates and changes public, and business policy, programs, to: respond to
the needs and interests of our nation.
 Hence, Organizations is the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see
every day." Any unelected, public employee is a public administrator-police
officers, municipal budget analysts, HR benefits administrators, city managers,
Census analysts, and cabinet secretaries are administrators. Administrators are
business persons working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of
government. Business persons and academics like Woodrow Wilson promoted
American civil service Deform in the 1880s, moving organizations into academia.
 Multidisciplinary in character human resources, organizational theory, policy
analysis and statistics, budgeting, and ethics are. five pillars of the field
organizations in general, are an extension of governance. Administrators have
been necessary as long as kings and emperors required pages, treasurers, and
architects to carry out the business of government. Administrators may also act as
auditors, border guards, or may work for government agencies in public relations,
research and development, or human resources.
 As you can see, there are a wide variety of options available to those who pursue a
degree in organizations.
 Recent changes in the field have made the choices even broader. At one time,
administrators worked strictly within local, state, and federal government.
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 In recent years, however, this has changed. Many administrators now bring their
expertise to the non-profit sector where they work to improve the services offered
in much the same way as they would if working for a government agency.

Unit Seven: The Business-Sector Human Resource Management

It is generally believed that organizations in Africa is unsatisfactory, services, instead of
improving, are deteriorating, constant administrative reforms notwithstanding. While
reforms are taking place, government services are expanding, unfortunately without
corresponding expansion of their resources. Thus, unsatisfactory services are inevitable.
These may not be the only problems. Others have contended that inadequate
supervision of business agencies and lack of initiative by citizens to demand better
services from such agencies have compounded the problem by limiting the agencies
responsiveness to the public and their motivation to improve services even within the
limit of available resources.
 The problem may not be as simple as Paul and Sekhar assume. Inadequate
supervision in itself may be due to many factors, including lack of HRM skills of
administrators, who cannot adequately supervise and motivate business persons.
 Similarly, important factors which seem to be ignored and which affect service
delivery are the lack of opportunities for adequate participation in decision making
which have seriously reduced the ability of the business persons to deliver
development products, notably peace, harmony, stability, health, education and
housing.
 In almost all discussions about organizations in Africa, one noted characterization
of business persons as inefficient, ineffective, corrupt workers," and HRM

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 professionals have had to develop new guidelines for this emerging subset of
employees.
 Changes in organizational structure have also influenced the changing face of
human resource management.
 Continued erosion in manufacturing industries in Uganda for example; and other
developing countries, coupled with the rise in service industries in these countries,
have changed the workplace, as has the decline in union representation in many
industries (these two trends, in fact, are commonly viewed as interrelated).
 In addition, organizational philosophies have undergone change. Many companies
have scrapped or adjusted their traditional, hierarchical organizations structures in
favor of flatter management structures.
 HRM experts note that this shift in responsibility brought with it a need to reassess
job descriptions, appraisal systems, and other elements of personnel management.
 A third change factor has been accelerating market globalization.
 This phenomenon has served to increase competition for both customers and jobs.
The latter development has enabled some businesses to demand higher
performances from their employees while holding the line on compensation.
Other factors that have changed the nature of HRM in recent years include new
management and operational theories like Total Quality Management (TQM); rapidly
changing demographics; and changes in health insurance and changes in the labour
laws.

Activity: Due to technological advancement that has come along with C1T where
organizations are moving away from paper work and physical interaction through
meetings;
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i) Explain how as an HR practitioner, you intend to advocate for human relations in
the organization and keep the staff motivated?
ii) Using your organization as an example, which particular change has- been resisted
and how have you addressed such resistance?
iii) What do you consider to be critical while introducing any change in an
organization?
iv) How have you attempted to motivate your staff in the recent past and what have
been the results?

Role and function almost over-night,"

 Previously, companies structured themselves on a centralized and
compartmentalized basis – head office, marketing, manufacturing, shipping, etc.
 They now seek to decentralize and to integrate their operations, developing cross-
functional teams....
 Today, senior management expects HR to move beyond its traditional,
compartmentalized 'bunker' approach to a more integrated, decentralized support
Junction.
 Given this change in expectations, an increasingly common trend in human
resources is to decentralize the HR function and make it accountable to specific
line management.
 This increases the likelihood that HR is viewed and included as an integral part of
the business process, similar to its marketing, finance, and operations
counterparts.

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 However, HR will retain a centralized functional relationship in areas where
specialized expertise is truly required," such as compensation and recruitment
responsibilities.

The Changing Field of HRM

In recent years, several business trends nave had a significant impact on the broad field
of HRM.
Chief among them were new technologies. These new technologies, particularly in the
areas of electronic communication and information dissemination and retrieval, have
dramatically altered the business landscape.
 Satellite communications, computers and networking systems, fax machines, and
other devices have all facilitated change in the ways in which businesses interact
with each other and their workers.
 Telecommuting, for instance, has become a very popular option for many
 The third responsibility, career development, entails matching individuals with, the
most suitable jobs and career paths within the organization.
 Human resource management functions are ideally positioned near the theoretic
center of the organization, with access to all areas of the business.
 Since the HRM department or manager is charged with managing the productivity
and development of workers at all levels, human resource personnel should have
access to – and the support of – key decision makers. In addition, the HRM
department should be situated in such a way that it is able to effectively
communicate with all areas of the company.
 HRM structures vary widely from business to business, shaped by the type, size,
and governing philosophies of the organization that they serve.
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 However, most organizations organize HRM functions around the clusters of
people to be helped – they conduct:
 Recruiting,
 Administrative, and
 Other duties in a central location.
 Different employee development groups for each department are necessary to
train and develop employees in specialized areas, such as sales, engineering,
marketing, or executive education.
 In contrast, some HRM departments are completely independent and are
organized purely by function. The same training department, for example, serves
all divisions of the organization.
In recent years, however, observers have cited a decided trend toward fundamental
reassessments of human resources structures and positions. "A cascade of:
 Changing business conditions,
 Changing organizational structures, and,
 Changing leadership has been forcing human resource departments to alter
their perspectives on their performance measurements, or taking some other
action – are also commonly cited as key components in business success.
 HRM, as summarized by Armstrong, "is a strategic approach to the acquisition,
motivation, development and management of the organization' human resources.
It is devoted to shaping an appropriate corporate culture, and introducing
programs which reflect and support the core values of the enterprise am ensure its
success."

Position and Structure of HRM

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Human resource management department responsibilities can be broadly classified by:
 Individual,
 Organizational, and;
 Career areas.
 Individual management entails helping employees identify their strengths and
weaknesses; correct their shortcomings; and make their best contribution to the
enterprise.
 These duties are carried out through a variety of activities such as:
 Performance reviews,
 Training, and
 Testing.
 Organizational development, meanwhile, focuses on fostering a successful system
that maximizes human (and other) resources as part of larger business strategies.
 This important duty also includes the creation and maintenance of a change
program, which allows the organization to respond to evolving outside and internal
influences.

Principles of HRM
Modern human resource management is guided by several overriding principles.
 Perhaps the paramount principle is a simple recognition that human resources are
the most important assets of an organization; a business cannot be successful
without effectively managing this resource.
 Another important principle, articulated by Michael Armstrong in his book A
Handbook of Human Resource Management, is that business success "is most likely
to be achieved if the personnel policies and procedures of the enterprise are
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 closely linked with, and make a major contribution to, the achievement of
corporate objectives and strategic plans."
 A third guiding principle, similar in scope, holds that it is HR's responsibility to find,
secure, guide, and develop employees whose talents and desires are compatible
with the operating needs and future goals of the company.
 Other HRM factors that shape corporate culture – whether by encouraging
integration and cooperation across the company, instituting quantitative consigned
to lower rungs of the corporate hierarchy, despite the fact that its mandate is to
replenish and nourish the company's work force, which is often cited – legitimately
– as an organization's greatest resource.
 But in recent years recognition of the importance of human resources
management to a company's overall health has grown dramatically.
 This recognition of the importance of HRM extends to small businesses, for while
they do not generally have the same volume of human resources requirements as
do larger organizations, they too face personnel management issues that can have
a decisive impact on business health.
 As Irving Burstiner commented, "Hiring the right people – and training them well –
can often mean the difference between scratching out the barest of livelihoods
and steady business growth.... Personnel problems do not discriminate
between small and big business. You find them in all businesses, regardless of size."

Most-important and pressing need for your staff

ii) Explain and justify your choice in regard to human motivation;
iii) What are the likely implications for the other unmet needs of staff?

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Unit Six: The Purpose and Changing Nature of HRM
Human Resource Management (HRM) is the term used to describe formal systems
devised for the management of people within an organization.
 These human resources responsibilities are generally divided into three major
areas of management:
 Staffing,
 Employee compensation, and;
 Defining / designing work.

 Essentially, the purpose of HRM is to maximize the productivity of an

organization by optimizing the effectiveness of its employees.
 This mandate is unlikely to change in any fundamental way, despite the ever-
increasing pace of change in the business world.
 As Gubman observed in the Journal of Business Strategy, "the basic mission of
human resources will always be to:
 Acquire,
 Develop, and retain talent;
 Align the workforce with the business; and;
 Be an excellent contributor to the business.

Those three challenges will never change."

 Until fairly recently, an organization's human resources department was often
 Secondly, different people are motivated differently—there is no such thing
as a simple, all-encompassing solution.

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  Thirdly, it's important to get the work environment right if you want to get
the most from people; and finally,
 Managing perceptions and expectations is very important if you want to
help people get the most from their work.
Activity: You are heading an organization where 63% are female while the rest are
male. 51% of the 63% are young ladies in their reproductive age with young children to
attend to. Most young ladies report for work late and leave early to take care of their
young ones, whereas the elderly men and women leave early to register for their
fitness exercises at BMK. On the other hand, the youth (20-30years) also leave early to
join other members of their clubs for various activities. Recently, the Management
met to deliberate on the following needs of staff:

a) To construct a fitness centre with a staff club and a cafeteria for its staff worth
Shs.800m;
b) To invest in a Day-Care centre for the young mothers/fathers worth
Shs.400m
c) To introduce a sports' centre for the youth, and; hire trainers in various
disciplines worth Shs.500m;
d) To purchase four executive chauffeured Mercedes Benzes for the CEOs, you
inclusive at Shs.400m
e) Send twelve heads of department to Finland to train in HRM skills for three
months worth Shs. 200m.
f) Due to terror threats, the management has agreed to construct a perimeter wall
to provide and strengthen security worth Shs.300m
g) The organization owes staff arrears for their salary increment of eight month
worth Shs. 500m

The total budget - salary, recurrent, travel, welfare and capital development is Shs.l. 7b.
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You have been consulted in your individual capacity to provide your expertise on the
best option among the above to keep the staff motivated. Basing on your personal
experience in your organization and on the available resources:

i) Which theory would you apply to guide the organization in making a decision on
the engender.
Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom in 1964 put forward the notion that people are driven by the likelihood
of genuine success in achieving particular objectives. Three barriers need to be
jumped by managers if they want to motivate their people to succeed.
 First of all, they need to connect the task to be performed to the likelihood of
better results.
 Secondly they need to. Set expectations that there are positive benefits to the
employee in achieving those results, and;
 Thirdly they need to ensure that these benefits are of value to the employee-. For
instance, there is no point asking your engineers to be happy about coming in a
half-hour early in future if you can't properly explain how this will lead to eventual
real benefits for the engineers themselves. Telling them that it will increase
senior management's bonuses doesn't tend to work so well.

Conclusion
 All the popular motivation theories have their flaws and detractors, but they do
give us an insight into some of the mechanisms at work in day-to-day
organizational life.

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 A number of key messages ring true: firstly, people are not automatons and
their reasons for behaving in a certain way are more complex than just money or
laziness.

not there, they can adversely affect job performance.

 He referred to the other group as 'motivation factors' because they had a role in
positively influencing performance - such as achievement, career progression and
learning.

 Hertzberg went on to state that you can forget about workforce motivation if you
don't get the hygiene factors right first of all.
 Fixing the downstairs toilets is not normally a recipe for a 50% productivity
improvement.
Equity Theory
John Stacy Adams posited another theory in 1965, looking at how motivation was
affected by the degree of fairness within an organization, particularly within a group of
peers.
 Consider the situation where some members of staff in a given organization are
provided with company houses and other are not, yet all of you are required to
report to the office by 7.30am - even though even those who have to commute
arrive at 7.30am and all of them believe are punctual. How do those without
houses, no company transport feel at the end of the day?
 Now there's nothing wrong with the reporting time policy, but by comparing one's
own circumstances to the treatment of others in a similar situation, very intense
feelings can be experienced - believe you me.

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 These feelings could lead to intense positive or negative motivations. It's
completely relative.
 In practice, managers need to be careful in singling out an individual for special
treatment within a group of peers because of the emotions this can
 All these are done in the face of inadequacies-limited facilities with demotivated
staff. Politicians come to power on the basis of their programmes and personalities
to improve on the existing situation. They achieve their objectives through
organizations. In the same vein, military come to power by their gun, presumably
to improve on the existing situation through the public service and the economy at
large.
 Thus, whatever form or character of government is established, business persons
have important role to play in translating the ideas, wishes and policies of
politicians. Hence, the political and institutional environment of public human
resource management is the crux of this module.

MODULE THREE: The Concept of Organizations

Introduction
Organizations is the study of public and private entities and their relationships with each
other and with the larger world: how business sector organizations are organized and
managed; how public and business policies, structures the design of government
programs that we rely upon; how our states, cities, and towns work with the federal
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government to realize their goals and plan for their futures; how our national
unaccountable, irresponsive, unproductive etc.

 This attempt is to recognize the tremendous efforts of the business persons and
the role they have been playing in moving the country forward in spite of political
and governmental instability, characterized by military coups and counter coups,
civil war, emergence of dictators, and in the face of socio-economic problems of
the society as a result of changes in the internal and external environment.
 All these challenges therefore, require skilled and competent administrators who
are very well grounded in Human Resource Management. This notwithstanding,
the competence of African business persons should not be underestimated.
 The first set of African business persons was trained during the colonial period in
the various metropolitan countries of Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium,
Spain and Portugal. They had learned the best skills and values of efficient public
service and had done their best to inculcate such values and ideals.
 The subsequent high business persons have been trained at home and abroad in a
continuous basis for improvement of their skills and know how - thus, they have
the skills in organizational policies, rules and regulations to make business persons
compliant and deliver efficient and effective services in line with the direction
specific sectors.
 However, these administrators require the "people-management" skill to motivate
and retain employees working in business sectors for the betterment of the
society.
 In Africa, and Uganda in particular, it should be acknowledged that governments
do almost everything - providing goods and services, and the
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This theory was developed by DC McClelland and-DG Winteer in 1969. Essentially it
groups people's needs into three different categories
 The need for achievement,
 The need for affiliation and;
 The need for power.
Taking a less hierarchical approach than Maslow, it acknowledges that different strokes
are required for different folks.
 Some people will have strong motivations in some or all of the categories, while
others will have little or none.
 So, in order to get the most out of people you must make the goals and objectives
fit with each individual's needs.
 Don't expect someone with high affiliation needs to be a great team leader or a
conference organizer!

Dual Factor Theory

Another theory to gain prominence at this time was Frederick Hertzberg's Dual Factor
theory.
 He identified two separate groups of factors that had a strong bearing on
motivation.
 He called the first group 'hygiene factors,’ because they strongly influenced
feelings of dissatisfaction amongst employees. Hygiene factors include working
conditions, pay, and job security.
 According to Hertzberg, they don't motivate employees as such, but if they are

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 This employee satisfaction is made up of several factors, which can be related to
the five (5) levels of needs first described by Abraham Maslow in the 1960's,
popularly called the Maslow Needs Hierarchy.
 He also believed that this theory is widely believed that once an employer can
satisfy these needs at a particular point in time, the individual or group would be
motivated to discharge their duties effectively for the attainment of organizational
goals.

Theory X and Theory Y

 In 1960, Douglas McGregor advanced the idea that managers had a major part in
motivating staff. He essentially divided managers into two categories.
 Theory X managers who believe that their staff are lazy and will do as little as they
can get away with; and
 Theory Y managers who believe that their people really want to do their best in
their work.
 Theory X managers believe that staff will do things if they are given explicit
instructions with no wiggle room, and plenty of stick if they don't do what they are
supposed to do.
 Theory Y managers believe their people work their best when empowered to make
appropriate decisions.
 Theory Y has begun to replace Theory X as the dominant management philosophy
in many organizations (except your workplace, of course).

AAP Theory

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a plane crash, all our 'energies would initially go into finding food, shelter, defense
and possibly, medical assistance.
 Only after these needs were satisfied would we seek other objectives such as
respect friendship, care of others and sexual fulfillment.
 If all these goals were answered then we would be free to seek purer goals
such as enlightenment, wisdom, great works and perpetual remembrance.

Maslow divided these objectives into five distinct stages, starting at physiological
needs and ending at self-actualization needs.

 Self-Actualization
 Self-Esteem
 Social/Status Need
 Security Need
 Physiological Need

 In practice, the theory has its application in ensuring that the workforce
have sufficiently comfortable surroundings and working conditions in order
for them to be free to do their best for their company.
 If your senior consultants are stuffed four people per desk into a Portakabin
(very small office that has been further partitioned) with no
fan or air conditioner or even sufficient storage of their lecturer materials,
then, you should not expect them to sufficiently prepare for lessons/lectures
for the next session.

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 In the same way, Twyle Dell (1997) postulated that every worker wants to feel
good about doing his/her job - employee satisfaction.
 It does not, for example, apply Jo voluntary organizations In addition, it may not
work if meeting the financial objectives might threaten other entitlements,
creature-comforts or rights, such as an employee’s location, network of friends,
employment conditions or current level of job satisfaction.

Theories of Wages:
 Wages refers to “the total emolument paid to a worker for performing services..." In
other words, wage is the payment made to labour for his contribution to the
attainment of the goals of an organization (Eniaiyejuni, 2005). Eniayejuni (2005)
listed three dimensions of wages as follows:
 Money Wage: The amount of money received by the employee at the end of the
working period or the amount received per unit of output.
 Real Wage: The quantity of goods or services the money can buy.
 Average Wage: This takes into consideration the total wage bill and how it
translates to hourly or daily rate for each employer.

The Hierarchy of Needs

This theory is probably the best-known motivation theory. It was coined by Abraham
Maslow during the 1940s and 1950s.
 In essence, it states that our motivations are dictated primarily by the
circumstances we find ourselves in, and that certain 'lower' needs need to be
satisfied before we are motivated towards 'higher' accomplishments.
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 Lets take an extreme case: if we were stranded in a high mountain range after
having control over one's own resources), freedom to act, scope to use and develop
skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunities for
advancement.

(ii) Extrinsic Motivation:-

 What is done to or for people to motivate them? This includes rewards such as
increased pay, praise or promotion; and punishments, such as disciplinary action,
withholding pay or criticism.
 As established by the Neo-classical school of thought, the extrinsic motivators can
have an immediate and powerful effect, but this will not necessarily last for long.
The intrinsic motivators, which are concerned with the quality of working life, are
likely to have a deeper and longer-term effect because they are inherent in
individuals and not imposed from outside.

Money as a Motivator
 This theory states that all workers are motivated primarily by the need for money;
so if you want to get the most out of your workforce, you pay them more. This has
particular effectiveness in areas where payment is directly linked to the
accomplishment of objectives.
 This theory is prevalent in many businesses in the form of performance-related pay,
incentives, bonuses and promotion schemes. While few would argue that it does
not have some validity (indeed it is the driver behind most production force – being
goods or services – the world over), it is not an all-encompassing theory. It doesn't

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 really address the sometimes complex reasons why people are motivated by
money. It excludes people who are not driven primarily for money.

A large body of research has been written attempting-to tackle these issues - some of
which have gained considerable currency inside businesses and other institutions as
they try to get the most from their workforce. This unit introduces a few of the more
established and popular theories.

Motivation Theory
 Motivating is the processes of getting people to move in the direction you want
them to. The organization as a whole can provide the context within which high
levels of motivation can be achieved through reward systems and the provision of
opportunities for learning and development.
 There exist numerous theoretical postulations on the subject of motivation.
However, the totality if these theories can be grouped into two broad classes:

Classical theory and Non-classical theory

 The former believe strongly in the use of money as the major incentive (motivator)
to make employee work more.
 However, the latter school of thought has not only argued but as established
through extensive research that 'money alone' cannot keep motivating an
employee.

Types of Motivation:
Motivation at work can take place in two ways viz;
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(i) Intrinsic Motivation:-
 The self-generated factors which influence people to behave in a particular way or
to move in a particular direction.
 These factors include responsibility (feeling that the work is important and
 It requires getting the Business persons involved in such initiatives and adequately
motivating them in order to make them remain service focused and sustain the
service delivery improvement initiative.
 Given that each employee's have a motive for joining a given organization and
once these motives, desires or goals are not fully met, it has negative effect on
productivity. This was underscored by Sanzotta (1977) thus:

"An individual employee -will be able to contribute his very best only if he is 'highly ' —
not partially-motivated.”

 One can posits therefore, that, motivation is a dynamic process of continuity by

which improved effectiveness, efficiency, productivity, commitment and
dedication can be enhanced especially in the public services.

Human Resource Management Theories

For years, managers, psychologists and academics have been interested in theories
about motivation:-
 why we get out of bed and go to work every morning;
 why some people are willing to do a great job despite being faced with huge
challenges on a daily basis;
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  why others can't do even the simplest thing without making mistakes; and,
 Why seemingly small things such as communicating simple but crucial
information to your CEO for example; can have hugely detrimental effects on
work performance.

production.
In the same vein, the human resource represents the active agent who:
 accumulates capita,
 exploit natural resources,
 Build social, economic and political organizations for the development of its
citizenry.
 Given the many and varied influence - pressure on this resource - prompted by
socio-economic demand and the twin demands of increased efficiency and
productivity, its active management has indeed become a challenge.
 This explains why organizations whether in the public or private domain embark on
deliberate and systemic human resource development (HRD) programme.
 This is because the HRD programme is a vehicle for developing personnel
competence, skills, and understanding to enable the organization to achieve its
mission and goals.
However, the level of achievements of these pre-set goals depends on how well the
human element - unarguably the most important asset - is motivated to work.
 Thus motivation in modern work environment has become an important aspect of
employer's duty if the organization's set objectives are to be achieved.

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 Within the purview of African Public Service, the present poor service delivery
quagmire can be traced to poor motivation, and this in turn is partly responsible
for the present state of the continent underdevelopment.
 Changing the status-quo requires going beyond the 'traditional' service delivery
improvement initiatives.

provide employees with what they need to be successful. HRM systems and" to61s"can
provide a good structure but will not guarantee success. Effective staff management
hinges on each manager's ability to provide leadership and relate to staff.

Activity: Give an example of any institutional/organizational policy that could be out of

context or too sophisticated for the society in which you are operating.

MODULE TWO: Human Motivation: HRM Theories

All over the world, organizations are known to exist and function in complex and
dynamic environments. This circumstance compels organizations to adopt innovating
measures to meet the changing needs of the time and to bridge the gaps between goals
and actual performance. Most important among the response options to environmental
dynamics is the organization's focus on developing and improving the human resource
base. These underscore the importance of the human resource to organizational goal
attainment. Indeed, of all organizational resource (Human capital, Finance, Technology,
etc.,) the human capital has been identified as the most important factor of production.

 The degree of importance of the human capital can be better appreciated if it is

viewed from its perspective as an organization's livewire-as it is the human
element that moves the organization in the direction of meeting the societal
needs.

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 Hence, the human factor has been acknowledged as a critical factor in the
development of any Nation/State/organization.
 The human resource constitutes the ultimate basis for the wealth of nations rather
than capital income or material resources, which are passive factors of
 You could be wasting precious resources if HRM systems and tools policies are
more or less sophisticated than what your institution needs or can afford. Or even
not relevant!

The Staff
Effective Human Resource Management will seek success for your institution/sector
through supporting the contribution of each employee. As noted above, your
institution's success is highly dependent on the success of each of your staff.

 Many Human Resource Management systems and policies are available to support
each employee to be productive, thereby contributing to your institution's success.
 Hence, these three stakeholders (society, the institution and the staff) are beacons
that will help to guide your human resource strategies and day-today activities.
 However, not every HRM decision or activity will affect these stakeholders every
time or to the same degree.
 HR Managers will often need to find an appropriate balance between the
competing interests of these three stakeholders and will learn when and how' to
compromise appropriately.
Responsibility for HRM
Ultimately, the responsibility for Human Resource Management activities rests with
each MANAGER. If a manager does not accept this responsibility, then HRM activities

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will only get partially done. Maximizing the potential of the human resources available
within your sector is directly dependent on a manager's skills and abilities to manage
staff. Leadership and good staff management skills are essential to

Society
 The external environment in which you operate can heavily influence HRM. By its
very nature, part of your institution's mandate is to respond to some of society's
needs and challenges.
 In your region/location/constituency, these might include issues such as poverty,
high rates of illiteracy, environmental concerns, and high crime rates.
 Other external factors that will affect HRM could include competition in the
business sector, and even your relationship with other business organizations. In
addition to dealing with these challenges, you must also understand and comply
with the legal requirements and labour laws in your region.
 This will impact your human resource management policies and procedures. Many
informal rules or expectations within society may also have an influence on the
issues must address in staff management.
 In Uganda for example, one widespread societal issue that impacts organizations is
corruption.

The Institution
The major aim of Human Resource Management is to contribute to the provision and
success of social services. Therefore;
 The mission, strategy and goals of your institution will form the basis of how you
approach human resource issues.

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 The structure and functions of HRM should be at a level that is appropriate to the
size and needs of your institution.

 In order for your, organization to be successful, the individuals within it must be

productive, efficient, and effective.
 Attention to the management of these individuals can not only enhance the
success of the individuals, but can encourage a team effort capable of reaching
goals beyond what one person can do alone.
 All employees, regardless of their position, need the same things to be successful.
Therefore, everyone needs to:
 Identify with the organization's mission.
 Understand their role, and how that contributes to the mission.
 Know specifically what is expected of them.
 Have the capacity, resources, and environment which make success possible.
Receive encouragement, constructive feedback, and opportunities to develop and
improve.

The work of Human Resource Management is to implement HRM practices that will
provide these key elements to help the individuals to be highly motivated and
successful. When individuals are successful, the business sector will surely be successful.

Unit Four: Factors That Affect Human Resource Management

Three main factors that affect the work and goals of Human Resource Management are
noted in the top three: society, the Institution, and the staff. In managing your human
resources, it is important to consider each of these stakeholders:

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 This is no minor feat. It's not enough to be able to screen potential employees,
however. Those who work in Human Resources also have to be able to handle a
crisis in a smooth, discreet manner.
 Whether the issue is health care related or regarding sexual harassment or
employee disputes, a person working in Human Resources must be trusted to keep
an employee's personal details to him or herself.
 The Human Resource team must also be a good judge of morale and realize when
morale boosting incentives are needed.
 It's up to them to make sure all employees are comfortable with their surroundings
and working under .acceptable, if not above average, conditions.

Unit Two: The Importance of HRM for Administrators

Your institution requires two major resources to operate: customers and employees.
These administrators should therefore give significant attention to the employees
because clients will be handled by employees and top administrators. Hence;
 Human Resource Management tools and systems are critical in finding, training,
managing, motivating^ and developing a team of staff who will effectively carry out
your organization.
 By building strong, well functioning human resource systems and tools, your
institution will be poised for growth, ready to manage the challenges of an evolving
environment, and responsive to the needs of your clients.
 All institutions are comprised of an interdependent network of individuals.

 It is also important to include a process of review and evaluation to ensure that your
systems and tools continue to be appropriate as your sector evolves.

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 Each of the six HR functions plays an important role in the effective operations of
your sector.
Throughout the module, you will learn about these functions and how, when applied
appropriately, Human Resource Management can propel your institution/sector toward
success.

Human Resources
 Human Resources may be the most misunderstood of all corporate
departments, but it's also the most necessary.
 Those who work in Human Resources are not only responsible for hiring and firing,
they also handle contacting job references and administering employee benefits.
 It's true that any individual who works in Human Resources must be a "people
person." Since anyone in this department deals with a number of employees, as
well as outside individuals, on any given day, a pleasant demeanor is a must.
Resources must be equal to the task.
 Ten or twenty years ago, Human Resources personnel were rarely seen.
 Instead they worked behind the scenes to ensure personnel records were in order
and employee benefits were being properly administered, but the job stopped
there.
 Today's Human Resources personnel don't only handle small administrative tasks.
They are responsible for staffing major corporations.
 The field takes a positive view of workers, assuming that virtually all wish to
contribute to the enterprise productively, and that the main obstacles to their
endeavors are lack of knowledge, insufficient training, and failures of process.

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 Simply put, Human Resource Management (HRM) provides an institution with an
effective work force in order to meet its mission.
 Effective human resource management uses systems and tools to bring together:
the right number of people, with the right attitude and skills, in the right place and,
at the right time.
 The goal of human resource systems, tools and activities is to help the individual
employees who make up your organization to be successful at their jobs and to
work well together.
 In order to accomplish this goal, Human Resource Management (HRM) must be an
integral part of the strategic plans of the administrators and have the full support of
your senior management and Ministry Officials.
 The primary activities of HRM in the context of organizations are divided into six
broad categories:
 Human Resource Planning,
 Human Resource Policies,
 Recruitment, and Selection;
 Salary, Benefits and Incentives,
 Performance Management and;
 Training and Development.
 These functional responsibilities are influenced by the external context in which
your sector operates and well as your organization's internal strategies, goals,
mission, and institutional culture.

Human Resource Management" and "Human Resources

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The terms "human resource management" and "human resources" (HR) have largely
replaced the term "personnel management" as a description of the processes involved
in managing people in organizations.

Human Resource Management

In simple words, HRM means employing people, developing their capacities, utilizing,
maintaining and compensating their services in tune with the job and organizational
requirement. Its features include:
 Organizational management
 Personnel administration
 Manpower management
 Industrial management
 These traditional expressions are becoming less common for the theoretical
discipline. Sometimes even employee and industrial relations are confusingly listed
as synonyms, although these normally refer to the relationship between
management and workers and the behavior of workers in companies.
 The theoretical discipline is based primarily on the assumption mat employees are
individuals with varying goals and needs, and as such should not be thought of as
basic business resources, such as trucks and filing cabinets.

the many social, economic and political changes-sweeping throughout the world.
In order to better understand the scope and nature of the changes that are affecting the
way businesses are to operate, this module aims at enhancing awareness of all
administrators on the best way to attracting and retaining the only "immutable"
resource - the people who work in the business organizations at all levels.
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1.2 Definition of Human Resource Management
 Human resource management is the strategic and coherent approach to the
management of an organization's most valued assets - the people working there
who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of
the business (Armstrong, Michael (2006).
 Human Resource Management (HRM) is the function within an organization that
focuses on recruitment of, management of, and providing direction for the people
who work in the organization.
 Human Resource Management can also be performed by line managers. Human
Resource Management is the organizational function that deals with issues related
to people such as compensation, hiring, performance management, organization
development, safety, wellness, benefits, employee motivation, communication,
administration, and training.
 Human resource management (HRM) is the strategic and coherent approach to the
management of an organization's most valued assets - the people working there
who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of
the business.
 Factors That Affect .Human Resource Management
 Contemporary Issues in Human Resource Management
 The Impact of Employment Law and HR Practices
 Functions of Human Resource Management

1.1 Introduction to Human Resource Management

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In the last half of the twentieth century, and more even so at the beginning of the new
millennium, Business organizations have been under pressure to respond to the
demands from their clients and to the increasing complexity and change in their global
environments. Hence:
 The response to these demands has taken the form of programmes of administrative
transformation, administrative reform or administrative development.
 Movements towards reform in the area of organizations and governance systems
and institutions have emerged in all comers of the globe.

 The changing role of the organization as well as new international forces have
resulted in the need for new skills, attitudes and behaviors among business
administrators at all levels.
 The core competencies for the business sector of the 21 st century differ in many
ways from the past, especially as the demands placed on businesses, in terms of
skills, knowledge and capacities, and are rapidly increasing and becoming more
complex.
 Business leaders in developing countries are still facing old challenges, while at the
same time, they also have to address new ones, which have resulted from

through people-management skills, people-friendly policies that will at the same time
achieve organizational goals.

On the other hand, the module provides an understanding of the HRM functions in an
organization. The organizations service's needs to get the basics right, but the
contextualization and adoption of an integrated HRM is required to allow
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administrators/ leaders to manage the staff effectively so they can manage the future
now. Hence, HRM is a complementary practice to strategically attract, engage, and
retain key and immutable resource - the people. The HRM skill and knowledge
administrators will acquire will assist in repositioning the organizations service as a good
place to work with and create an environment for talent to thrive. More broadly, "...in
every direction good administration seeks the elimination of waste, the conservation of
material and energy, and the most rapid and complete achievement of organization
purposes consistent with economy and the welfare of workers (Leonard White). Hence
the growing complexity of modern conditions and the increasing difficulty of modern
problems make it imperative to attain still higher reaches of HRM to achieve
administrative ability. This is because; efforts are required to combat turnovers as an
imperative in the professionalization of the business service. This requires the
development among workers of a progressive mentality, based on professional
competence, leadership; institutional loyalty and teamwork, to enable the organization
carry out its highly important social mission.
The module covers the following topics:
 Introduction
 Definition of Human Resource Management
 The Concept of Human Resource Management
 An overview of Functions of Human Resource Management

 Apply the acquired knowledge to make decisions regarding employment relations,

labour relations, industrial relations and equity issues regarding termination in the
context of legal, political and value considerations.

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Table of Contents
MODULE/TOPIC ONE; over view of HRM for Public Administration
Aim; Good organizations require good people. This has always been true but its
importance to the administration has probably never been more critical than it is today.
This is because organizations today are confronted with more daunting challenges that
affect every nation regardless of geographic location, political system, social structure,
or level of development.

Powerful forces as; Globalization, economic competition that cuts across national
borders, social and political upheavals, technological change, threats of terrorism, and a
rapidly changing labour market, all place enormous burdens on states and so require
motivated people. Hence, the success of any government to respond effectively to these
challenges is dictated largely by its ability to recruit and retain a talented work force.
Sectors that fail to compete successfully in the national quest for talent are likely to
suffer dire consequences, while those that excel will be well positioned to succeed. This
challenge is coupled with the need for HRM skills, competencies, attitudes, and
behaviors among managers at all levels in order to respond effectively to the increasing
complexity and number of demands placed on organizations. It is not surprising then,
that the core competencies for organizations of the 21 st century should differ in many
ways from the past. The course therefore aims at providing knowledge and HRM skills
that will enable administrators attract and retain quality employees.

Knowledge Competencies
 Identify fundamental values guiding an organizations human resource management
policies and practices, and use examples to illustrate value tradeoffs;
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 Discuss the most significant changes and challenges facing an organizations human
resource management;
 Achieve a greater understanding of the role of human resource issues in
administration in relation to: recruitment and selection, job analysis and job
descriptions, sourcing candidates, recruitment, 'compensation and benefits,
performance appraisal, training and development-and promotion,
 Increase expertise in several Human Resource Management areas including
professional ethics, International HRM and Diversity Management, Conflict
management and
 Develop a basic understanding of the objectives and the substance of modern
Management,

Skill Competencies
 Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of an organization or jurisdiction's human
resource management policies and practices, and develop specific recommendations
for moving the sector towards more strategic human resource management (SHRM);
 Locate and use HRM related information gathered through library, electronic, and
field research to improve their organizations;
 Develop valid performance criteria as part of a comprehensive performance
evaluation system; and staff, it is impossible to conduct any reform successfully.
Hence, any innovation at every governmental level necessitates modification of the
behavior of administrators in many fields, which requires human resource management
and leadership skills for a successful implementation of any change or innovation.
Therefore, comprehensive knowledge of human resource management skills is needed
for successful operations - there is no short-cut. Hence, human resource management
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for administrators is very critical and it becomes extremely important and timely at this
point.

The goals of the field of any administration are related to the democratic values of
improving equality, justice, security, efficiency, effectiveness of services. For a field built
on concepts (accountability, governance, decentralization, clientele), these concepts are
often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts (Dubois &
Fattore 2009). Hence, one minor tradition- that the more specific term "BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT" refers to ordinary, routine or typical management concerns, in the
context of achieving organization goals. Therefore, given the primary concerns and roles
of administration and its changing trends, this module aims to strengthen and improve
service delivery in organization through effective management of the human resources.

Learning objectives
Upon successful completion of this module, participants should demonstrate a range of
knowledge and skill competencies. These competencies, which comprise the course
objectives, are listed below.

Management practices appropriate for employees in any organization. Within the

context of administration, these HUM functions have been divided into twelve major
functions and presented as follows: The function of HRM: - (1) Employee Motivation and
the Related Theories (2) Human Resource Planning (3) Human Resource Policies (4)
Recruitment and Selection (5) Appraisal and Performance Management (6) Training and
Development (7) Compensation and Reward Management (8) Managing Retirement and
Resignation (9) Employment Laws in Uganda: (a) Labour Relations (b) Industrial
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Relations, (c) Dispute Resolution (d) Trade Unions (10) Health and Safety (11)
Professionalism and Ethics and Diversity Management (12) Conflict Management

The Rationale
The modernization- of organization administration requires not only changes in' the
strategy and structure, but also the practice of human resource management. The
process of moving away from administrative bureaucracies to human resource
management should be an organizations learning process that can be implemented only
through institutional efforts and cultural changes. The staff plays a very important role
in the successful delivery of services. Employees can be oriented to output, customer
needs and aims only if they realize that the role of their work in the process of providing
services is appreciated and rewarded. The bureaucracy with its formalization,
specialization and hierarchical structures has caused a massive cultural alienation in the
working process. Not the collective values, but the fixed norms coming from the top
have framed the work. The bureaucracy has been reacting in a bureaucratic way to all
changes in the environment of organizations. Sometimes these bureaucracies demand
changes in the way of thinking. Yet, sometimes, the former employees and managers
are the same who are now responsible for the modernization and they should be one of
the success factors. Without any approval and support of the
than recruiting, hiring and retaining talented people- at work. The module therefore, is
intended to support public &private sector employers and managers to meet these
challenging tasks.

That aside, for over four decades, managerial theory and practice has been preoccupied
with issues related to power, influence, and politics in organizations. The politics of
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management and the management of politics in the workplace have received a great
deal of attention due to their image of pervasiveness, mystery, and the potential
benefits for those who know how to use them in the struggle over resources. Politics in
organizations is thus used to promote interests and gain advantages over competitors in
a market-oriented environment but also in non-market areas such as the non-profit
sector and governmental agencies. Even today, organizational politics (OP) enjoys
popularity in academic research as well as in the discourse on practical management. In
one of the early writings on the OP-HEM nexus, Ferris and King (1991:70) concluded that
"for managers the most appropriate perspective would seem to be to develop a better
understanding of politics and how it affects human resources decisions so that its
dysfunctional consequences can be prevented". This course therefore intends to
respond to this challenge theoretically and practically, through hands on, role plays,
case studies and work experience demonstrations.

Aim of the Module;

The purpose of this module is to help administrators maximize the potential of their
staff thereby contributing to the success of their sectors. People are one of the biggest
assets in administration and a large part of the operating budget. In order to be
effective, administrators need to ensure that this asset is well-managed. The key to
effectively managing staff is to effectively and equitably apply Human Resource

Human resource management policies and techniques are developed, implements and
evaluated “in a public (read political) context. An organization's HRM practice affect the
selection and experiences of employees which, in turn, affects the organizations
policy. In order to make and implement effective human resource management policies,
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administrators need an appreciation of the political am historical context in which the
policies have developed to date. In the current environment, a professional
administrator must be prepared to advocate for the strategic importance of human
resources, find ways to be flexible and responsive to change, adapt to changing patterns
of employment and intersect oral relations utilize technology to more effectively
communicate with prospective and existing employees, and develop more sophisticated
and effective methods of measuring and rewarding performance (Ingraham and Rubaii-
Barrett, 2007). This course is designed to help prepare the aspiring and current
administrators and enhance the abilities of the practicing administrators with respect to
the aforementioned challenges.

Service delivery of any organization is becoming more and more crucial for the socio-
economic development of countries. It concurs in fact for the legitimacy of each
Government which embarks in the challenge to meeting the needs of the people. In this
respect, Human Resources as the lively blood of organizations and the key factor for the
revitalization of the Public/private Administration should be properly addressed for a
better service delivery leading to appropriate and cost-effective services following the
population and the various development partners' expectations. Nowadays, whereas
the focus is primarily on the Millennium Development Goals, the excellence of business
services to be delivered by any institution depends on how talented and competent its
human resources are. This is why recruitment, selection and retention of sharp
employees within organizations should stand as top priority for managers and
employers. Hence, there is no greater challenge in organizations today proposed and
assessed until such time as the panel, in general, feels the final score and relative
judgments are representative of the panel's view.
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Interviews as a Method of Selection: A selection procedure designed to predict future
job performance on the basis of applicants' oral responses to oral inquiries.
Advantages
 Useful for determining if the applicant has requisite communicative or social skills
which may be necessary for the job
 Interviewer can obtain supplementary information
 Used to appraise candidates' verbal fluency
 Can assess the applicant's job knowledge
 Can be used for selection among equally qualified applicants
 Enables the supervisor and/or co-workers to determine if there is compatibility
between the applicant and the employees
 Allows the applicant to ask questions that may reveal additional information useful
for making a selection decision
 The interview may be modified as needed to gather important information
Disadvantages
 Subjective evaluations are made
 Decisions tend to be made within the first few minutes of the interview with the
remainder of the interview used to validate or justify the original decision
 Interviewers form stereotypes concerning the characteristics required for success on
the job
 Research has shown disproportionate rates of selection between minority and non-
minority members using interviews
 Negative information seems to be given more weight
 Not much evidence of validity of the selection procedure
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 Not as reliable as tests

 This means the accuracy of, the interview and other selection; tools can be cross-
checked. Alternatively, different selection tools can be used to measure different
competencies relevant to the position.
 This specialization allows for more in-depth coverage of competencies. A simple
example might be when selecting a computer operator. A test of ability might be
used instead of using the interview or referees' report to get information about past
performance or skill levels.
 Similarly, having a lecturer make a presentation may allow for an assessment of
prepared oral presentation skills. The interview and referees' reports can then
concentrate on other critical aspects.
 However, they should be focused clearly on objective and independent feedback of
the applicant against the selection criteria. When the results of the application and
interview are added to results of tests and referees' reports, a comprehensive profile
is available for selection decision making.

Selection decision making by panel discussion

When the interviewing, reference checking and other information gathering stages are
complete, a final decision can be made. In the process recommended, a number of
people will have been involved in gathering information. It is important for each person
to share the information so that all relevant data is considered. This requires an
effective process of group decision making. Bringing applicant data together and
discussing it, criterion by criterion, allows for ratings to be supported by behavioural or
factual evidence - not just surface impressions. These findings need to be documented
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on the interview summary form. By ensuring a focus on evidence of past behaviour to
support predictions of future behaviour, we make use of the most valid and reliable
selection information available. Remember, consensus decision making is not averaging
but is a process whereby the reason for a score may be

 As with any prediction method, you will sometimes be wrong using past behaviour
to predict future behaviour so care must be taken to find supportive evidence (ie
through referee reports).
 Your rate of success will be high, however, if you can gather sufficient valid data
about past behaviour, and if you have an accurate idea of the behaviour to be
required in the future.
 Although people do change and develop, major behavioural characteristics tend to
remain basically the same in adults. People who have been honest in the past tend
to be so in the future.
 A person who has shown good judgment, or decisiveness, or tenacity, or ability to
learn in the past, is likely to repeat this behaviour in the future.

Develop questioning, listening and note taking skills

Knowing what to look for and having planned questions which will draw out information
about the relevant past behaviour of applicants is a good start. Interviewers still need to
conduct the interview skillfully, however.

 The key skills of questioning, listening and note taking are central to the success of
the interview.

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 The criteria focused interviewing process provides clear guidelines for applying these
skills to meet the needs of both the interviewer and the applicant.

Integrating the interview with other selection techniques

The clear criteria and rating methods utilized allow for integration of interview findings
with other selection techniques such as the application, referee reports, samples of job
behaviour and ability tests.

Separate data collection and judgment

 Interviewers often make lasting decisions about applicants in the first few minutes.
The usefulness of the interview as an information gathering process is then lost as
the interviewer simply looks for information to support this initial judgment. Using a
structured interviewing process to seek information on job relevant behaviour
minimizes this problem.
 The approach recommended here means the interview is used to collect information
on the applicant's past behaviour and the behaviour displayed during interview and
the demonstrated capacity to perform in the role. When experiencing a strong view
of an applicant it is appropriate to make an effort to seek contrary evidence. This
affords the applicant with an opportunity to present a more balanced view.
 Pooling of the information obtained by each interviewer, and joint evaluation of the
applicants takes place only after the interview process is completed and not
between candidates as this may 'lead' the decision process of some panel members.

Behaviour predicts behaviour

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 If you want to know how somebody is likely to behave in a certain situation, the best
thing to find out is how they behaved in the past when placed in a similar situation.
 If a candidate has been able to meet deadlines and to work well with other people in
the past, then the chances are they will be able to do so in the future.
 Focusing, attention on the competencies most critical to success in the position, and
making the most effective use of the interviewing time available.
 Use of a structured interview format based on careful preparation of a written
checklist of questions.
 An emphasis on obtaining specific examples of relevant past behaviour, rather than
attempting psychological analysis of personality which uses hypothetical questions
or relying on subjective reactions to applicants.
 Use of several interviewers (panel) to share information, offset 'judgment bias and to
reach consensus ratings of applicants.
 Separation of fact gathering from comparative evaluation of applicants.
 Objective, reliable and logical methodology.
 Note taking during the interview, and documentation of the reasons for selection
decisions.

Plan for the interview

 More effective use of interview time is gained by reviewing job requirements in
order to prepare a list of interview questions which will provide job relevant
information. Sample interview questions and sample interview plans have been
prepared to assist you in your preparation.
 Careful planning of specific questions will draw out information about past
behaviour relevant to the particular skills, knowledge, experience and abilities critical
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 to job success. This ensures the focus of the interview is on the most important
aspects of the applicant's capacity to perform the job.

they have the skills, qualifications and experience required for the post should be short
listed.
At every stage, consistency and transparency are key to the recruitment process. The
Chair of the panel should notify the Human Resources Department of the candidates to
be invited for interview by completing and returning the Short Listed Candidates’ list.
Human Resources should be responsible for checking and approving short lists for
interview. All internal applicants not short listed for interview should be advised and
offered feedback from the short listing panel. On the other hand, external applicants
should have been notified that if not invited for interview within a stipulated period of
time (say, one or two months) of the closing date their application was not successful.

Stage Six: Selection

Once the applicant pool has been screened and individuals to be considered are
identified, interviews should be arranged with those candidates. Often, the size of the
departmental recruitment budget will determine both the type and the number of
interviews that will be conducted.

Selection Techniques
There are many possible approaches to conducting a selection interview. Whatever the
approach one point is certain - the interview will be extremely important to both the
applicant and the employer. For most selection situations, the interview provides the
opportunity to evaluate applicants and for applicants to gain an impression of the
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organization at first hand. Major features of the approach to selection interviewing
recommended include:

After-Advertising
Human Resource Department staff should then:
 Receive and acknowledge the applications
 Circulate applications, via the intranet to the Selection Committee for short listing
 Attend short listing meeting for General Staff positions and provide advice on
selection committee procedures, questions, feedback to unsuccessful applicants
and if required attend committee as a member
 Co-ordinate the short listing process for Academic Staff, and obtain the appropriate
approval for the recommended shortlist
 Contact applicants and arrange interviews, accommodation, travel, etc
 Provide membership on selection committees when necessary
 Provide advice on interview questions, tasks and selection committee procedures
 After interviewing and report processing, prepare a letter of offer to the successful
applicant, and advise unsuccessful applicants of the outcome.
 Confirm acceptance, commencement date and induction date;
 Conduct the New Staff Induction!

Stage Five: Long and Short-listing

At this stage, the Human Resource Department (Directorate) compiles and collate all
applications received and forwards them to the officer in charge of the selection
(different institutions use different names for this officer). Short listing is then carried
out by members of the interview panel (modalities for the process varies from
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institution to institution). Selection for interview will be assessed against the published
selection criteria for the post. Only those candidates who demonstrate that

Stages:
Stage One: Approval of Establishment/Authorization
All posts must be approved by the Appointments' Board or authorized through the
Authorization Procedure) before the process of recruitment or appointment can be
commenced. New and upgraded posts must be approved by the Appointments’ Board
or Staffing Committee. Yet, externally funded posts require confirmation of the
availability of funding from the funding body or the Finance Department.

Stage Two: Documentation

The recruiting manager should provide the following documentation hand delivered
and/or electronically to the Human Resources Department. Job description including
selection criteria: The description should include details of the main responsibilities and
duties required of the post together with the skills, qualifications, experience and
abilities required to undertake the role. These will form the selection criteria for the
post. Clearly defined criteria are essential as they are the basis for assessment both at
short listing and interview stages and are required for consistent decision making at
both stages. Any specific requirements for the post, such as hours of work, or for the
selection process should also be advised to Human Resources at this stage.

Stage Three: Advertising

In order to attract the broadest range of applicants and meet the requirements of
diversity and quality assurance of any university, vacancies should always be advertised
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internally as well as externally. The Directorate of Human Resources, in conjunction with
the relevant appointing committees must agree exceptions to this, for example, where
there is a case for internal redeployment or specific promotion opportunities for an
outstanding member of staff.

Job Specification is an analysis of the kind of person it takes to do the job, that is to say,
it lists the qualifications. Normally, this would include is an analysis of the kind of person
it takes to do the job, that is to say, it lists the qualifications. Typically, this would
include:
 Level of education
 Desirable amount of previous experience in similar work
 Specific Skills required
 Health Considerations
A job specification goes beyond a mere description - in addition, it highlights the mental
and physical attributes required of the job holder. In other words, potential employees
must have the specified "know how". Derived from job analysis, it is a statement of
employee characteristics and qualifications required for satisfactory performance of
defined duties and tasks comprising a specific job or function. Job analysis, description,
and specification can provide useful information to a business in addition to serving as
recruitment instruments. For example, staff appraisal is a means of monitoring staff
performance and is a feature of promotion in modern companies. In some
organizations, for example, employees and their immediate line managers discuss
personal goals and targets for the coming time period (e.g. the next six months).

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The appraisal will then involve a review of performance during the previous six months,
and settling new targets. Job details can serve as a useful basis for establishing dialogue
and targets. Most organizations go through a process of getting a position approved or
authorized by the responsible Staffing Committee (Appointments’ Board). The following
stages are usually followed:

4) The patience and endurance to sit behind a desk all day.

Job Location - where the work will be performed
Non-Essential Functions: Functions which are not essential to the position or any
marginal tasks performed by the incumbent of the position.
Salary Range: Range of pay for the position. Keep each statement in the job description
crisp and clear:
Use un-biased terminology: For example: use the "he/she" approach or construct
sentences in such as way that gender pronouns are not required.
Avoid using words which are subject to differing interpretations: Try not to use words
such as "frequently," "some," "complex," "occasional," and "several."
If necessary, use explanatory phrases telling why, how, where or how often to add
meaning and clarity: For example: "Collects all employee time-sheets on a bi-weekly
basis for payroll purposes."

Once you are aware of the type of person you are looking to fit your job vacancy, you
can now design a "Job Specification" profile. This outlines the "essential" and "desirable"
qualities which would make the ideal candidate. It will act to focus your mind when
advertising for the new job position and remind yourself of the qualities you require
when interviewing. To design this profile, simply summarize your Personal Qualities list
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prioritizing the essential or desirable qualities - an example below. The example is quite
basic, but hopefully you will have a good idea how you might create and utilize one in
your own organization. This is for non-teaching position.
List of Duties or Tasks to be Performed:
 The list contains an item by item list of principal duties, continuing responsibilities
and accountability of the occupant of the position.
 The list should contain each and every essential job duty or responsibility that is
critical to the successful performance of the job.
 The list should begin with the most important functional and relational
responsibilities and continue down in order of significance. Each duty or
responsibility that comprises at least five percent of the incumbent's time should
be included in the list.
Description of the Relationships and Roles
The occupant of the position holds within the company, including any supervisory
positions, subordinating roles and/or other working relationships. When using Job
Descriptions for recruiting situations, you may also want to attach the following:
Job Specifications, Standards and Requirements:
The minimum qualifications needed to perform the essential functions of the job such
as; education, experience, knowledge and skills.
Any critical skills and expertise needed for the job should be included. For example, for a
receptionist, critical skills may be having:
1) A professional and courteous telephone manner
2) Legible hand-writing if messages are to be taken
3) The ability to handle a multiple-lined phone system for a number of staff members

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and responsibilities of the job, the relationship of the ; job to other jobs, and the
qualifications needed for the job. It's important to make a job description practical by
keeping it dynamic, functional and current. Don't get stuck with an inflexible job
description! A poor job description will keep you and your employees from trying
anything new and learning how to perform their job more productively. A well-written,
practical job description will help you avoid hearing a refusal to carry out a relevant
assignment because "it isn't in my job description."

Realistically speaking, many jobs are subject to change, due either to personal growth,
organizational development and/or the evolution of new technologies.

Flexible job descriptions will encourage your employees to grow within their positions
and learn how to make larger contributions to your company. For example: Is your office
manager stuck "routinely ordering office supplies for the company and keeping the
storage closet well stocked " or is she/he "developing and implementing a system of
ordering office supplies that promotes cost savings and efficiency within the
organization?" When writing a job description, keep in mind that the job description will
serve as a major basis for outlining job training or conducting future job evaluations. A
Job Description should include:
 Job title,
 Job Objective or
 Overall Purpose Statement:
This statement is generally a summary designed to orient the reader to the general
nature, level, purpose and objective of the job. The summary should describe the broad
function and scope of the position and be no longer than three to four sentences.
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Uses of job specification:
The uses of a job specification are:
 Physical characteristics, which include health, strength, age range, body size,
weight, vision, poise etc.
 Psychological characteristics or special aptitudes:- This include such qualities as
manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, ingenuity, judgment etc.
 Personal characteristics or fruits of temperament-such as personal appearance,
good and pleasing manners, emotional stability, aggressiveness or -
submissiveness.
 Responsibilities:- Which include supervision of others, responsibility for
production, process and equipment, responsibility for the safety of others and
responsibility for preventing monetary loss.
 Other features of a demographic nature: Which are age, sex, education, experience
and language ability.
 Job specifications are mostly based on the educated gneisses of supervisors and
personnel managers. They give their opinion as to who do they think should be
considered for a job in terms of education, intelligence, training etc.
 Job specifications may also be based on statistical analysis. This is done to
determine the relationship between ;
a) Some characteristics or traits.
b) Some performance as rated by the supervisor

How to write an effective Job Specification

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A job description describes the major areas of an employee's job or position. A good job
description begins with a careful analysis of the important facts about a job - such as the
individual tasks' involved, the methods used to complete the tasks, the purpose

weight, ability to carry weight, health,, age, capacity to use or operate, machines, tools,
equipment etc.

Mental specifications:- Mental specifications include ability to perform, arithmetical

calculations, to interpret data, information blue prints, to read electrical circuits, ability
to plan, reading abilities, scientific abilities, judgment, ability to concentrate, ability to
handle variable factors, general intelligence, memory etc.

Emotional and social specifications:- Emotional and social specifications are more
important for the post of managers, supervisors, foremen etc. These include emotional
stability, flexibility, social adaptability in human relationships, personal appearance
including dress, posture etc.

Behavioral Specifications:- Behavioral specifications play an important role m selecting

the candidates for higher-level jobs in the organizational hierarchy. This specification
seeks to describe the acts of managers rather than the traits that cause the acts. These
specifications include judgments, research, creativity, teaching ability, maturity trial of
conciliation, self-reliance, dominance etc.

Employee Specification:-

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Job specifications information must be converted into employee specification
information in order to know what kind of person is needed to fill a job. Employee
specification is a like a brand name which spells that the candidate with a particular
employee specification generally possess the qualities specified under job specification.
Employee specification is useful to find out the suitability of particular of candidates to a
particular job. Thus, employee specification is useful to find out prospective employees
(target group) whereas job specification is useful to select the right candidate for a job.

Working Conditions:- It gives us information about the environment in which a

jobholder must work.
Hazards:- It gives us the nature of risks of life and limb, their possibilities of occurrence
etc.

Job Specification, Employee Specification and How to write a Job Specification

Job Specification: What is a Job Specification? Job Specification tells us, what kind of
person to recruit and also under what qualities that person should be tested. Job
Specification translates the job description into terms of the human qualifications,
which are required for performance of a job. They are intended to serve as a guide in
hiring and job evaluation. Job specification is a written statement of qualifications, traits,
physical and mental characteristics that an individual must possess to perform the job
duties and discharge responsibilities effectively. In this, job specification usually
developed with the co-operation of personnel department and various supervisors in
the whole organization.

Job Specification Information:-

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The first step in the programme of job specification is to prepare a list of all jobs in the
company and where they are located. The second step is to secure and write up
information about each of the jobs in a company. Usually, this information about each
of the jobs in a company. It includes:

Physical specifications:- Physical specifications include the physical qualifications or

physical capacities that vary from job to job. Physical qualifications or capacities. Include
physical features like height, weight, chest, vision, hearing, ability to lift

Why is Job Description necessary .in an organization? There are several uses of job
description, such as;
 Preliminary drafts can be used as a basis for productive group discussion,
particularly if the process starts at the executive level.
 It helps in the development of job specification.
 It acts as a tool during the orientation of new employees, to learn duties and
responsibilities.
 It can act as a basic document used in developing performance standards.

Job identification or Organization Position:- This includes the job title, alternative title,
department, division and plant and code number of the job. The job title identifies and
designates the job properly. The department, division etc., indicate the name of the
department where it is situated and the location give the name of the place.

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Job Summary:- This serves two important purposes. First is it gives additional
identification information when a job title is not adequate; and secondly it gives a
summary about that particular job.

Job duties and responsibilities:- This gives a total listing of duties together with some
indication of the frequency of occurrence or percentage of time devoted to each major
duty. These two are regarded as the "Hear of the Job".
Relation to other jobs:- This gives the particular person to locate job in the organization
by indicating the job immediately below or above in the job hierarchy.

Supervision:- This will give an idea the number of person to be supervised along with
their job titles and the extent of supervision.
Machines:- These will also give information about the tool, machines and equipment to
be used.

A well-conceived and well-written job description will assist the search committee at
the interview stage by providing the criteria on which interview questions are based.
A job description will set out how a particular employee will fit into the organization.

A job description could be used as a job indicator for applicants for a job. Alternatively,
it could be used as a guideline for an employee and/or his or her line manager as to
his/her role and responsibility within the organization.

Characteristics of a good Job Description

Earnest Dale has developed the following hints for writing a good job description:
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1) The job description should indicate the scope and nature of the work including all-
important relationships.

2) The job description should be clear regarding the work of the position, duties etc.

3) More specific words should be selected to show:-

a) The kind of work

b) The degree of complexity
c) The degree of skill required
d) The extent to which problems are standardized
e) The extent of worker's responsibility for each phase of the work
This means therefore, that a Job description provide is intended the information about
the type of job and not jobholders.

Uses of Job Description

Information’s (like location in structure, authority etc) and functional information (what
the work is).
 It gives information about the scope of job activities, major responsibilities and
positioning of the job in the organization. This information gives the worker,
analyst, and supervisor with a clear idea of what the worker must do to meet the
demand of the job.

 A job description is a formalized statement of the purpose and duties of a job. It

clarifies who is responsible for certain tasks and helps an employee understand the
specific responsibilities of his or her position and why it exists.

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 It includes information on the minimum required education, experience,
knowledge, skills, and abilities and on supervisory relationships, and helps the
organization classify positions in an orderly and appropriate manner.
 Thus, a job description should outline the position to be filled, including essential
primary and secondary duties and responsibilities and should list the qualifications
that candidates must possess.

A well-defined job description in the recruitment process is important and beneficial in

several ways:
 It ensures that the department focuses on exactly what it desires in a candidate
and articulates its expectations;
 It provides guidelines by which candidates will be evaluated;
 It encourages self-selection among potential candidates by permitting them to
screen themselves from consideration;
 Choose employees either from the ranks of your existing staff or from the
recruitment of new staff;
 Set out the training requirements of a particular job;
 Provide information which will help in decision making about the type of
equipment and materials to be employed with the job;
 Identify and profile the experiences of employees in their work tasks (information
which can be used as evidence for staff development and promotion);
 Identify areas of risk and danger at work;
 Help in setting rates of pay for job tasks.
Information can be gleaned directly from the person carrying out a task and/or from
their supervisory staff. In most organizations, however, job analysis is expected to be

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part of the general skills of an HR officer. You need to systematically assemble all the
facts about a job vacancy.

Developing a Clear Job Description

The job description becomes the touchstone for all succeeding acts of recruitment,
interview., and selection as it initiates the recruitment process.
 Job description is a written statement that defines the duties, relationships and
results expected of anyone in the job. It is an overall view of what is to be done in
the job. Typically it includes is a written statement that defines the duties,
relationships and results expected of anyone in the job. It is an overall view of what
is to be done in the job.
 Job Description is an important document, which is basically descriptive in nature
and contains a statement of job analysis. It provides both organizational

These data are recorded separately for references.

A few definitions of job analysis are quoted below, thus;
 Job analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to the
operations and responsibilities of a specific job. The immediate products of this
analysis are job descriptions and job specifications.
 Job analysis is a systematic exploration of the activities within a job. It is a basic
technical procedure, one that is used to define the duties, responsibilities and
accountabilities of a job.
 A job is a collection of tasks that can be performed by a single employee to
contribute to the production of some products or service provided by the

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 organization. Each job has certain ability recruitments (as well as certain rewards)
associated with it. Job analysis is the process used to identity these requirements.

Specifically, job analysis involves the following steps:

1. Collecting and recording job information
2. Checking the job information and all established posts for accuracy;
3. Writing job description based on the information from heads of departments;
4. Using the information to determine the skills, abilities and knowledge that are
required on the job.
5. Updating the information from time to time.
A simple description of the role and duties of the employee within the institution, Job
analysis is used in order to:
The Evolution of Organizations
In the colonial and immediate post colonial period, it was fashionable for governments
in Africa to restrict themselves to maintenance of law and order, tax collection and
prevision of limited social and infrastructural services.
 Organizations was not developmental. Issues of socioeconomic development were
presumably left to the private sector, which was weak and under developed.
 It is not surprising that African governments inherited either weak private sector or
one which was dominated by foreign and their administrative structures and
institutions were not development oriented.
 These legacies, constituted a serious constraints to the new governments which
were all invariably committed to a policy of modernization and rapid economic
development.

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 It soon became obvious to independent governments that they had to take a
leading role in the socio-economic development of their nations if they were to
attain their development goal and fruit of independence.
 Consequently, governments began to take active part in charting the course of
societal developments, by laying down the general policy to guide socio-economic
development, including all aspects of societal development.

It should be recognized that before the collapse of the command economies in the early
1 990s, governments in Africa had become the largest, employer of labour and the main
engine of growth.
 The private sector in many instances was seen as mere exploiter of people's
lablour. This perception of the role of government and the private sector is
changing. The role of government is changing from being provider of services and
development to promoter and facilitator of development.
 In African countries characterized by hunger, famine, social disorder, war and
conflict, inadequate basic necessities (water, food, health, education, electricity,
telephone, housing), the perception of the citizen of the role of organizations is
bound to be negative and invariably their assessment of public services.
By reading and listening to news and news report coming from Africa, it is enough to
convince one that nothings seems to be working well in the second largest continent of
the world.

Role of organizations
 What do bureaucrats do all day in those hives of activity with the alphabet names?

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 What policies and programs will those agencies like Health and Public Services,
Education,
 Transportation, and Commerce be initiating or changing next? Every facet of our
daily lives is impacted in some way by the actions of the governments or local
bureaucracies that manage and organize the public life of the country and its
citizens.
 Organizations train the policy analyst who brings analytical skills to the task of
advising business persons on the merits of particular issues and evaluates
programs as to which would best serve the interests of the constituents in the
most cost-effective way, and the business manager who implements public and
business policy programs and oversees or directs the operation of the program on
a day-to-day basis.
 Though rife with nepotism and favoritism, often referred to as a spoils system/
administrators have been the eyes and ears of government until relatively recently.
 In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as
dominated by the educated elite as public employment.
 Nevertheless, public employment has become increasingly possible and
probable for a wider range of adults with the help of greater literacy, better
education to the average citizen, and classic liberal philosophers.
 Consequently, the need for expert business persons whose' ability to read and
write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal
records, military prowess, and tax administration, and record keeping.
 As the European imperialist age progressed and the militarily dominant region
extended its hold over other continents and people, the need for increasingly
conventional administrative expertise grew.
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Local Self-Government
The functioning of a Government can be categorized into National, State and Local.
Local Self- Governments are those bodies that look after the administration of an area
or small community such as village, town or a city.
 These bodies are appointed by the Government representing the local inhabitants,
which raises its revenue partially through local taxation and other means. . The
Local Self- Government can be divided into various classes like Corporations, Cities,
Town Municipalities and Town Panchayats on the basis of population. The Local
Self Government is entitled to discharge certain compulsory functions like:
 Licensing business operations
 Supplying safe and clean drinking water
 Imparting and maintaining proper drainage and sewage systems
 Providing public street lighting
 To keep up sanitation and hygiene of public places
 Building and maintenance of bus terminals, roads, culverts and bridges
 Reservation of public parks and gardens
 To make sure that the urban or rural growth is systematic and planned
 Preparing guidelines for building construction
 Issuing Licenses for Trade activities
 Issuing and maintaining Birth and Death records
 Apart from these, the Local Self Government can deliver some discretionary
functions including educational, health, community business and, recreational
services etc.

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 In order to deliver the above duties, the Local Self Government have been given
certain powers to earn revenues by levying certain taxes and fees. In addition to it,
the State Government also transfers some of its general revenues to the Local Self
Government. Their main sources of income is from taxes on construction and
lands, taxes levied on people for water supply, and fee from trade license.

Worldwide trends of organizations transformation

The first trend relates to the construction or re-construction of a State that operates
according to the rule of law.
 There are a number of countries across the world undergoing a process of State
construction or re-construction.
 Within this trend, we may distinguish two different movements. The first one that
characterizes countries that need to build from scratch or re-build their
government institutions, as is the case of some African countries, which have
experienced War and internal conflict resulting in collapse of the system,
participation, and transparency.
 The challenge in this case is to dismantle old State institutions (or de-
institutionalize) and to bring them in line with new values of openness

The second one relates to the modernization of the State. This is a challenge that affects
all countries and is related to the adaptation and improvement of administrative
structures, managerial capacities, financial management and technological adequacy to
new needs and demands emerging from societies which are much more complex and
heterogeneous than a few decades ago. In other words, it is a process of readjustment

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of State institutions and public management to the need for greater cost-effectiveness,
quality, simplicity and participation in government.
 The need to enhance efficiency in the business sector and to cut public costs, which
is at the heart of the New Public Management school of thought, has resulted in a
series of measures, including privatization, deregulation, and the introduction of
market-like mechanisms in the business sector.
 In a number of countries, debureaucratization and decentralization have been
increasingly coupled with new approaches to management, exemplifying
openness, adaptability, participation, flexibility, diversity and responsiveness.

The third trend has to do with the reconfiguration of the role of the State.
 With the spread of globalization and the changes occurring at both the domestic
and international levels, the functions and role of the State have been
transformed substantially. The worldwide trends of globalization and citizen
participation have compelled Governments to debate "the role of the State," to
explore various partnerships with private sector and civil society organizations and
to consider reengineering of government systems, retraining of public officials and
rethinking of public policies.
 Given the rapid changes in technology and the global economy, Governments have
also been motivated to learn to continuously re-evaluate government performance
in relation to citizen demands and global pressures.
 The general configuration of State responsibilities has changed and this has
introduced important modifications both in the policy arena and in the State's
requirements for high-level skills, qualitatively and quantitatively.

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Overall, the course of change points to a shift of focus away from hands-on
management and the direct production of services and goods towards strategic
planning with a view to the establishment and maintenance, refinement and reform of
an enabling framework for private enterprise and individual initiative.
 A parallel shift has moved the State's centre of gravity and with it the locus of
power.
 Hence, decentralization, debureaucratization and deregulation are adding to the
importance not only of local government, but also of non-state actors on whom
significant functions are devolved or outsourced.
 At the same time, a range of tasks and policy decisions, traditionally handled by
national bureaucracies hi their respective capitals, is being increasingly
transposed to an inter-governmental or supranational level as a result of
increased flows between countries of goods, capital, labour and information.
 More and more, the State is called upon to act as "linking pin" of processes of
planning, consultation, negotiation and decision-making involving diverse actors,
State and non-state, at different levels of governance.
 The State is the hub of activities connecting multiple partners and stakeholders
from very varied fields, regions; cultures, occupations, professions and interests.

A fourth trend, which has emerged in the past years, is related to a growing demand to
make democracy more meaningful and to allow for more opportunities of participation
in policy-making.
 In many advanced democracies, citizens and civil society organizations are showing
increasing dissatisfaction towards how democracies are functioning.

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 For example, the growing influence of money in the electoral process and the
strong influence of special interests on public and business policy decision-making
are being viewed in many democratic nations as undermining full citizens'
participation.

As a result, citizens are asking that government be reformed in order to enhance

business participation, to expand business opportunities, and to improve its operations
as well as the quality of services provided.
 In some parts of the world, the difficulty of governments to deliver adequate
services, especially in the social sphere, and promote better living conditions for all
has also resulted in a widespread disappointment among the population for the
current forms of governance.

The growing demand for a more open, participatory and efficient government
One of the greatest challenges of our times is therefore to have not only governments
of the people and by the people, but also for the people.
 This means greater participation in key spheres of policy-making decisions,
including how taxes should He spent and on what, and better and more effective
services.
 Citizens are asking to be more actively involved in public affairs and to be engaged
in many other ways than just at election day every four or five years.
 As highlighted in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the promotion of
democracy and good governance, including an efficient and effective
organizations, is among the best ways to ensure that the values of freedom,
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 equality, solidarity, environmental protection, and shared responsibility are
respected.
 Democracy and good governance are a goal in itself because of the values on which
they rest, but at the same time, they are also the most critical means to achieve
the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, which set very precise
objectives, targets and indicators to achieve the broader goal set out in the
Millennium Declaration related to development and poverty eradication.
 In fact, although many studies have not been able to show that democracy per se
will lead to greater economic growth, there is evidence that democracy ensures
greater redistribution of resources.
 As Amartya Sen has pointed out, one of the consequences of democracy is that it
generates political incentives for decision makers to respond positively to the
needs and demands of society.
 The stronger a democracy is the greater and more effective will be the pressure of
these incentives on the decision makers.

Government institutions need to be based on clear and widely accepted rules; to have
committed leaders and qualified people to undertake appropriate reforms in the
economic and social spheres; to be able to mobilize resources and manage expenditure;
and to operate in the most cost-effective way possible by making use of new
information technologies. In other words, the legitimacy of a democratic regime is
based hi great part on the capacity of the State to deliver services that are relevant and
of high quality to all sectors of the population in a society.
 The performance of the business sector depends on well functioning institutional
structures as much as on the quality of the people who work in them.
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 Skilled, dedicated and highly motivated business persons are essential for carrying
out reforms that are effective and sustainable in the long term, as well as
responsive to the changes that are occurring both at the local and global levels.
 The essence of what the business sector is and its guiding principles (rule of law,
serving the citizens, etc.) will shape its choices of how to solve the many challenges
it confronts.
 Connecting the mission of the business sector with empowered public officials and
a system that supports innovation and excellence can make a big difference in the
future performance of the business sector.
 Therefore, Human resources development is also a critical factor in ensuring that
the development goals outlined in the Road map towards successful human
resource management practices.

Structural Adjustment in the Business sectors

Decentralization
 The delegation and decentralization of administrative and management processes
often accompany budgetary reforms.

Summary of Interviews
In general, interviews have the following weaknesses:

1. Validity of the interview is relatively low

2. Reliability of the interview is also low

3. Stereotyping by interviewers, in general, may lead to adverse impact against

minorities

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 4. The subjective nature of this procedure may allow bias such as favoritism and
politics to enter into the selection process

5. This procedure is not .standardized.

6. Not useful when large numbers of applicants must be evaluated and/or selected

Types of Interviews
I. Unstructured Interview Involves a procedure where different questions may be
asked of different applicants.
II. Situational Interview Candidates are interviewed about what actions they would
take in various job-related situations. The job-related situations are usually
identified using the critical incidents job analysis technique. The interviews are
then scored using a scoring guide constructed by job experts.
III. Behavior Description Interviews Candidates are asked what actions they have
taken in prior job situations that are similar to situations they may encounter on
the job. The interviews are then scored using a scoring guide constructed by job
experts.
IV. Comprehensive Structured Interviews Candidates are asked questions pertaining
to how they would handle job-related situations, job knowledge, worker
requirements, and how the candidate would perform various job simulations.
Interviews tapping job knowledge offer, a way to assess a candidate's current level
of knowledge related to relevant implicit dimensions of job performance (i.e.,
"tacit knowledge" or "practical intelligence" related to a specific job position)
V. Structured Behavioral Interview This technique involves asking all interviewees
standardized questions about how they handled past situations that were similar
to situations they may encounter on the job. The interviewer may also ask

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 discretionary probing questions for details of the situations, the interviewee's
behavior in the situation and the outcome. The interviewee's responses are then
scored with behaviorally anchored rating scales.
VI. Oral Interview Boards This technique entails the job candidate giving oral
responses to job-related questions asked by a panel of interviewers. Each member
of the panel then rates each interviewee on such dimensions as work history,
motivation, creative thinking, and presentation. The scoring procedure for oral
interview boards has typically been subjective; thus, it would be subject to
personal biases of those individuals sitting on the board. This technique may not be
feasible for jobs in which there are a large number of applicants that must be
interviewed.

Selection Challenges
Selection then consists of the processes involved in choosing from applicants a suitable
candidate to fill a post. Most scholars however emphasize that essential groundwork
including the internal factors and external factors need to be laid before the recruiting
process can begin. Selection involves procedures to identify the most appropriate
candidates to fill posts. An effective selection procedure will therefore take into
consideration the following:
 Minimize stereotypes. To minimize the influence of tribal/regional and sex
stereotypes in the interview process, provide interviewers with a job description
and specification of the requirements for the position. Interviewers with little
information about the job may be more likely to make stereotypical judgments
about the suitability of candidates than are interviewers with detailed information
about the job.

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 Job Related. Try to make the interview questions job related. If the questions are
not related to the job, then the validity of the interview procedure may be lower.
 Train Interviewers. Improve the interpersonal skills of the interviewer and the
interviewer's ability to make decisions without influence from non-job related
information. Interviewers should be trained to:
 Avoid asking questions unrelated to the job
 Avoid making quick decisions about an applicant
 Avoid stereotyping applicants
 Avoid giving too much weight to a few characteristics.
 Try to put the applicant at ease during the interview
 Communicate clearly with the applicant
 Maintain consistency in the questions asked

 To provide for, the future staffing needs of the enterprise in terms of skills,
numbers and ages.
He focuses on the development of personnel strategies to get the right number of
employees, with the right level of talent and skills, to achieve the right objectives, to
fulfill the corporate purpose.

McBeath (1978) on the other hand stresses human resource planning as the basis of
establishment control; the planner as a "policeman" who checks whether staffing levels
are optimum.
A more recent view of human resource planning seeks to link policy and practice
together in day-to-day decision making, stressing the interrelationship of various
aspects such as;

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 Training,
 Development and
 Recruitment.
Bramham (1988) summarizes this view and suggests that human resource planning is
essentially concerned with the effective use of human resources, which also embraces
the future impact of employment decisions made today.

On what human resource planning should be, Smith (1976) suggests that rather than
producing a detailed blueprint, it should be regarded as a process in which the likely
consequences of the continuation of current policies or the introduction of new policies
can be assessed; action can be expected to forestall undesirable consequences. Hence;

The key to his definition is the provision of a frequently updated framework of

information for decision making. Such information is crucial towards a reduction of the
risk of either surplus or shortage of particular kinds of skill. He suggests that the human
resource planning process involves three major steps to do this, namely;
 Demand forecasting,
 Supply analysis, and
 Designing the interaction between demand and supply so that skills are utilized to
the best advantage.
The process oriented definitions on the whole emphasize the creation of the best
possible framework of information within which decisions about the utilization of
resources to achieve organizational objectives can be made, particularly the human
resource. Such information acts as an indispensable instrument for management to
assess the feasibility of future alternative routes in meeting institutional demands.
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Despite the difference in emphasis, both strategy and process oriented definitions share
a common destination that is the attainment of organizational or corporate objectives
through the effective utilization of human resources. Most of the writers agree that
human resource planning has the potential to contribute in this way.
 They observe that planning practices have undergone transition towards greater
attention to and tighter linkages with organizational strategies. This transition has
heightened the awareness of strategic human resource planning as a distinct
research and application discipline within organizations.
 From the definitions of human resource planning proposed by the various
researchers and practitioners, it is possible to attempt to define what human
resource planning is in today's circumstances.

Human Resource Planning therefore, could mean a management process designed to

translate strategic objectives into targeted quantitative and qualitative skill
requirements, to identify the human resource strategies and objectives necessary to
fulfill those requirements over both the shorter and longer terms, and to provide
necessary feedback mechanisms to assess progress.

Overall the purpose of the planning is to invoke an organizational learning process and
to generate information which can be utilized to support management decision making
in all staffing areas. The strategic focus provides the unique place of human resource
planning, recognizing that the nature of human beings and their innate flexibility means
that they cannot be planned and managed in a fashion similar to that for other
resources. Furthermore,

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 Planning for the human resource involves creating a relationship between the
organization as a whole and the environment, which gives some continuing and
satisfactory balance of benefits and risks for the organization.
 It is pertinent also that a longer- term perspective (at least three years and
extending perhaps to five years for some types of sectors) is adopted within the
model since this length of period is required to produce new skills, to upgrade
existing ones and to engage in organizational transformation

The adoption of such a perspective is necessary to manage uncertainties and risks

created by major changes in environmental factors in the medium to long term.

The relationships that human resource planners and human resource planning
processes create among groups within the organization serve as the thrust of the
strategic view of the framework. Such relationships give rise to the form of planning
adopted and implementation responsibilities for those involved.

Equally important is the determination of planning inputs, sources of inputs, users of the
outputs, and the types of outputs required. In essence, the strategic view argues for a
joint responsibility for planning between managers and planners and emphasizes that
the transformation stage of the system underpins their relationship.

In the strategy oriented definition, Human resource planning is “A strategy for the
acquisition, utilization, improvement, and retention of an enterprise's human
resources.” This is because, Human resource planning aims to maintain and improve the
ability of the organization to achieve corporate objectives, through the development of
strategies to enhance the contribution of personnel at all times in the foreseeable
future.
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A more recent view of human resource planning seeks to link policy and practice
together in day-to-day decision making, stressing the interrelationship of various
aspects such as training, development and recruitment.

What then is HRP?

From the definitions of human resource planning proposed by the various researchers
and practitioners, it is possible to attempt to define what human resource planning is in
today's circumstances.
 It is in our terms a management process designed to translate strategic objectives
into targeted quantitative and qualitative skill requirements, to identify the human
resource strategies and objectives necessary to fulfill those requirements over both
the shorter and longer terms, and to provide necessary feedback mechanisms to
assess progress.
 In the words of Beach, human resource planning is the process of determining and
ensuring that the organization will have an adequate number of qualified
personnel, available at the proper times, performing jobs which meet the needs of
enterprise and which provide satisfaction for the individuals involved.
 FIRP is a strategic approach of evaluating as to how an organization should move
from the current human resource position to its desired position.
 Keeping the costs of selection down
 Making sure that the skills and qualities being sought have been identified;
 Developing a process for identifying them in candidates
 Making sure that the candidates selected, will want the job, and will stay with new
job advertisements being placed.

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Stage Seven: Offer
Human Resources will be responsible for checking and approving interview Result Forms
and determining the salary to be offered to the successful candidate. Human Resources
will negotiate and confirm the salary and conditional offer to the successful applicant
and send for references, medical and other essential requirements.

Stage Eight: Appointment

When all required documentation has been received and verified, Human Resources will
agree a starting date with the successful candidate and confirm the appointment in
writing. Contracts of employment will incorporate the terms of employment
appropriate for the post, including any probationary period, and will be signed by the
Head of Human Resources.

Conclusions
It has been observed that attraction and procurement also depends on the level of
overall demand (whether created by central planning or by labour market forces) and
the opportunities available for particular employees.
 Factors contributing to the demand for employees are;
 Recruitment and retirement policies,
 The place of work,
 The physical and mental energy involved,
 The advantages and disadvantages of the job,
 The work schedule;
 The experience or skills required,
 The employee's tasks,
 Training and development opportunities,
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  Contact with other people, and
 Salary.
Recruitment techniques are also influenced by; internal search, unsolicited applications,
recommendations and referrals, job fairs, employment agencies, advertising, and
campus recruitment. Economic and social conditions, competition and government
regulations also affect recruitment.

1. Demand and supply variables

There are also factors that influence attraction of teaching staff. These are; professional
qualifications, job specifications, the recruitment process, selection of recruits,
recruitment advertisement, type and status of employment, conditions of employment,
perceptions of work, manpower planning, employment benefits.

2. Determining manpower requirements

The selection process of personnel, defining requirements, advertising, attracting
candidates, training, pay comparisons, employee benefits, job information and
orientation, staffing policies and qualifications, management system.

3. Labor Market Conditions

Job Advertising, what Qualifications are required, employment benefits, job duties and
responsibilities, working conditions, job attributes, hiring practices, screening devices,
work-based training, non-educational factors, laws and codes of practice

Recommendations

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Screening of applications should be conducted from the beginning of the search
process, and reviews should begin immediately following the announcement. The
division should test to ensure that each applicant fits the profile and hire a person who
fits the profile remembering that good selection reduces turnover, training and
recruitment costs, and thereby produces stability, consistency; low operating costs and
an Ability Jo increasingly reward desired behaviour.

SECTION D: Training and Development

Introduction
As the effectiveness of the delivery of services by business agencies depends to a large
extent on the caliber and competence of individuals manning public bureaucracy, it
becomes an immediate objective and goal for every government to ensure that its
business persons are educated and trained properly and adequately to meet the
challenges posed by globalization and supra-national organizations on one hand and
web technologies on the other. Hence, the country is in a flux due to a number of
factors including global, economic and technological advancements sweeping across the
world that have altered the nature and functions of the state, wherein it has shed the
role of a provider of goods and services and has donned the role of a facilitator.

Economic integration, particularly after the onset of globalization, has altered the nature
and functions of the state in two fundamental ways. First, the State is being integrated
more and more with supra-national organizations for the formulation of policies.
Second, the State is delegating and decentralizing more and more powers to the local
level bodies. In fact, it has become a necessity for the business person to imbibe and
learn human resource management and leadership skills, strategic planning skills,
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effective decision making capacities, professionalism, and integrated technology
towards enhancing the effectiveness of delivering goods and service to the clientele.
Hence, reforms that have taken place in the public service should be addressed through
training and development.

Areas such as recruitment, promotions, policy making, financial management relations

with outside groups and all kinds of other procedures require knowledgeable and
trained business persons. This means therefore, that administrators are exposed to new
challenges that require efforts to constantly train, retrain their staff. This module
therefore is hoped to go a long way in creating awareness to the participants who serve
the public in the areas of training and development.

Training and Development

Training and development or "learning and development" as many refer to it now is one
of the most important aspects to our lives and our work. In our culture, we highly value
learning. Yet, despite our having attended many years of schooling, many of us have no
idea how to carefully design an approach to training and development. This module
provides a range of information about training and development, including to depict
how that information is organized. So the goal of the topic is not only to convey lots of
information, but to help participants gain a broad understanding of how training and
development is crucial and how it can be designed to meet the nature and needs of
organizations.

In the field of human resource management, training and development is the field
concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals
and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including

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employee development, human resource development, and learning and development.
Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and
development. Training and Development are ideas that are often considered to be
synonymous. However, to practitioners, they encompass three separate, although
interrelated, activities:

Training: This activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an
individual currently holds.

Education: This activity focuses upon the jobs that an individual may potentially hold in
the future, and is evaluated against those jobs.
Development: This activity focuses upon the activities that the organization employing
the individual, or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost
impossible to evaluate.

(i) Induction Training

As new employees enter an organization, they find themselves thrown into a new
environment and a confused state. This is where induction training can help familiarize
them with the institution's ways and culture. There are benefits and modes of induction
training according to Dogra (2001).

There is always a first time and it's never easy. This is-so true to new employees who set
foot into a new organization with expectations and hopes. It is up to the management to
make them feel at home as soon as possible. The tool that the management uses to
achieve this, is the induction training. An effective induction programme is more than
merely introducing new employees to their roles and co-workers. It is a strategy that is

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implemented by a company to help the new employee fit into their new organization,
team and position.

Importance of induction programme

The question "what will happen if we train people and they leave? should not arise here,
instead, the most important question that require an answer is "what will happen if we
do not train people and they stay on? : This is what the motivational speaker Zig Ziegler
said to summarize the importance of induction training. No doubt induction training is
essential for any organization; be it education, profit oriented non-governmental or
government entity, because it helps an individual grow within an organization and
motivates him or her. It inculcates in the employee, more confidence to progress, which
in turn helps the organization. An effective induction helps a new employee feel assured
and comfortable in the new environment, which is critical for early uptake in the new
role. A new entrant should culturally fit in an organization and interaction at this stage
shapes an individual’s disposition and outlook for work and motivation levels. It is during
induction that a new employee gets to know about the organization’s employment
philosophy, culture and value along with key business processes and their
responsibilities.
 The importance of induction cannot be underestimated, where technical an
analytical knowledge is critical to the survival of an employee
 Induction programmes are all the more important for the universities because
employees have to get accustomed not just to the key duties but also to the
mission, goals and philosophy of the organization.

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 The first and foremost thing is integrating institution's mission and vision wit
training programme, because there should be a good balance between technical
training and personality development.
 For long term success, it is absolutely essential that training programme
continuous and progressive. This helps in creating the winning culture in the
organization. No doubt, it is high time we realized that in today's competitive
world; where creating product differentiation is getting difficult, the key success
factor is people and one can never over invest in this.

Does-Good induction result into retention?

Do induction programmes help in reducing attrition rates? Apparently yes. The fir
impression is very important when a person comes into a new organization and ho you
interact with these new entrants’ plays an important role on how they discharge their
duties later, according to empirical evidence and literature available. However research
suggests that inductions alone cannot give guarantee for retention because how you
deal with that person later is also very important to motivate and retain the
(Kaguhangire, 2006). According to empirical evidence, the thought of leaving the
organization creeps in at early stage in cases where the induction is not done with
passion. A good induction prepares an employee better to compete in fierce
competitive market place, which has a direct impact on the early success and hen
motivation.

Although, due to "professionalism, human resource management practices are still

"mystery", good induction programmes certainly would help in reducing attrition.

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Although there, could, be other reasons, research suggests that there are numerous
incidences where new recruits have resigned on the very first day because they felt
intimidated and also lacked reassurance.

The training
Different people should be involved at different levels during induction training. Ideally,
an induction training programme is designed by the HR department in consultation with
various line managers and functional heads. There should always be a training
department dedicated for the classroom training for new entrants. This department
should also take care of induction programmes for other administrative and support
staff. For other employees the entire induction is should be conducted by HR. First
impression is the best impression. Hence, it is up to the HR department to design an
induction programme that makes the first day, the best day.

Why induction Training?

Much as induction training is prophesized, universities have not taken heed and thus,
little if not nothing has been done. There is need to emphasize training due to the
following reasons:
 A new employee is a stranger who should be introduced to the new
employment as quickly and effectively as possible. Each new comer should be told
in clear terms what is and what is not to be done.
 Ideally, new comers should be briefed on rules, regulations, conditions and
practices of importance on the first day at work and new employees should be
taken on a tour of the entire organization, and they should meet their supervisor
and be introduced to their new colleagues.

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Staff induction activities are designed to provide new-starters with the information they
need, as well as getting them up to speed on how the organization works. Effective
induction helps heads of units to ensure that a newly appointed employee reaches a
good standard of performance as early as possible in his or her employment.
Naturally, new workers want to get on with the job and need help understanding the
importance of induction, their responsibilities and their overall roles in the university,
and provide them with the basic information that they need to settle down quickly and
happily and start work.

Induction training completes the selection and placement process and involves the
introduction of a new employee or group of employees into a new or changed working
environment. The induction process is particularly important for diverse groups as their
successful integration into a homogeneous workforce is not automatic. The return on
investment of a proper Induction programme is significant since it has an impact, not
only on employee perceptions and morale, but also on their willingness to stay in the
organization. Effective induction training implemented in the right manner helps to:
 Assist the new employee to adjust to the university environment
 Clarify job requirements and performance expectations
 Obtain effective output on the shortest time possible
 Establish a favourable attitude to the university in the mind of the employee
 Introduce the employee to the culture of the organization
 Interest the employee in the job and the organization
 Reduce any misunderstanding about the job or the enterprise; and
 Facilitate good employee relations.

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Once any organization achieves all this, h will go along way to helping divert groups to
integrate effectively into the system. Therefore, the importance of induction
programmes is indisputable.

What should induction processes cover?

Conditions of employment using any or by reference to written agreement or checklist,
or any other statutory instrument, individual employment contract.
 Rules and regulations
 Expected standards of the job using written standards
 Health and Safety issues through the existing Labour Laws
 Available Associations/Unions for workers
 Available policies on various employment issues
 Modes of remunerations
 Codes of conduct and Disciplinary measures

What should induction practices cover? Core duties and responsibilities of the job, by
reference to the job description, etc.
 Current departmental working practices and procedures;
 Any work protocols, guidelines or other relevant written information
 Supervisory arrangements, including who the employee should approach he or she
has any queries or problems at work
 Any training or development needs and/or prospects
 Basic terms and conditions or employment, including working hours and who to
contact if unable to come into work for any reason.
 The departmental requirements for reporting if sick and requesting annual leave.

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Who should be inducted?
Both the senior and support staff should benefit from the induction training
programmes (whether permanent, contract, temporary)

a) New Staff
During the first week, the head of unit should meet with the new member of staff and
go through the requirements.

b) Transferring Staff/Staff Relocation

Although the transferring staff may be conversant with the external environment, s/he
requires to be inducted into the internal system of the department she/he has been
transferred to since systems often times differ and be introduced to her/his new
colleagues.

c) Staff Promotion
Often times, when members of staff are promoted to higher ranks/positions within the
university, they are faced with challenges, therefore, they require induction training to
cope with their new positions.

How long should the Induction training be?

Depending on numbers and the area (sections) of the new starters, induction training
can take one month, two weeks, one week, one day or even a short interaction with the
head of the unit and going around.

Practicalities
This is useful information, if not the most interesting to participants and it includes:
i) How to conduct common administrative tasks;

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ii) What key information systems exist;
iii) How to get around the building

Training, as well as induction

New starters who missed this initial training are therefore left unsupported and
untrained. To address this, resources must be set aside to provide ongoing training f
new staff, or for staff who have moved between different areas of the university.

1) Cultural Change
New starters are unfamiliar with the environment and processes of the university, so it
is the ideal time to indict them into the "new" way working. In this way, new starters
can be “shaped” in order to achieve cultural change, such as:
Encouraging the agreed on mode of communication
Overcoming the "silos" within the university, by providing a holistic view of a university.

2) Knowledge Transfer
By formalizing knowledge transfer, or providing a more rigorous framework for informal
transfers, new starters can be provided with the information they need to conduct their
work.

3) Build Social Networks

teamwork aimed at pursuit of individual roles and optimisation of the entire-team.

MODULE EIGHT: Quality of Working Life

Aim: Quality of Working Life is a term that had been used to describe the broader job-
relate (experience an individual has. Whilst there has, for many years, been much
research into job satisfaction (1), and, more recently, an interest has arisen into the

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broader concepts of stress: and subjective well-being (2), the precise nature of the
relationship between these concepts has still been little explored. Stress at work is often
considered in isolation, wherein it is assessed on the basis that attention to an
individual's stress management skills or the sources of stress will prove to provide a
good enough basis for effective intervention. Alternatively, jot satisfaction may be
assessed, so that action can be taken which will enhance an individual’s performance.
Somewhere in all this, there is often an awareness of the greater context, whereupon
the home-work context is considered, for example, and other factors, such as an
individual’s personal characteristics, and the broader economic or cultural climate,
might be seen as relevant. In this context, subjective well-being is seen as drawing upon
both work and non-work aspects of life. However, more complex models of an
individuals experience in the workplace often appear to be set aside in an endeavour to
simplify the process of trying to measuring "stress" or some similarly apparently discrete
entity. It may be, however, that the consideration of the bigger, more complex picture is
essential, if targeted, effective action is to be taken to address quality of working life or
any of it’s sub-components in such a way as to produce real benefits, be they for the
individual or the organization.

Introduction
Quality of working life has been differentiated from the broader concept of Quality of
Life. To some degree, this may be overly simplistic, as Elizur and Shye, (1990)(3)
concluded that quality of work performance is affected by Quality of Life as well as
Quality of working life. However, it will be argued here that the specific attention to
work-related aspects of quality of life is valid. Whilst Quality of Life has been more
widely studied (4), Quality of working life, remains relatively unexplored and

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unexplained. A review of the literature reveals relatively little on quality of working life.
Where quality of working life has been explored, writers differ in their views on its' core
constituents. It is argued that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts as regards
Quality of working Life, and, therefore, the failure to attend to the bigger picture may
lead to the failure of interventions which tackle only one aspect. A clearer
understanding of the inter-relationship of the various facets of quality of working life
offers the opportunity for improved analysis of cause and effect in the workplace. This
consideration of Quality of working Life as the greater context for various factors in the
workplace, such as job satisfaction and stress, may offer opportunity for more cost-
effective interventions in the workplace. The effective targeting of stress reduction, for
example, may otherwise prove a hopeless task for employers pressured to take action
to meet governmental requirements.

Unit One: The Concept of Quality of Work Life

The term 'Quality of Work Life' (QWL) originated from the concept of open socio
technical system designed in the 1970s that helps to ensures autonomy in
work interdependence, and self-involvement with the idea of 'best fit between
technology and social organizations. Although he open socio-technical system is
traditional concept for practice, I assumes that optimal system performance and the
'right' technical organization coincide with those job conditions under which the social
and psychological needs of the workers are satisfied (Belweg, 1976). A better QWL
initiative supports to fulfill technical and social requirements of job in our organizations.
Different authors view QWL differently. According to Hackman and Suttle (1977)
concept and practice of QWL has broad and diverse and many use this phrase in their
own way, for example,

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 To some, quality of work life refers to industrial democracy, increased worker
participation in corporate decision-making, or a culmination of the goals of the
human relations movement of two decades ago.
 To others, especially those in management, the term suggests any of a variety of
efforts to improve productivity through improvements in the human rather than
the capital or technological inputs of production.
 Unions and worker representatives often view changes in the quality of work life as
leading to a more equitable sharing of the income and the resources of the
working organization and to more humane and healthier working conditions.
Alternatively, some union leaders suspect that management's efforts to improve
quality of work life are little more than attempts to elicit higher productivity from
workers without payment of higher wages. Finally, many view the quality of work
life as closely related to, if not merely a broader and more up-to-date term for,
such concepts as job satisfaction, humanizing work, or individualizing
organizations. Thus, efforts to improve quality of work life are seen as closely akin
to organizational development programs. (p. 174)

Unit Two: Definition of Quality of Working Life according to Scholars

Various authors and researchers have proposed models of Quality of working life which
include a wide range of factors. Selected models are reviewed below.
 Hackman and Oldham (1976)(5) drew attention to what they described as
psychological growth needs as relevant to the consideration of Quality of working
life.

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 Several such needs were identified; Skill variety, Task Identity, Task significance,
Autonomy and Feedback. They suggested that such needs have to be addressed if
employees are to experience high quality of working life.
 In contrast to such theory based models, Taylor (1979)(6) more pragmatically
identified the essential components of Quality of working life as; basic extrinsic job
factors of wages, hours and working conditions, and the intrinsic job notions of the
nature of the work itself.
 He suggested that a number of other aspects could be added, including; individual
power, employee participation in the management, fairness and equity, social
support, use of one's present skills, self development, a meaningful future at work,
social relevance of the work or product, effect on extra work activities.
 Taylor suggested that relevant Quality of working life concepts may vary according
to organization and employee group.

Warr and colleagues (1979)(7), in an investigation of Quality of working life, considered

a range of apparently relevant factors, including:
 Work involvement,
 Intrinsic job motivation,
 Higher order need strength,
 Perceived intrinsic job characteristics,
 Job satisfaction,
 Life satisfaction,
 Happiness, and
 Self-rated anxiety.

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They discussed a range of correlations derived from their work, such as those between
we involvement and job satisfaction, intrinsic job motivation and job satisfaction, and
perceived intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction.
 In particular, Warr et al. found evidence for a moderate association between total
job satisfaction and total life satisfaction and happiness, with a less strong, but
significant association with self-rated anxiety.
 Thus, whilst some authors have emphasized the workplace aspects in Quality of
working life, others have identified the relevance of personality factors,
psychological well being and broader concepts of happiness and life satisfaction.
Factors more obviously and directly affecting work have, however, served as the
main focus of attention, as researchers have tried to tease out the important
influences of Quality of working life in the work place.
 Mirvis and Lawler (1984)(8) suggested that Quality of working life was associated
with satisfaction with wages, hours and working conditions, describing the "basic
elements of a good quality of work life" as; safe work environment, equitable
wages, equal employment opportunities and opportunities for advancement.
 Baba and Jamal (1991)(9) listed what they described as typical indicators of quality
of working life, including:
 Job satisfaction,
 Job involvement,
 Work role ambiguity.
 Work role conflict.
 Work role overload,
 Job stress,
 Organizational commitment and;
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 Turn-over intentions.

Baba and Jamal also explored reutilization of job content, suggesting that this facet
should be investigated as part of the concept of quality of working life.
Some have argued that quality of working life might vary between groups of workers.
For example, Ellis and Pompli (2002)(10) identified a number of factors contributing to
job dissatisfaction and quality of working life in nurses, including:
 Poor working environments, •S Resident aggression,
 Workload,
 Unable to deliver quality of care preferred,
 Balance of work and family,
 Shiftwork,
 Lack of involvement in decision making,
 Professional isolation,
 Lack of recognition,
 Poor relationships with supervisor/peers,
 Role conflict,
 Lack of opportunity to learn new skills.

Sirgy et al.; (2001)(11) suggested that the key factors b quality of working life are:
 Need satisfaction based on job requirements,
 Need satisfaction based on Work environment,
 Need satisfaction based on Supervisory behaviour,
 Need satisfaction based on Ancillary programmes,
 Organizational commitment.

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They defined quality of working life as satisfaction of these key needs through resource
activities, and outcomes stemming from participation in the workplace.
 Maslow's needs were seen as relevant in underpinning this model, covering Health
safety, Economic and family, Social, Esteem, Actualization, Knowledge and
Aesthetic although the relevance of non-work aspects is play down as attention is
focused on quality of work life rather than the .broader concept of quality of life.
 These attempts at defining quality of working life have included theoretical
approached lists of identified factors, correlational analyses, with opinions varying
as to whether such definitions and explanations can be both global, or need to be
specific to each work setting.

Bearfield, (2003)(12) used 16 questions to examine quality of working life, and

distinguished between causes of dissatisfaction in professionals, intermediate clerical,
sales and service workers, indicating that different concerns might have to be addressed
for different groups.
 The distinction made between job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in quality of
working life reflects the influence of job satisfaction theories. Herzberg at al.,
(1959)(13) used "Hygiene factors" and "Motivator factors" to distinguish between
the separate causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
 It has been suggested that Motivator factors are intrinsic to the job, that is; job
content the work itself, responsibility and advancement.
 The Hygiene factors or dissatisfaction-avoidance factors include aspects of the job
environment such as interpersonal relationships, salary, working conditions and
security.

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 Of these latter, the most common cause of job dissatisfaction can be company
policy and administration, whilst achievement can be the greatest source of
extreme satisfaction.
 An individual's experience of satisfaction or dissatisfaction can be substantially
rooted in their perception, rather than simply reflecting then- "real world".
Further, an individual's perception can be affected by relative comparison-am I
paid as much as that person - and comparisons of internalized ideals, aspirations,
and expectations, for example, with the individual's current state (Lawler and
Porter, 1966) (1).

In summary, where it has been considered, authors differ in their views on the core
constituents of Quality of Working Life (e.g. Sirgy, Efraty, Siegel & Lee, 2001 (11) and
Warr, Cook & Wall, 1979) (7).
 It has generally been agreed however that Quality of Working Life is conceptually
similar to well-being of employees but differs from job satisfaction which solely
represents the workplace domain (Lawler, 1982) (15).
 Quality of Working Life is not a unitary concept, but has been seen as incorporating
a hierarchy of perspectives that not only include work-based factors such as job
satisfaction, satisfaction with pay and relationships with work colleagues, but also
factors that broadly reflect life satisfaction and general feelings of well-being
(Danna & Griffin, 1999) (16).
 More recently, work-related stress and the relationship between work and non-
work life domains (Loscocco & Roschelle, 1991) (17) have also been identified as
factors that should conceptually be included in Quality of Working Life.

Unit Three: Benefits of Quality Working Life

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 The benefits of QWL initiative go to both employees and employers. Employees
trust that with the presence of QWL initiatives they feel safe, relatively well
satisfied and AB to grow and thus can develop as human beings. They believe that
QWL enhances the dignity through job satisfaction and humanizing work by
assigning meaningful job ensuring job security, making provisions for adequate pay
and benefits, providing say and healthy working conditions, giving opportunities
to develop human capacity ensuring growth and security, social integration,
constitutionalism, getting freedom to self-expression and thus, help to increase
individual productivity that supports to achieve organizational effectiveness (Hian
and Einstein, 1990; Nachmias, 1988; Carlson, 1980 Guest, 1979; Suttle, 1977;
Walton, 1974). That's why Casio (1992) aptly defines QWL “in terms of employees'
perceptions of their physical and mental well-being." QWL initiatives are equally
beneficial for the employers. QWL positively nurtures a more flexible, loyal, and
motivated workforce, which is essential in determining the company's
competitiveness (Allan and Loseby, 1993; Meyer and Cooke, 1993; Bass and
Vanburen, 1997). There is statistically significant correlation between measures o
QWL and business performance in terms of market performance, stakeholder
value, an business sustainability as well as differentiating competitive capabilities in
terms of service quality, delivery, employee knowledge, flexibility, and
technological leadership (Roth, 1993).

Unit Four: Approaches to Quality Working Life

Although the technical aspects of traditional personnel administration are still an QWL
reduces absenteeism, lower turnover, and improved job satisfaction (Havlovic, 1991;
Cohen et al. 1997; King and Ehrhard, 1997).

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 Largely, it appears that the main concerns of an effective QWL program are
improved working conditions mainly from an employee's perspective and greater
organizational effectiveness mainly from an employer's perspective.
 Predicting or studying QWL variables depends on approaches adopted to improve
QWL situation at the organizational level.
 Three different approaches regarding QWL are common in the literature of human
resource management (Krahn and Lowe, 1998; Crompton and Harris, 1998; Gallie,
1990; Rose, 1994).
 In the era of scientific management, QWL was based on extrinsic traits of jobs:
salaries, safety and hygiene, and other tangible benefits of the workplace.
 The human relations approach stressed that, while extrinsic rewards are
important, intrinsic traits of job: autonomy, challenges and task contents, are key
predictors of productivity and efficiency.
 A third approach- orientation to work- suggested that a focus on extrinsic or
intrinsic reward is contingent on the person. However, the success of QWL
initiatives depends on openness and trust, information management,
organizational culture, partnership between management and workers (Casio,
1992).

Equally important, responsibility of improving QWL is concerned, it should be jointly

shared by employees, owners, union leaders and governments through legislations
(Suttle, 1977).
 The role of these stakeholders is most vital in protecting rights and interests of the
workers and employees. Very few authors have mentioned about the role of the
state in the protection of QWL rights at the time of liberalization and globalization.

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 Although with the increasing impact of liberalization and deregulation of economy,
organizations in developed and developing are demanding for more autonomy in
labor related decisions, provisions and mechanism of implementing QWL initiatives
should come from the labor laws. In this article, only the legislative role of the
government is discussed to explain QWL situation in Nepalese manufacturing
 In Uganda for example, at the time of decentralization, salaries for staff on tr.;
payroll were a central responsibility, although this has now been decentralized
through a special conditional grant.
 In the past, professional staff were put on the national payroll and other peripheral
staff were hired locally for work in rural centers and paid for by the Ministry of
Local Government. After the decentralization reforms, staff in lower categories
were supposed to be paid by local committees, but in practice this often did not
happen and they were not paid for long periods.
 Demand for human resources in business sector must -be considered in terms of
the numbers and the skills and expertise needed currently and what will be
anticipated in the future.
 There is a growing awareness that human resource issues need to be prioritized
more effectively in the business sector in order to secure adequate public service
workforce to deliver services now and in the future.

Business sector culture

Although public sector reform has included elements of human resources strategies
such as improved education and training, restructured salary scales and a closer link
between performance and reward, it has also had a fundamental impact on
organizational culture and business sector ethos, which in turn influence demand for

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human resources, This module attempts to highlight the importance of human resource
development, personnel management and staff motivation are critical issues. And
although most governments have invested in human resources development, low
salaries, delayed promotion opportunities and poor working conditions have often led
to dissatisfaction in the workforce.

Staff performance is another area that requires addressing. Hence, in a country where
services are centralized, with an imbalance in personnel and low staff motivation and
poor standards of care, there is poor service delivery. If not addressed, poor human 1
resources policies and management might result into high cost and poor quality of
services. Therefore it is crucial to keep in mind that human resources should become
the central focus in organizations.

Matheson (2002) points out that "the least systematically oriented area of recent public
management reforms has been HRM. There is a danger that the constitutional, legal,
cultural and leadership factors, which together create what is important and distinctive
about public services, are not reflected on, or are dismissed as the bureaucratic problem
which must be 'reformed'.

MODULE/TOPIC FOUR; HR Strategy for Public Administration

Aim; Fiscal reforms in Uganda have resulted in pressure to measure the staff outputs in
the business sector. Financial decentralization has led to government agencies to
become corporatized institutions, operating with business principles but remaining in
the business sector. The introduction of market mechanisms often involve the formation
of an internal market with in the business sector and market testing of different
functions with the private sector. This has immediate implications for the employment

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of workers in the sector, because the business sector may reduce its workforce if
services are purchased from other sectors or may introduce more short term and
temporary employment contracts,

Hence decentralization of budgets and administrative functions, can affect the sector,
often in negative ways, by reducing resources available, and confusing lines of
accountability for public workers. Governance and regulations of public services, when
delivered by both public and private providers, require new systems of regulations. The
increase decentralization............

case, where-two or more employees are vying for a higher position and all are equally
qualified to be promoted.

On the other hand, transfers are carried out either to get rid of an employee who is not
liked in a specific department, or if s/he is liked, to better place where there are a
multitude of benefits. This basis has destroyed employees morale and motivation and
others have even become rebels and saboteurs due to the equity effects. Hence, this
module addresses the challenges of promotions and transfers in the business sectors.
There has been hot debates on the topic of promotion and transfers in literature.
Research (Kaguhangire, 2006) has found that whatever basis for promotion or transfer,
if it is not well communicated and not based on any established policy, it is likely to
cause a lot of destruction in the organization. Hence, rewarding long-term employees by
promoting them into positions they are not well-suited for is unfair to the employee,
fellow employees and the sector. Another common reason people are promoted is
because they are well liked or favoured by their supervisors.

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Therefore, being well liked in and of itself is not a reason to promote someone. Certainly
if the employee possesses the requisite skills and profile for upward mobility they
should be considered for the promotion. However, it seems that organizations and
managers promote people because they like the person. They want to reward the
individual for making them feel good and for being a good team player. Some
employees are promoted because they are doing an excellent job in their current
positions. But does that alone indicate they will be effective at the next level in the
organizational hierarchy? Absolutely not! Many employees that are effective in their
current positions fail miserably in higher position. So when does it make sense to
promote from within? It only makes sense when an employee has the ability to manage
effectively. That means that all of your personal biases about employees must be
shelved when making promotional decisions. It means that unless an employee is

Performance management is the systematic process by which an agency involves its

employees, as individuals and members of a group, in improving organizational
effectiveness in the accomplishment of agency mission goals. It includes:
 Planning work and setting expectations
 Continually monitoring performance
 Developing the capacity to perform
 Periodically rating performance in a summary fashion
 Rewarding good performance4
In his book "Performance Management: Perspective on Employee Performance" Richard
S. Williams mentioned that one of the things that writers on performance management
agree about is that performance management is difficult to define though t is possible
to discern three main perspectives or types of model:

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 As a system for managing organizational performance;
 As a system for managing employee performance;
 As a system for integrating the management of organizational and employee
performance.
Business sector often introduce new approaches to managing staff. Perhaps the most
important innovation is "thinking differently about staff, which effectively underpins
other changes. The three most innovative dimensions are "flexible staffing and
recruitment practices, recognizing achievement and developing performance contracts",
 The element of fiscal reform that emphasizes outputs and outcomes of
government services informs the development of performance management. It is
because individuals feel actively involved in the process and it encourages them to
work through the points above beforehand. This can be particularly useful with
more junior staffer those not used to appraisals. However, self assessment can only
work if individuals have clear targets and standards against which to assess-
themselves. It can also only be effective in a climate of trust where individuals
believe their appraisers will not take advantage of an open self-assessment.

(iv) A Good Appraisal and Appraisal Skills

What a good appraisal looks like: A good and constructive appraisal meeting is one in
which:
 Appraisees do most of the talking
 Appraisers listen actively to what they say
 There is scope for reflection and analysis
 Performance is analyzed not personality
 The whole period is reviewed and not just recent or isolated events

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 Achievement is recognized and reinforced
 Ends positively with agreed action plans.

A bad appraisal meeting:

 Focuses on a catalogue of failures and omissions
 Is controlled by the appraiser
 Ends with disagreement between appraiser and appraisee.
Appraisal skills
 All managers expected to carry out performance appraisal should have some
training. Ideally this should not just be on the skills of performance appraisal the
'how' to do it, but also on the reasons for performance appraisal the, ‘why' we do
it.
 Managers should understand how it fits into the wider strategic process of
performance management and how the information and data generated
contributes to understanding of the capacity of the human capital of the
organization to contribution to business strategy and value.
 A basic requirement is that appraisers have the skills to carry out an effective
appraisal as described above. This means they ask the right questions, listen
actively and provide feedback.

Asking the right questions

The two main issues are to ensure that appraisers ask open and probing questions.
 Open questions are general rather than specific; they enable people to decide
how they should be answered and encourage them to talk freely. Examples
include:
 How do you feel things have been going?
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  How do you see the job developing?
 How do you feel about that?
 Tell me, why do you think that happened?
 Probing questions dig deeper for more specific information on what happened or
shy. They should support for the individual's answer and encourage them to
provide more information about their feelings and attitudes and they can also be
used to reflect back to the individual and check information. Examples would be:
There is a view that the content of appraisal discussions should be confidential to the
individual and the appraiser. But increasing pressure to provide information to assess
the contribution of people to organizational value makes it desirable that performance
data be recorded and stored in such a way that it can be used to feed into indicators of
human capital value. Increasingly, organizations are putting more emphasis on the kind
of behaviour they want their employees to exhibit. Behaviour, particularly management
behaviour, has been identified as a significant source of value. They are therefore not
solely concerned with the achievement of objectives but how these were achieved.
Some organizations are identifying a set of positive management behaviours for
example and then rating against them.

Others are identifying the behaviours associated with excellent service and rating
against these in the appraisal process. Again the design of the process-will depend on
what is important to the particular business and the achievement of their business
objectives and will therefore be influenced by the wider performance management
process. It is important that people don't achieve their objectives at the expense of their
colleagues' morale.

Preparing for the meeting

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Both parties should prepare for the meeting beforehand if a successful outcome is to be
delivered. The person conducting the meeting or the appraiser should:
 Consider how well the individual has performed since the last meeting.
 Consider to what extent any agreed development plans from the last meeting have
been implemented.
 Think about the feedback to be given at the meeting and the evidence that will be
used to support it.
 Review the factors that have affected^ performance both those within and outside
the individual's control.
 Consider the points for discussion on the possible actions that can be taken by both
parties to develop or improve performance.
 Consider possible directions the individual's career might take.
 Consider possible objectives for the next review period.

The individual or appraisee should consider the following points:

 What they have achieved during the review period, with examples and evidence.
 Any examples of objectives not achieved with explanations.
 What they most enjoy about the job and how they might want to develop the role.
 Any aspect of the work in which improvement is required and how this might be
achieved.
 Their learning and development needs with arguments to support their case for
specific training.
 What level of support and guidance they require from their manager.
 Their aspirations for the future both in the current role and in possible future roles.
 Objectives for the next review period.

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Self-assessment
In some instances it may be helpful to guide appraisees through a self-assessment
process encouraging them to assess and analyze their own performance as a basis for
discussion and action. This can improve the quality of the appraisal discussion

Research has reported that appraisees seem to have greater acceptance of the appraisal
process, and feel more satisfied with it, when the process is directly linked to rewards.
Such findings are a serious challenge to those who feel that appraisal results and reward
outcomes must be strictly isolated from each other. There is also a group who argues
that the evaluation of employees for reward purposes, and frank communication with
them about their performance, are part of the basic responsibilities of management.
The practice of not discussing reward issues while appraising performance is, say critics,
based on inconsistent and muddled ideas of motivation. In many organizations, this
inconsistency is aggravated by the practice of having separate wage and salary reviews,
in which merit rises and bonuses are decided arbitrarily, and often secretly, by
supervisors and managers.

Performance appraisals usually review past behaviour and so provide an opportunit 1 to

reflect on past performance. But to be successful they should also be used as a basis for
making development and improvement plans and reaching agreement about what
should be done in the future. The performance appraisal is often the central pillar of
performance management and our performance management survey carried out in
2009 found that 81 per cent of organizations used individual appraisals. However, it is a
common mistake to assume that if organizations implement performance appraisal,
they have performance management. This is not the case.

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Performance management is a holistic process bringing together many activities which
collectively contribute to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to
achieve high levels of organizational performance. Performance management is
strategic in that it is about broader issues and long term goals and integrated in that it
links various aspects of the business, people management, individuals and teams.

appraisal result"7 Very likely, in that situation, many people would deny or downplay
their weaknesses. Nor is the desire to distort or deny the truth confined to the person
being appraised. Many appraisers feel uncomfortable with the combined role of judge
and executioner.

Such reluctance is not difficult to understand. Appraisers often know their appraisees
well, and are typically in a direct subordinate-supervisor relationship. They work
together on a daily basis and may, at times, mix socially. Suggesting that subordinate
needs to brush up on certain work skills is one thing; giving an appraisal result that has
the direct effect of negating a promotion is another. The result can be resentment and
serious morale damage, leading to workplace disruption, soured relationships and
productivity declines. On the other hand, there is a strong rival argument which claims
that performance appraisal must unequivocally be linked reward outcomes.

The advocates of this approach say that organizations must have a process by which
rewards - which are not an unlimited resource - may be openly and fairly distributed to
those most deserving on the basis of merit, effort and results. There is a critic need for
remunerative justice in organizations. Performance appraisal - whatever its practical
flaws - is the only process available to help achieve fair, decent and consistent reward
outcomes. It has also been claimed that appraisees themselves are inclined to believe

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that appraisal results should be linked directly to reward outcomes - and are suspicious
and disappointed when told this is not the case. Rather than feeling relieved, appraisees
may suspect that they are not being told the whole truth, or that the appraisal process is
a sham and waste of time.

The Link to Rewards

How many people in your organization want to hear that they were less than perfect
last year? How many managers want to face the arguments and diminished morale that
can result from the performance appraisal process?
How many supervisors feel their time is well-spent professionally to document and
provide proof to support their feedback - all year long? Plus, the most important
outputs tor the performance appraisal, from each person’s job, may not be defined or
measurable in your current work system. Make the appraisal system one step harder to
manage and tie the employee's salary increase to their numeric rating.

If the true goal of the performance appraisal is employee development and

organizational improvement, consider moving to a performance management system.
Place the focus on what you really want to create in your organization - performance
management and development

(i) The Concept of Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal may be defined as a structured formal interaction between a
subordinate and supervisor, that usually takes the form of a periodic interview (annual
or semi-annual), in which the work performance of the subordinate is examined and
discussed, with a view to identifying weaknesses and strengths as well as opportunities
for improvement and skills development.

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 In many organizations - but not all - appraisal results are used, either directly or
indirectly, to help determine reward outcomes. That is, the appraisal results are
used to identify the better performing employees who should get the majority of
available merit pay increases, bonuses, and promotions.
 By the same token, appraisal results are used to identify the poorer performer who
may require some form of counseling, or in extreme cases, demotion, dismissal or
decreases in pay. (Organizations need to be aware of laws in their country that
might restrict their capacity to dismiss employees or decrease pay.
 Whether this is an appropriate use of performance appraisal - the assignment and
justification of rewards and penalties - is a very uncertain and contentious matter.
Controversy with Appraisals
Few issues in management stir up more controversy than performance appraisal. There
are many reputable sources - researchers, management commentators,
psychometricians - who have expressed doubts about the validity and reliability of the
performance appraisal process. Some have even suggested that the process is so
inherently flawed that it may be impossible to perfect it. At the other extreme, there are
many strong advocates of performance appraisal. Some view it as potentially "... the
most crucial aspect of organizational life."

Between these two extremes lie various schools of belief. While all endorse the use of
performance appraisal, there are many different opinions on how and when to apply it.
There are those, for instance, who believe that performance appraisal has many
important employee development uses, but scorn any attempt to link the process to
reward outcomes - such as pay rises and promotions. The linkage to reward outcomes
reduces or eliminates the developmental value of appraisals. Rather than an

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opportunity for constructive review and encouragement, the reward-linked process is
perceived as judgmental, punitive and harrowing. For example, how many people
would gladly admit their work problems if, at the same time they knew that their next
pay rise or a much-wanted promotion was riding on an

 Collective Bargaining: This represents wages jointly agreed to by both

management and Union.
 Job Evaluation: This is the logical method of determining the relative worth of jobs
in organization. It is meant to correct any imbalance resulting from a non
systematic emergence of a pay structure.

With respect to the public service, the highlighted wage determinants above can be
classified into three broad categories,
 Administrative fact: Giving directives on pay through the issuance of circulars to
affected organization,
 Wages Commissions: The use of wage commissions to recommend income of
workers.
 Collective Bargaining: The use of negotiation between management and workers
union.

SECTION F: Appraisals and Performance Management

Introduction
Human resources are the business sectors' most valuable asset. They define the
efficiency, effectiveness and over-all quality of service in any industry. The government
sector is no exception. The need to establish an effective system that accurately
evaluates the performance of its workers for the purpose of determining tenure,

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transfers or promotions, and appropriate incentives is of absolute urgency-While
policies and systems for employee performance evaluation have long been in place in
government, there has been an increasing demand to review the existing system i.e.
demand for business persons to produce tangible results by "making a difference"
instead of "just keeping busy," demand for increased accountability by performing the
mandate of the organization, the need to correct the notion that a permanent
appointment guarantees security of tenure. Hence, this module intends to highlight the
importance of performance management as a HRM function that is critical for
Administrators since they are HR (Human Resource) managers of the government, to
reinforce and reinvigorate as necessary, the performance management system of the
bureaucracy. Performance appraisal is an important part of performance management.

In itself performance appraisal is not performance management, but it is one of the

range of tools that can be used to manage performance. Because it is most usually
carried out by line managers rather than HR professionals, in this case who are
administrators, it is important that they understand their role in performance
management and how performance appraisal contributes to the overall aims of
performance management. This is because, the performance appraisal or review is
essentially an opportunity for the individual and those concerned with their
performance – most usually their line manager - to get together to engage in a dialogue
about the individual's performance, development and the support require from the
manager. It should not be a top down process or an opportunity for one person to ask
questions and the other to reply. It should be a free flowing conversation in which a
range of views are exchanged.

Performance Appraisals
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Performance appraisals, performance reviews, appraisal forms, whatever you want to
call them, let's call them gone. As a stand-alone, annual assault, a performance appraisal
is universally disliked and avoided. After all:

Performance appraisal on the other hand is operational, short to medium term and
concerned only with the individual and their performance and development. It is one of
the tools of performance management and the data produced can feed into other
elements of performance management but in itself can never be performance
management. Administrators should therefore stress the importance of a positive
relationship between individual employees and line managers. Carried out sensitively,
the performance appraisal is an important vehicle in developing and maintaining this
relationship.

(iii) History of Performance Appraisals

Performance appraisal as a function of staffing is a distinct and formal management
procedure used in the evaluation' of work performance, appraisal which dates from the
time of the Second World War (about 60years ago). Yet, in a broader sense, the practice
of appraisal is a very ancient art. In the scale of things historical, it might well lay claim
to being the world's second oldest profession! Dulewicz (1989) affirms how there is a
basic tendency to make judgements about those one is working with, as well as about
oneself. Whether profit companies or service organizations such as a university,
appraisal is both inevitable and universal. In the absence of u carefully structured
system of appraisal, people will tend to judge the work performance of others, including
subordinates, naturally, informally and arbitrarily.
The human inclination to judge can create serious motivational, ethical and legal
problems in the workplace. Without a structured appraisal system, there is little chance
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of ensuring that the judgements made will be lawful, fair, defensible and accurate.
Hence, performance evaluation/appraisal systems began as simple methods of income
justification. That is, appraisal was used to decide whether or not the salary or wage of
an individual employee was justified. The process was firmly linked to material
outcomes. If an employee's performance was found to be less than ideal, a cut in pay
would follow. On the other hand, if their performance was better than the supervisor
expected, a pay rise was in order. Little consideration, if any was given to the
developmental possibilities of appraisal. It was felt that a cut in pay, or a rise, should
provide the only requirement for an employee to either improve or continue to perform
well.

Sometimes, this basic system succeeded in getting the results that were intended; but
more often than not, it failed. For example, early motivational researchers were aware
that different people with roughly equal work abilities could be paid the same amount
of money and yet have quite different levels of motivation and performance. These
observations however, were confirmed in empirical studies. Pay rates were important
but they were not the only element that had an impact on employee performance. It
was found that other issues, such as morale and self-esteem, could also have a major
influence- As a result, the traditional emphasis on reward outcomes was progressively
rejected.

As time went by, the potential usefulness of appraisal as a tool for motivation and
development was gradually recognized. The general model of performance appraisal as
it is known today, began from that time.

Modern Appraisal

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Performance appraisal may be defined as a structured formal interaction between a
subordinate and a supervisor, that usually takes the form of a periodic interview (annual
or semi-annual), in which the work performance of the subordinate is examined and
discussed, with a view to identifying weaknesses and strengths as well

the determination of planning inputs, sources of inputs, users of the outputs, and the
types "of outputs required. In essence, the strategic view argues for a joint responsibility
for planning between managers and planners and emphasizes that the transformation
stage of the system underpins their relationship. Finally, the framework incorporates
key organizational and management variables considered important for the organization
to comprehend and articulate in its pursuit of change.

What is Manpower Planning?

Manpower planning is a procedure or tool for forecasting the number of workers a
company will need in future years. It is a traditional function of a human resources
department. If you are referring to the company Manpower Planning, then the
difference would be external planning as opposed to internal HR planning. You would
essentially be outsourcing the job to someone else. The methods of forecasting,
whether done by an independent analyst at Manpower or an internal HR manager, are
basically the same.

Manpower refers to the quantity and quality of workforce while, planning involves
anticipation and preparation for the future.
 Manpower planning may be defined as forecasting the number and type of
personnel when the organization will have to hire, train and promote in a
particular period in order to achieve its objective.

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 It seeks to ensure that the origination has an adequate number of qualified
personnel the proper times for performing various jobs which will achieve the
goals of the organization and which provide satisfaction to the concerned
personnel.

According to Geisley (2004):

Manpower planning is the process which includes forecasting, with the developing,
implementing and controlling help of which a firm ensures has the right numbers of
people and the right kind of people, at places, at the right time, doing work for which
they are economically useful.

Human Resource Planning: - Strategic Planning

1. Understand organizational mission, goals/objectives and strategic requirements.
2. Ensure that people are available to meet the requirements set during strategic
planning.
3. Assess existing human resources: Take inventory of current number of human
resources and their skills.
4. Use the Human Resource Information Systems (HRJS) with computerized databases
on important information about the employees.
5. Develop replacement charts projecting existing/future vacant positions and who
are possible candidates to fill them.
6. Determine the demand of human resources for future: Develop human resource
inventory for year by year estimated requirements of manpower for positions and
skills.

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7. Study the sources and reasons of addition or depletion of human resources:
Estimate the possible addition and depletion of human resources. The additions
come from new recruits, contingent workers, employees transferred from other
units of the company, persons returning from leaves etc. The depletion comes
from retirements, dismissals, people transferred out from the organization, lay-
offs, resignations, sabbaticals, prolonged illnesses, deaths etc. Many of these are
within internal control and on some there is no control.
8. Study the sources of supply of manpower: The sources of supply include recent
pass-outs from various institutions, schools, colleges and universities, persons
retiring from armed forces, people from other organizations seeking
employment outside etc.
9. Decide action to recruit or downsize: If the forecast requirement of manpower
exceeds the existing manpower i.e. there is shortage of human resource within the
organization, action will be to position/recruit the addition manpower. If the
forecast requirement is less than the current level of employees, the action will be
to downsize. These actions are dynamically required in a dynamically changing
business scenario and call for constant right sizing (involving extra manpower or
less manpower).

Factors Affecting Human Resource Planning

 Company's strategies and objectives.
 Time span of HRP
 Fluctuations in business scenario.
 Accuracy of forecasting manpower requirements.
 Organization structure.

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 Updated HRIS.
 Availability of the talent- internally and externally.
 Training and development resources.
 Lead time of positioning talent.
The above-mentioned factors are requisites for successful HRP. If they are absent or
improperly planned and executed, they become the barriers to HRP.

Benefits of' Human-Resource Planning

 HRP provides view of human resource dimension of business decisions.
 It can help in anticipating human resource costs and therefore, can provide
guidelines for cost control.
 More time is available to locate and position talent
 Better planning of assignments to develop managers
 Maximum utilization of human resource with better efficiency and productivity.
 Give boost to youngsters by appointment to higher posts
 Best motivation for internal promotion
 Look after the expected losses due to retirement, transfer and other issues
 See for replacement due to accident, death, dismissals and promotion

Nature of manpower planning

The features of manpower planning are described as follows:
 Manpower planning involves forecasting and projecting the future manpower
needs so that an adequate and timely provision may be made to meet those %
requirements.

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 The aim of manpower planning is to determine the right number and type of
personnel required for effective accomplishment of tasks, goals and objectives of
the organization;
 The human resource planning has the prime responsibility of management to
ensure effective utilization of present and feature manpower;
 It is a continuous and never ending process since the demand and supply of
manpower are subjects to frequent change;
 Human resource planning (HRP) is a process by .which an organization makes sure
that:
o It has the right number and right kinds of people.

o At the right place.

o At the right time.

o To do the right tasks to meet its overall strategic objectives.

 According to Coleman, HRP is the process of determining human resource

requirements and the means for meeting those requirements in order to carry out
the integrated plan of the organization.
 According Stainer, HRP is the strategy for acquisition, utilization, improvement and
preservation of an enterprise's human resources. It relates to establishing the
quantitative requirements of jobs determining the number of personnel required
and developing sources of manpower.
 Overall the purpose of the planning is to invoke an institutional learning process
and to generate information which can be utilized to support management
decision making in all staffing areas.

Human resource planning in today's conditions: the strategic systems approach

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The theoretical basis for the managerial perspective of the framework is derived from
the relevant organizational theories, particularly the systems approach and contingency
theories of the organization.
 The relevant strategic aspect of the contingency approach incorporated by the
framework is the relationship between an organization and its environment. The
framework is thus termed the strategic systems approach to human resource
planning. Its principal rationale centers’ on its strength in integrating the various
facets involved in undertaking human resource planning.
 It allows a better consideration of the major forces and operational variables, both
in the external environment and in the organization, that have a crucial effect on
how and why planning acts as it does. Thereby, human resource planning is
conceived as an open system which operates and interacts with its environment.
 The strategic focus of the framework signifies the unique place of human resource
planning, recognizing that the nature of human beings and their innate flexibility
means that they cannot be planned and managed in a fashion similar to that for
other resources. Furthermore, planning for the human resource involves creating a
relationship between the organization as a whole and the environment, which
gives some continuing and satisfactory balance of benefits and risks for the
organization.
 It is pertinent also that a longer term perspective (at least three years and
extending perhaps to five years for some types of occupation) is adopted within
the model since this length of period is required to produce new skills, to upgrade
existing ones and to engage in organizational transformation (Skinner, 1981).
 The adoption of such a perspective is necessary to manage uncertainties and risks
created by major changes in environmental factors in the medium to long term.
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The relationships that human resource planners and human resource planning
processes create among groups within the organization serve as the thrust of the
strategic view of the framework. Such relationships give rise to the form of planning
adopted and implementation responsibilities for those involved. Equally important is

a deliberate process to ensure that staff are developed who are able to replace senior-
management as required. The process of deciding how and when the management,
ownership and/or control of a business will be transferred to subsequent owners. A
process designed to ensure the continued effective performance of an organization by
making provision for the development and replacement of key people over time.
Succession planning is generally considered to be a strategy of workforce planning.

Importance of Succession Planning

Succession planning enables your organization to identify talented employees and
provide education to develop them for future higher level and broader responsibilities.
Succession planning helps you "build bench strength."

Succession planning helps you decide where people belong on the bus. Institutions
should find out more. With today's workforce, talent is the key-driver of organizational
success and mobility is common amongst employees. Strategic succession planning is
the process of building a viable talent pool that contributes to the current and future
success of an organization. When implemented well, strategic succession planning
meets the talent needs of any organization.

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Contemporary systems no longer think just about the replacement of talent, but also
focus on development. These new approaches take a more systemic approach toward
an organization's human capital. The forces that have renewed interest in succession
systems and have changed them in dramatic ways are trends that have affected
business in the new global economy. Research suggests that 'succession savvy'
corporations possess several traits that characterize their winning approaches to
succession management.

 First, the succession-^systems are easy to use: Winning systems are non-
bureaucratic, uncomplicated processes - with a unified approach to ensure
consistency and maintain objectivity across business units, organizational levels
and geographic areas. They are developmentally oriented, rather than simply
replacement oriented. They become a proactive vehicle for managers and
executives to reflect on the progress of their talent and the opportunities they
require for genuine development. Highly effective systems always actively involve
the very top players in the organization. Senior executives view effective
succession management as a critical strategic tool for attracting and retaining
talent.
 Succession systems are also effective at spotting gaps in talent and identifying
important lynchpin positions - the select set of jobs that are critical to the overall
success of the organization.
 Succession planning does the job of monitoring the succession process, enabling
the company to ensure that the right people are moving into the right jobs at the
right time and that gaps are being spotted early on. The most successful systems
are built around continual reinvention.

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 One of the most common and effective approaches is a taskforce assignment
based on real and significant issues confronting the organization is succession
planning. Human Resource departments therefore, should support a functional
measure of the system to determine whether candidates are being placed in
appropriate open positions and whether they are successful in those positions.
While the succession management process cannot be uniformly employed, there
are certain characteristics of effective succession management that are universal:
1. Smooth transitions. Having someone to step into an important vacancy is a critical
measure of the effectiveness of succession management. However,

In-conclusion, successful succession management is not a static target.

Outstanding practices stay outstanding by continuously defining, refining refocusing and
adapting to meet changing circumstances.
The future success of any organization resides, in part, with a clearly delineated
strategic succession plan.

Hence, business sectors should refocus on the priorities to compete aggressively to

attract and retain the very best staff.

Planning Continuity
 This measure is a responsibility of the HR Directorates of the state.
 The unit that handles succession management should be in charge of planning
continuity.
 This should be put in place for emergencies, in case sudden or unexpected
occurrence or combination of occurrences that may cause injury, loss of life
destruction of property or, cause the interference, loss or disruption of a unit's
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 normal business operations to such an extent that it poses a threat to the society
and the community in particular.
 An emergency is something that may overwhelm the organization's ability to
resolve the situation.
On the other hand, it could be a disaster that might result in a sudden, unplanned event
with a significant scope of impact involving many people if not an entire community and
is based on the scope of the event, number of lives impacted, and the devastation of
property periodically conduct compensation surveys and review their compensation
system to assure external equity.

 There are professional organizations that conduct compensation surveys and

provide their analysis to organizations - Public Service could borrow a leaf here.

Several factors are generally considered in evaluating the market rate of a job. They
include
 The cost of living of the area,
 Union contracts, and
 Broader economic conditions.

Urban areas generally have a higher cost of living than rural areas. For this matter, in
calculating the real pay, a cost-of-living allowance (COLA) should be added to the base
wage or salary. It should be noted however, that during an economically depressed
period, the labor supply usually exceeds the demand in the labor market, resulting in
lower labor rates. The characteristics of an individual employee are also important in
determining compensation.
 An individual's job qualifications,

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  Abilities and skills,
 Prior experiences, and even
 Willingness to work in hardship conditions are determining factors.

Within the reasonable range of a market rate, Public Service should explore avenues of
generating funds to offer additional compensation to attract and retain competent
employees. In principle, compensation must be designed around the job, not the
person. Person-based pay frequently results in discriminatory practices, which violates
the principle of procedural and distributive justice, and job-based compensation is the
employer's most powerful defense for litigation issues.

For job-based compensation, management must conduct a systematic job analysis

identifying and describing what is happening on the job. Each job must be carefully
examined to list;
 The necessary tasks and actions,
 Identify skills and abilities required, and
 Establish desirable behaviors for successful completion of the job.

With complete and comprehensive data about all the jobs, job analysts must conduct
systematic comparisons of them and determine their relative worth. Numerous
techniques have been developed for the analysis of relative worth, including the simple
point method,
 Job classification method,
 Job ranking method, and
 The factor comparison method.

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Information resulting from the comprehensive job analysis should be use for
establishing pay or wage grades. Once a manager can identify fair and realistic wages of
two or more jobs, desirably top and bottom ones, then all the rest can be prorated
along the wage curve. In order to simplify the administration of a wage structure, similar
jobs in the approximate cluster are grouped together into a class or grade for pay
purpose. Employees move up in their pay within each grade, typical by seniority. Once a
person hits the top pay in the grade, he or she can only increase the pay by moving to a
higher grade. Under certain unusual circumstances, it is possible

 That's very interesting. Tell me more about….?

 To what extent do you think that...?
 Have I got the right impression? Do you mean that....?

Listening: Good listeners:

 Concentrate on the speakers and are aware of behaviour, body language and
nuances that supplement what is being said.
 Respond quickly when necessary but don't interrupt.
 Ask relevant questions to clarify meaning.
 Comment on points to demonstrate understanding but keep them short and do
not inhibit the flow of the speaker.

Giving feedback
Feedback should be based on facts not subjective opinion and should always be backed
up with evidence and examples.
 The aim of feedback should be to promote the understanding of the individual so
that they are aware of the impact of their actions and behaviour.

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 It may require corrective action where the feedback indicates that something has
gone wrong. However, wherever possible feedback should be used positively to
reinforce the good and identify opportunities for further positive action.
 Giving feedback is a skill and those with no training should be discouraged from
giving feedback.

Feedback will work best when the following conditions are met:
 Feedback is built in with individuals being given access to readily available
information on their performance and progress.
 Feedback is related to actual events, observed behaviours or actions.
 Feedback describes events without judging them.
 Feedback is accompanied by questions soliciting the individual's opinion why
certain things happened.
 People are encouraged to come to their own conclusions about what happened
and why.
 There is understanding about what things went wrong and an emphasis on putting
them right rather than censuring past behaviour.

 Appraisal forms an important part of performance management. However,

appraisal is only one aspect of that process. Done well it can significantly enhance
relationships between individuals and line managers, and provide an effective
vehicle for objective setting and review. But its impact as a single tool is limited
unless it is delivered within a broader process which also recognizes the on-going
importance of the line manager relationship outside the annual cycle of objective
setting and review.

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(vi) Preparation and Planning for Performance Management
Much work is invested, on the front end, to improve a traditional employee appraisal
process. In fact, managers can feel as if the new process is too time consuming. Once
the foundation of developmental goals is in place, however, time to administer the
system decreases. Each of these steps is taken with the participation and cooperation of
the employee, for best results.

If a company pays its employees below the market rate it may lose competent
employees. In determining adequate pay for employees, a manager must consider the
three major factors:
 The labor market,
 The nature and scope of the job, and
 Characteristics of the individual employee.
Potential employees are recruited from a certain geographic area—the labor market.
The actual boundary of a labor market varies depending on the type of;
 Job,
 Company, and
 Industry.
For example, an opening for a Veterinary Officer of a certain District may attract
candidates from across the country, whereas a secretarial position at a Secondary
School may attract candidates only from the immediate local area of the school. Pay for
a job even within the same labor market may vary widely because of many factors such
as; the industry,
 Type of job,
 Cost of living, and
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  Location of the job.
Compensation managers must be aware of these differences. To help compensation
managers understand the market rate of labor, a compensation survey should be
conducted. A compensation survey should obtain data regarding what other firms pay
for specific jobs or job classes in a given geographic market. Large companies

 Incentives or bonuses are re wards offered in addition to the, base wage when
employees achieve a high level of performance.
 Benefits are rewards offered for being a member of the organization and can
include paid vacation, health and life insurance, company house or car and
retirement pension.

A company's compensation system must include policies, procedures, and rules that
provide clear and unambiguous determination and ministration of employee
compensation. Otherwise, there can be confusion, diminished employee satisfaction,
and potentially costly litigation.

 Compensation is the remuneration received by an employee in return for his/her

contribution to the organization. It is an organized practice that involves balancing
the work-employee relation by providing monetary and non-monetary 7 benefits to
employees.
 Compensation is an integral part of human resource management which helps in
motivating the employees and improving organizational effectiveness.

(ii) Determinants of Compensation

 Fair and adequate compensation is critical to motivating employees attracting
high-potential employees, and retaining competent employees.
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 Compensation has to be fair and equitable among all workers in the same
company (internal equity).
 Internal equity can be achieved when pay is proportionate to the individual
employee's qualifications and contributions to a company.
 On the other hand, compensation also has to be fair and equitable in comparison
to the external market (external equity).

according to levels and may result in a command structure with decisions only
communicated from the upper levels to the lower ones.

SECTION B: Human Resource Policies

Introduction
Organizations use policies and procedure documents to record their rules and
regulations. These can include whatever the organizations considers important for its
operations: employment policy, training policy, promotional policy, reward policy and so
forth. Once recorded, the policies and procedures are there for everybody in the
organization to refer to, and these documents become the means of settling most
disputes within the organizations. To distinguish between these two terms, policies are
general statements of how an organization wants things to be within its walls. For
example, it may have a policy that dictates eager, aggressive, do-whatever-it-takes
customer support. But to make that policy a working reality, it will also have one or
more procedures that define exactly what to do - step by step - when a customer calls
with a complaint or, more so, when an employee is aggrieved. HR policies allow an
organization to be clear with employees on:
 The nature of the organization
 What they should expect from the organization
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 What the organization expects of them
 How policies and procedures work
 What is acceptable and unacceptable behavior
 The consequences of unacceptable behavior
The establishment of policies can help an organization demonstrate, both internally and
externally, that it meets requirements for diversity, ethics and training as well as

The integrating mechanism

For all organizations two aspects for integrating human resource planning with
strategic planning need consideration.

Vertical integration emphasizes the creation of a reciprocity or two-way communication

between strategic planners and human resource planners in organizations . Such
reciprocity results in meaningful human resource information being fed into the
strategic planning process, particularly as input into resource allocation mechanisms,
and strategic planning being used to develop human resource planning inputs right from
the start.

Horizontal integration involves the coordination of human resource planning and the
personal functions such as recruitment, training, and career management. Planning
activities are usually undertaken within a planning cycle, which defines the planning
horizons and stages and specifies various decision points for managers and planners. For
business sector organizations such a cycle may incorporate planning for macro, sectoral
and organizational human resources. The decision needs at the three levels have to be
considered in an iterative and complementary manner even though their time frames
may be different.
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By encouraging "planning parallelism" in this way as part of their thinking organizational
human resource planners become aware of their roles and contributions in sectoral and
macro planning in the economy, particularly for designing public service delivery
systems. Such a planning cycle builds critical linkages and strengthens the
interrelationship of plans, and exemplifies the nature of human resource planning set
within an open systems approach. This is in sharp contrast with a hierarchical view of
planning for the business sector, which isolates planning

Formulation of human resource objectives and strategies.

Following on from forecasting-is the balancing process for supply and demand which
results in specific human resource strategies being identified.
 The aim is to define the organization's desired human resource position and the
programmes necessary to move in that direction.
 The resultant strategy involves modifying the internal configuration of an
organization's human resource to ensure successful alignment with both the
organization's strategy and the external environment.
 Examples of short-term strategies are attracting, assessing and assigning
employees to jobs. The intermediate-term strategies include readjusting
employees' skills, attitudes, and behaviours to fit major changes in the needs of the
organization.

Locating planning responsibility

How analyses and forecasts are performed is molded to a significant extent by the
structure and philosophy of the organization, particularly the location of the planning
responsibility, and the roles defined for human resource planners and other

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stakeholders. In a strategic approach planners assume new roles as process managers
by playing a more proactive role in ensuring that planning activities include key decision
makers throughout the organization. In this approach planners encourage discussion
and the resolution of priority issues; manage an iterative process of revising the human
resource strategies to meet emergent organizational needs; and generally build among
the stakeholders an increased understanding of how the human resource can create a
successful organization.

The immediate view of this gap or conflict about figures, results in top management
squeezing standards, commonly resulting in an underestimation of the demand, while
line managers in trying to provide themselves with extra cover, or in ignorance of the
potential to improve productivity, overestimate the demand. To resolve the conflict
information exchange and negotiation are necessary, human resource planners having a
mediating role between the parties. The critical consideration in the negotiation is the
"affordability criterion" establishing what size workforce the organization can afford.
Effective planning processes necessarily expose a relevant combination of these
conflicting aspects and reflect a healthy dynamic for problem resolution arising from
different perspectives and needs.

Conventional forecasting has traditionally relied on quantitative methods which can

generate staffing requirements in some detail.
 Although these figures are indispensable, the qualitative aspects of forecasting are
equally crucial.
 The latter is based on managerial perspectives involving the ability of the managers
and planners to comprehend the future.

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 It is an output of mental modeling and it’s sharing (Geus, 1988). Through such a
process managers and planners make certain assumptions about the future and
share their meanings with each other in order to minimize surprise and
uncertainty.
 Such type of thinking is currently an essential part of every manager's day to day
decision making and it is a natural step to include it in the development planning
scenarios.

Interpretation of strategic objectives. Changes in the future direction of the

organization may involve substantial shifts in the types of employees required and the
work to be performed, although the choices available to an organization in this respect
are constrained by the quality and quantity of its current human resource or that
available in the external labour market.
The current extent, nature and potential of an organization's human resource are
thereby determinants of the organization's adaptive ability.
The role of the analysis is to define the capabilities required to implement the
organization's strategy, primarily focused on the capacity to act and change in pursuit of
sustainable success.

Audit of the internal human resource

The analysis of the internal human resource is an inventory exercise. At the micro level
the analysis is made of the current number of employees, their job-related skills,
demographic make-up, performance levels (productivity), potential performance,
management competences and work attitudes. Such an analysis helps to identify
current human resource strengths and weaknesses. The data forms a baseline of human
resource capabilities, which could be available for future organizational requirements.
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The macro level analysis involves diagnosis of organizational philosophy, culture,
climate, performance orientation, organization structure, quality of work life, trends in
wastage and absenteeism, and current status and effectiveness of the personnel
systems.

The demand forecast Forecasting human resource demand enables the organization to
gain knowledge about future requirements in response to its objectives. There is
invariably some difference between the data assembled from top management's
assumptions and forecasts built up from the judgments of unit heads and managers.

1) The disruption of critical business activities for some predetermined period of time.
2) The period when government decides to divert from normal schedules and
exercises its disaster recovery plan signified by the beginning of moving from
primary to alternate processing.

It could be critical as a result of functions or services offered that could no interrupted

or unavailable for several days without significantly jeopardizing company's ability to
serve the public and the communities of that society.

The analytical contribution

Environmental scanning. Environmental analysis is the starting point for human
resource planning (Nkomo, 1988).
 It entails the systematic identification and analysis of key trends and forces in the
external environment having a potential impact on the management of the human
resource, and requires the development of consistent patterns in streams of
organizational decisions (Mintzberg, 1983).

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 Changes taking place in the technological, economic, socio-culture legal/regulatory,
education and labour market environments should be monitored for their impact
on human resource strategies and programmes.
 Significant environmental changes with human resource implications underpin the
selection of strategic alternatives to achieve compatibility between the human
resource management system and the external forces.

Unit Two: Forecasting and Hiring Needs

The daily demands and hectic lifestyle of business owners and managers often has an
unfortunate by-product: human resource planning gets placed on the bottom of the list
of things to get done. Failure to anticipate potential changes in your workforce often
leads to last minute or "crisis mode" decision-making. Needless to say, quick fixes are no
solution to long-term issues. Taking the time to forecast future hiring needs today will
save you time and money in the long-run. HR planning must be tied to the overall
business plan. You can start the process by assessing the current conditions and future
goals of your company. Perform these assessments regularly. Consider some of the
following questions:
 What are the company's goals and objectives?
 Do these goals call for expansion into new markets?
 Are new product lines planned?
 Are changes in technology necessary to stay competitive?
 Will new skills and/or training be required to meet the company's goals and
objectives?
The following three-step method is designed to help you determine whether or not you
are ready to hire:

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1. Identify Business Strategy and Needs
2. Conduct a Job Analysis and Write a Job Description
3. Determine the Feasibility of Hiring

Forecasting Hiring Needs

If you decide that you need additional employees to fulfill your business strategy, it is
recommended that you conduct a four-step job analysis:
1. Review your current workforce
2. Describe the employees you now have in terms of their knowledge, skills, and
experience and describe how they function together to get work done.
3. Map these onto your strategic plan and describe the skills and knowledge that you
will need for the anticipated new work or function. At the same time, consider how
4. Hiring, Managing and Keeping the Best, the current work could be reorganized to
make the best use of current and future employees.
5. Identify any skills and knowledge gaps Note any gaps between the skills and
abilities your current employees have and the skills and abilities that your
workforce needs to meet your business objectives in the future. To ensure that you
have considered the full scope of the new position from all different perspectives,
ask your current employees what they think this position would involve. The
checklist below might help you identify the desired attributes of potential
employees.

(ii) Three: Succession Planning

Succession planning is a process for identifying and developing internal personnel with
the potential to fill key or critical organizational positions. Succession planning ensures
the availability of experienced and capable employees that are prepared to assume
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these roles as they become available. It is a process of systematically and deliberately
preparing for future changes of leadership in key positions. The process may identify
potential replacements and provide strategies for developing and/or hiring individuals
to meet future needs. In referring to a board or an organization, it is to ensure that
people are identified and prepared to replace key players as their terms expire,
recognized as good practice in considering the appointment of new members to ensure
continuity and appropriate skills are maintained for the entity as is the use of

 Manpower audit facilitates internal succession of managerial personnel in the

event of unforeseen turnover. Provision for replacement of human resources can
be made;
 Manpower planning provides a sound basis for training and development of
personnel to make an optimum use of available resources and talent;
 It helps in formulating management succession plans. It provides enough head
time for identifying and developing executions to move up in the corporate ladder;
 Manpower planning identifies the gaps in existing manpower so that suitable
training programmes may be developed for building specific skills required in the
future;
 It helps to develop and create awareness and importance of sound manpower
management throughout the organization. It also helps to serve as a tool for
evaluating the effect of alternative manpower policies and programmes. It also
helps in the growth and diversification of business

Steps in Manpower planning process.

 Forecasting manpower requirements
 Manpower inventory preparation
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 Manpower gap identification
 Formulating manpower plans
 Predict manpower plans
 Design job description and the job requirements
 Find adequate sources of recruitment
 It applies systems approach to human resources in which the emphasis is an
interrelationship among various personnel policies and programmes;
 Manpower planning studies and analyzes the inventing of current manpower in
order to determine its status and to identify untapped talent available in the
organization;
 It results in the development of human resources, policies, programmes and
procedures for the acquisition, development, preservations and utilization of
organizations human assets;
 Finally, manpower planning is an integral part of corporate planning.

Objectives of manpower planning

The objectives of manpower planning are:
 To ensure that the necessary personnel are available for performing different tasks
efficiently;
 To ensure optimum use of current human resources;
 To forecast future manpower skill requirements;
 To promote the development of existing personnel for the growth and
development of business.
 To establish control in the organization so that human resources are available
when required.
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The significances of manpower planning are:
 Manpower planning anticipates shortages and identifies surplus manpower and it
helps to correct these imbalances in time, and it is possible to reduce labour costs.
Overstaffing and under utilization of human resources and other trouble spots can
be identified;

aims to address management problems relating to poor employee performance

management, wage and non-wage incentives, job classification systems and ineffective
payroll and personnel systems.
 Performance management may also be introduced as a way of improving standards
within public services and making services more responsive to citizens. Wider
programmes of training and capacity building for staff can accompany this.
 Some developing countries, Uganda inclusive have experimented with
performance management systems, with limited success. Often the new
corporatized" agencies have only limited management autonomy, and
governments lack the capacity to manage performance in the business sectors.

SECTION G: Promotions and Transfers

Introduction
There are a number of reasons why employees fail to deliver or perform to the
organizations' expectations. One of them is due to ineffective management. There is
little doubt that most organizations do a poor job of hiring and promoting the right
people to higher positions. This module focuses on the basis of promotion and transfer
of employees in an organization primarily because there is overwhelming evidence to
indicate that most of these promotions are given based on improper criteria. The most

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common reason organizations promote an employee into management is longevity. The
prevailing attitude is that someone who is loyal should be rewarded by being moved to
a higher position so they can make more money and be given an incentive to motivate
them and enable them stay on. The unfounded fear is that if the employee isn't
promoted they will go elsewhere. However, for organizations, longevity should play a
secondary role in the decision to promote. In fact it should be used only in the

an excellent fit for the job they shouldn't be considered-for the promotion - period! The
preceding units will examine promotional basis, channels and avenues, and; the
challenges therein.
 The problem in hiring and promoting employees is that gut feelings and subjective
criteria are too often used in judging whether someone can move into a
management role and be effective.
 When promoting employees, they should be taken through a rigorous process to
determine their chances for success in a management position. The employee
should be expected to interview with top management and should be put through
the paces to isolate behavioral tendencies that will give some indication about how
they will handle various management situations. And the employee should be
tested and assessed to determine the degree to which they match the profile of a
manager/supervisor.
 Most promotional decisions are made too quickly and without sound rationale.
Putting some structure and objectivity into the process will help immensely in
making the right decision.
 And it should be realized that some employees will be passed over for promotions
into higher positions simply because they are not qualified to be there.

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 Will they leave the company if they can't advance into management? Maybe. But
would you rather have an employee leave or have them attempt to fill a role they
are not capable of filling?
 If they are promoted and are not capable of doing the job, they can do a significant
amount of damage and you will have done nothing more than set that person up
to fail. They will ultimately be demoted or terminated.
 Handled properly, an employee passed up for a promotion will often stay with the
organization.
 So when does it make sense to promote from within? It only makes sense when an
employee has the ability to move to the next level of hierarchy and do the job
effectively.
 That means that all of your personal biases about employees must be shelved
when making promotional decisions. It means that unless an employee is an
excellent fit for the job they shouldn't be considered for the promotion.

Unit One: The Concept of Promotion

A promotion is the appointment of a member to another position, within the same
department or elsewhere in the organization, involving duties and responsibilities of a
more complex or demanding nature and are recognized by a higher pay grade and
salary. It may be an appointment of a serving employee to a position in a higher salary
range than the one to which the employee is presently assigned.
 A promotion is also advancement to a position that requires performing
accountabilities of significantly increased complexity or responsibility. Most
promotions occur as a result of a job posting.

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 The advancement of an employee from one position to another position that has a
higher salary range maximum is called a promotion. Promotion can also result in a
higher level title and higher level job responsibilities. Decision making authority
tends to rise as well.

Unit Two: The Concept of Job Transfer

A transfer is the appointment of a member to another position within the same
department or elsewhere in the organization, involving duties and responsibilities of a
comparable nature and having a similar pay grade and salary. In certain circumstances,
the transfer may be at a lesser pay grade or salary.

Job transfers generally fall into one of two categories: those initiated by management 3r
those made in response to an employee's request.

 Transfers initiated by the employer may be necessary because of temporary

workload imbalances; the need to rotate employees to limit exposure to harmful
conditions; corporate restructuring; dislocations caused by job elimination or
reductions in force; and demotions in response to disciplinary or performance
problems.
 Employees may initiate a transfer because they want new or broader experience;
there is friction among coworkers; they want to better use their skills; or they need
accommodation for family care responsibilities.
 Either way, transfers may be temporary or long-term, depending on the
organization's business needs.

 A transfer requires employees to change the work group, workplace or unit.

 The transfer may be to relocate the employee to a different geographic region.
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 The transfer of an employee to another job must see that it is equal to or better than
the previous job. Otherwise it may be considered unfavourably by the employee as a
demotion. This could lead to the employee lodging a personal grievance on the
grounds of demotion.

A Promotion
A promotion is a move up the organizational ladder; job rotation and transfers are
lateral moves; demotions are downward moves; and layoffs move employees out.
Layoffs, in contrast to dismissals are terminations, sometimes temporary, required for
business needs unrelated to worker behavior or performance- All of-these changes
bring about shifts in status, and often in pay, of the employees involved.

Seniority vs. Merit in Promotions

Seniority is an employee's length of service in a position, job grouping, or farm
operation. An individual who has worked on a farm for three years has more seniority
than one who has worked for two. Merit, in contrast, refers to "worth" or "excellence."
Merit is more difficult to measure than seniority. In the context of promotion, it relates
to-relevant qualifications as well as effectiveness of past performance.

 Promotion by seniority: In a straight seniority system—where the only factor in

allocating jobs is length of service—a worker would enter the organization at the
lowest possible level and advance to higher positions as vacancies occur. All
prospective farm supervisors and managers would work their way up through the
ranks. In a seniority system, length of service is the chief criteria for moving up the
ladder.

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 More typically, seniority counts only within specified job groups. Some groups
might contain only one job classification, others several. All managers, for
instance, would have once worked as foremen.
 The most obvious strength is its undisputed objectivity. Growers may deviate
from a system based purely on seniority in order to avoid some of its inherent
limitations. Seniority systems tend to reward loyalty and promote cooperation—
albeit not excellence.

Promotion by merit: Promotions based on merit advance workers who are best
qualified for the position, rather than those with the greatest seniority. When present
employees are applying for a position, a worker's past performance is also considered.
 Effective performance appraisal helps build trust in the system Merit is not
easy to define and measure—it often requires difficult subjective evaluations.
 At some point, someone has to make a judgment about an employee's relative
merit. Employees may find it difficult to make a distinction between merit-because it
is so hard to measure in an objective way-and' favoritism.

Unit Three: Seniority-based promotions

Advantages: Employees get to experience many jobs on the way -up the promotional
ladder, provided that they stay long enough and openings develop. Jobs can be grouped
into different ladders such that experience on one job constitutes good training for the
next. Cooperation between workers is generally not hindered by competition for
subjectively determined promotions. Workers need not seek to gain favor with
supervisors (through nonproductive means) to obtain advancement. If, for example, a

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supervisor's direction violates the interests or policy of the ranch, employees would
have less fear of reprisal for not following it.

Disadvantages: Some employees may not be able or want to do certain jobs into which
a strict seniority system would propel them. (Not all tractor drivers would make good
foremen, or would like to be foremen.)

o Employees should be able to opt not to accept an opportunity for promotion.

Ambitious workers may not be willing to "wait their turn" for higher level jobs that
they want.
o Employee motivation to work as well as possible is not reinforced Immigrant or

ethnic groups new to agriculture, and women, would be underrepresented in higher

levels for a long time (since they are the last hired and have least seniority).
o Employers would tend to hire over skilled people at entry level, so they have the

capacity for promotion.

Unit Four: Merit-based promotions

Advantages:
 Employee job-related abilities can be better matched with jobs to be filled.
Motivated and ambitious employees can be rewarded for outstanding performance.
 Performance is fostered. People can be hired for a specific job, rather than for
ability to be promotable.

Disadvantages:
 Merit and ability are difficult to measure in an objective, impartial way.

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 Supervisors may reward their favorites, rather than the best employees, with high
merit ratings.
 Disruptive conflict may result from worker competition for merit ratings. Unlawful
discrimination may enter into merit evaluations.

Unit Five: Seniority vs. Merit in Layoffs

Layoffs are normally considered terminations based on lack of work or capital, rather
than on poor employee performance. Layoffs are often temporary. They occur with the
expectation that workers will be hired back if and when they are needed.

 When all workers are laid-off at the same time, there is little need to discuss
seniority and merit considerations. But when partial or gradual layoffs take place,
difficult decisions have to be made. Layoffs of year-round employees may require a
different approach than that of seasonal workers.
 Decisions involving the layoff of non-seasonal personnel may well be the hardest or
most heart wrenching labor management decision you have to make. The
expectation with year-round employment is that workers will hold on to their
positions as long as they do a good job and the enterprise is economically viable.
 Certainly, in considering such a mix, greater weight is probably given to seniority
considerations in layoff than in promotion decisions. Please note that I am not
suggesting that seniority is more important than merit.
 Arguments that favor making layoffs in reverse order of seniority, that is, the last
hired, the first to go include:
 The longer employees" have worked for an enterprise, the more loyalty they are
due. Other employees will observe and be affected by how senior employees are
treated.
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  Senior employees who lose their jobs may have greater difficulty finding
another job at the equivalent pay and benefit level than younger workers.
 Layoffs by merit may lead to age discrimination law suits if older workers are
disproportionately terminated. The principal argument favoring merit to
determine layoff decisions is:

Management should retain the best people to do the job, especially when Sanctioning
with fewer employees. Employers sometimes offer special retirement packages to
entice more senior personnel to retire. This is often done in an effort to save money in
situations where senior personnel earn disproportionately higher wages. Promotion
From Within or Outside Hire?

Unit Six: Open or Close System?

Promotion policies may affect employees' hopes for advancement and the productivity
of your workforce.

 Often employers feel compelled to promote from within their workforce, fearing
the loss of the loyalty and enthusiasm of present employees. Promotion from
within encourages employees to view the organization as one offering them career
growth.
 Unfortunately, a tradition of promoting from within may also mean forgoing the
most vital management prerogative: filling positions with well-qualified personnel.
It is a mistake to assume that superior performance in one job will always translate
into equivalent success after promotion to a new position.
 Personnel who move from technical jobs to supervisory ones, or from "doing" jobs
to managing ones, may not always be skilled in handling the added responsibility
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 and power. Policies that all but guarantee promotions to present employees may
discourage worker development. Occasionally, you may have to consider the
demotion of a worker who has not succeeded after being promoted.

Unit Seven: Alternatives to Promotions

At times employees may want job growth when no promotions are available. Workers
sometimes fall into the trap of thinking the only evidence of career success is a
promotion. Likewise, some employers feel the only way to reward good workers is to
promote them. Personnel who want a promotion will sometimes demand a change or
threaten to leave for a different job. In such cases, if a promotion is not possible,
employers may encourage the worker in a positive way to pursue other career
possibilities with reactions such as, "Here, we don't try to keep people back," When the
need arises, we help our workers find another job," and even, "We feel we are a
stepping stone to other jobs. We are pretty proud of the places our employees have
gone to after working for us." At times such attitudes are the only practical solution. But,
as we see below there are plenty of circumstances where qualified employees can grow
within their present position. In considering the best strategy to use, you may ask:
 Does the employee want to advance?
 Does he want more responsibility or more variety?

In the latter case, the worker can be given different duties or assignments that
constitute a transfer rather than a promotion.

Job Transfers
A transfer refers to horizontal movement of employee from one job position to another
in the same org without any significant change in status and pay. it has been defined as
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"a lateral shift causing movement of individual from one job position to another without
involving any marked change in duties, responsibilities, skills needed or compensation".
The change of an employee from one position to another in the same classification or in
another classification with the same salary-range maximum is termed a transfer.
Transfers within the same department o£ division with no change in job classification
can be approved by the division director or department head. All other transfers must
be approved by the Human Resources Department.

Lateral Transfer: A lateral transfer is a move to a position with the same or similar job
title in the same pay grade. Such transfers provide opportunities to work with new
colleagues, to master a different range of skills, or transfer special skills and experience
to a new environment.

Transfers and job rotation are forms of enlargement entailing movement from one job
to another of comparable responsibility. Transfers usually last for a longer term while
job rotation may imply several short term job changes. In addition, some rotations are
cyclical and involve going through the same set of jobs over and over. In a bank, for
instance, workers may be part of a job rotation cycle from being cashier to distributing
loans. Besides alleviating possible boredom, transfers and job rotations expose workers
to more tasks. When an absence or turnover occurs, it helps to have other
knowledgeable employees who can perform the vacated job. Morale can suffer when
transfers require employees to relocate. A raise in pay may help assignments carry
unique challenges and opportunities.

Summary of Promotions and Transfers

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Organizational movements, such as promotions, transfers, job rotations, demotions, and
layoffs may alter workers' security, satisfaction and productivity. Arguments favoring
merit-based promotions focus around worker qualifications and performance, while
those based on seniority stress greater job security and protection from arbitrary
treatment. Seniority tends to reward loyalty while merit promotes excellence. An
effective blend may combine good points from each. Even workers who may favor
promotions, through merit often favor seniority-based layoffs that retain long-term
employees. In contrast, arguments favouring merit layoffs stress the need to have
qualified persons doing the work.

Employers who feel compelled to promote from within may be forgoing the
management prerogative of filling positions with qualified personnel. A successful
promotion policy should neither stifle present personnel nor eliminate management's
option for outside recruitment. Some employers and workers feel the only evidence of
career success is promotion. Fortunately, there are several other ways to provide
workers more challenges. This can be done through transfers, job rotation, job
enlargement and job enrichment.

Unit Eight: Importance of a good Transfer and Promotions Policy

It is important that your organization has a good policy in regard to transfers and
promotions. The policy must have a clear, fair and transparent process that applies to
all employees within the organization.
o A promotion is a change of job to a higher level within the organization. The

promotion policy within an organization again, must be clear, fair and have a
transparent process that applies to all employees within the organization to
comply with the principle of natural justice.
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o The policy should also clear state the criteria for promotion, criteria for salary

progression or scale structures. If creating a new promotion policy, you may need
to check the criteria for promotion and salary progression is not a part of a
collective employment agreement negotiated by the union.
o Promotions can help an organization as it shows the organization values its

employees by giving them opportunity to enhance their career opportunities

through promotion. Therefore, increasing employee loyalty, retention and
reducing employee turnover for the organization.
o It is important that your organization has a good policy in regard to transfers and

promotions.
o The policy must have a clear, fair and transparent process that applies to all

employees within the organization.

o A transfer requires employees to change the work group, workplace or unit. The

transfer may be to relocate the employee to' a different geographic region.

o The transfer of an employee to another job must see-that it is equal to or better

than the previous job. Otherwise it may be considered unfavourably by the

employee as a demotion. This could lead to the employee lodging a personal
grievance on the grounds of demotion.
o A promotion is a change of job to a higher level within the organization. The

promotion policy within an organization again, must be clear, fair and have a
transparent process that applies to all employees within the organization to
comply with the principle of natural justice.
o The policy should also clear state the criteria for promotion, criteria for salary

progression or scale structures. If creating a new promotion policy, you may need

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 to check the criteria for promotion and salary progression is not a part of a
collective employment agreement negotiated by the union.
o Promotions can help an organization as it shows the organization values its

employees by giving them opportunity to enhance their career opportunities

through promotion. Therefore, increasing employee loyalty retention and reducing
employee turnover for the organization.

SECTION H: Managing Resignations and Retirement

Introduction
A common problem organizations experience is the high turnover rate of employees.
Tight competition in the corporate world today makes it enticing for unsatisfied workers
to look for better opportunities. We live in an era marked by periods of economic
uncertainty and volatility. At the same time increased responsibility has shifted to
individuals for securing their financial wellbeing in retirement. And with this added
responsibility, retirees may be exposed to a variety of risks that can affect them both as
individuals and members of society.

Two main challenges have surfaced in recent years; the pending wave of retirements
and competitive recruitment pressures from other industries. These create significant
attraction challenges for business sector employers, especially for the skilled trades and
technical professions (such as plumbers, electricians, economists and accountants), as
well as the senior management cadre. Business sector employers should recognize that
in order to attract new workers, they need to market their workplaces and innovative
practices -and then deliver a progressive employment proposition to avoid high rates of

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resignation. The aim of the module therefore is to highlight challenges related to
resignation and retirement.

Unit One: Problems with Retention of Employees

When you ask HR practitioner what problem they encounter in terms of manpower,
they would oftentimes give you one answer - resignation. High turnover rate is' bad for
business, as this would only mean cost. It must be noted that training personnel can be
expensive. Just imagine conducting such once in a while due to some employees
deciding to quit their jobs. This would greatly affect the operation of the organization.
Hence, it is not a wonder why many firms are continuously finding measures on how to
reduce employee turnover. Another significant concern for the business sector is
succession: as seasoned professionals leave, who will take their place? Attracting
experienced talent is difficult in today's competitive climate.

Other industries have initiated aggressive marketing and attraction strategies to acquire
top talent. Senior leaders across the federal business sector understand these
challenges, and are beginning to respond effectively. But before going into details on
how companies should manage their workforce, it pays to take a look at some reasons
why workers leave their present jobs.

Unit Two: Reasons for Resignation

Generally, unsatisfied employees are the ones who easily resign from their post. There
are however many issues involved that contribute to the state of a certain worker being
not happy with his or her job. A 2004 study named seven reasons as to why employees,
especially those newly hired, leave their jobs.

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 The first reason cited by the said study is a workplace that falls short to the
expectation of the worker. Jobseekers usually apply for a job in a certain company
because he or she has an idea of what kind of atmosphere it offers. However, not all
expectation are met and sometimes, this could be a source of unhappiness. It is true
that there are employees who are particular about the work environment.
 Second reason identified is a mismatch. This means that the job is not really suited
to the employee. In this case, the worker would not feel any fulfillment in his or her
job.
 Third, is lack of coaching. There are people who could work better when they are
informed of their strengths and weaknesses. This tells them they are being needed
by the organization. When they feel their supervisors do not care about their
outputs, they leave and look for other jobs.
 Fourth, is few opportunities to grow - hence the reason why people quit their work.
It must be noted that professionals are always on the lookout for advancement in
their careers. If they see no more room for progress within the organization, they
would most likely resign.
 Fifth reason is being unrecognized. Employees would want to be
appreciated for their efforts. Sometimes, recognition plays an important role in
boosting the morale of workers.
 Sixth on the list of reasons is stress. Employees who are stressed out due to extra
duty tend to lose the urge to go to work. If they could not bear the stress, they quit
and look for less stressful jobs.
 The seventh and last reason is loss of trust in the higher management. This is quite
understandable. No employee would want to stay in an institution where leadership
is deemed not reliable.
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 Based on the seven reasons identified by the study, there is one way that
organizations may address employee turnover.
 PUBLIC Administrators therefore should take care of their workers. This would
mean giving them competitive compensation and the right benefits and privileges.
Most importantly, Business sectors must continue to motivate their employees and
recognize them for their efforts.
 Remember that a stable workforce is essential for the success of any business.

Unit Three: Concerns of Retirement and Turnover of Business persons

Retirement of business persons is an issue that has the potential for tremendous impact
on the entire country. Turnover and retirement require that business sectors and
organizations replace outgoing talent with individuals having comparable experience,
knowledge, skills, and abilities.

 To accomplish this task, organizations must have appropriate policies and

procedures in place to hire replacements who have knowledge and skills equal or
superior to those of previous employees, recognizing that each rotation occurs at an
increased cost to the institution.
 This means that organizations must have the ability to recruit, train, and retain
qualified workers which will soon become an even bigger concern as employers face
the prospect of large numbers of baby boomers anticipating retirement,
compounding expected turnover and retirement rates.
With such a large number of impending retirements occurring over a short period of
time, Business sectors must find ways to meet the upcoming demand for labor.

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MODULE SIX: Other Functions of HRM
Aim:
Introduction
SECTION A: Professionalism and Ethics
Introduction
While it may be relatively easy to draw the profile of a merit-based civil service in
conceptual terms, it is much more difficult to define the ways and means of
Unit One: Professionalism and Ethics.
The public service on the public agenda Scandals involving public officials have captured
world attention these days, on the threshold of a new millennium. Precipitated by
events such as "sweetheart deal" privatization;
 the diversion of aid,
 widespread business sector patronage,
 crony capitalism,
 campaign financing abuses,
-People are debating outright corruption and unprofessional behaviour in government,
[f they are not talking about actual criminal or immoral acts, they are condemning
lackluster performance in the business sector. In its discussions, the public does not
distinguish among those in government, whether they are elected political leaders or
career business persons.

 In public perception, all are tainted by the same brush of guilt or indolence.
 Do societies hold public officials to higher standards of performance and conduct
than for others? If so, why?

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 How damaging are corrupt behaviour or laxity in the public service, or even the mere
perception that they exist? What are the financial costs on the development
process?
 With the advent of the modern organizations, have been and are seen as stewards of
public resources and guardians of a special trust that the citizenry has placed in
them.
 In return for this public confidence, they are expected to put the business interest
above self-interest.
 Thus the most commonly accepted definition of corruption is some variation of the
notion, "the abuse of public office for private gain.
 It has been noted that "government ethics provides the preconditions for the making
of good public and business policies.
 In this sense, it is more important than any single policy, because all policies depend
on it.
 At the same time, the administration of the state has become a profession in its own
right.
 It is no longer relegated to part time or unremunerated work as it had been in the
past, in many parts of the world.
 For the purposes of this report, the public service is broadly defined as those
employees of the state who are covered by national and sub-national civil service
laws.
 However, it should be noted at the outset that many principles covering
professionalism and ethics of business persons also apply to other business sector
employees.

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 In fact, many of these principles should also be extended to business personnel. The
business career as a profession, it can be developed, to espouse the values of
probity, neutrality, and fairness, among many others.
 It has embraced the merit principle in setting up career structures from recruitment
to promotions. By running the administrative machinery that supports decision-
making and implements the policies and programmes of the government-of the-day,
business persons play an indispensable role in the sustainable development and
governance of a nation.

putting such a civil, service into place. Although, Uganda has institutions in place,
significant shortcomings exist in civil service legal frameworks, coordination structures
and HR Management. The lack of a co-ordinating, advisory and implementing body for
Human Resource Management has an adverse impact on professionalism and
performance. It can undermine efforts made to make the civil service both more
professional and more efficient. A minimum level of co-ordination could help to prevent
conflicting regulations or policies from being introduced by individual ministries. Co-
ordination could include the implementation of priorities set at the national level, the
matching of resources to objectives and the monitoring of personnel management.
Irrespective of the role given to the co-ordinating body, the role of the HR directorates
within each ministry is crucial.

When such directorates are given the authority, stability and resources required to
exercise their functions, human resources are managed with greater rigour and the
influence of political factors or personal networks is significantly reduced. One
instrument to harmonize HRM and compliance rules consists of the creation of a single
staff register. Computerized management is the most functional method, as it also
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makes it possible to share the register. Providing information on the rules governing
post and career management can be viewed as a highly positive measure, making it
possible to attract larger numbers of applicants. One aspect of this information is the
publication of vacancy notices, which contributes substantially to the improvement of
recruitment exercises. Hence;
 The professionalism and efficiency of the administration depend not only on the
quality of recruitment, but also on the organization of career development. The
establishment of a common framework applicable to different administrations and
which sets a hierarchy of functions, grades and career development has a clarifying
and harmonizing effect.
 Career development based on the principle of rewarding merit constitutes the
central element for professionalizing the civil service and motivating its officials.
 In order to reward merit, it is first necessary to put in place an evaluation system
which makes it possible for decisions relating to career development to be based on
a fair assessment of qualifications and performance, thereby ensuring the promotion
of those officials whose competencies can be objectively recognized.
 In the area of training, progress made could be built upon further by introducing an
overall policy that takes account of both immediate requirements and longer-term
needs. Matching the provision of training to the real needs of administrations might
only require a fairly basic mechanism (consultation, surveys or other) to ensure a
dialogue between those providing and those requesting training.
 On the subject of professional ethics, a cautious and pragmatic approach needs to be
adopted in drawing any lessons from the experiences of the four countries studied.
Regulations that are too sophisticated have proved to be ineffective.

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 A system of sanctions, but especially a firm resolve to implement such sanctions, is
essential.

Most administrative systems have one major characteristic in common: the problem of
matching legislative texts with practices, and the need to narrow the gap between the
two in order to ensure that the administration, and more generally the rule of law,
functions properly.

demands made on the state by a better-informed citizenry. These factors, among

others, have altered the environment in which governments are functioning.

These determinants of change are challenging the traditional roles of the state
introducing new actors to the development and governance process of a nation, and
introducing new roles and responsibilities for business persons. They are also causing
national and regional problems, such as corruption and its links to organized crime, to
transcend boundaries and spill over into the international arena. These global changes
warrant a re-examination of the role of the public service in sustainable human
development or the process of "expanding the choices for all people in society. At the
same time, there are changes occurring that are more specific to certain regions. To
mention only those regions that are represented in this volume, the countries of Central
and Eastern Europe, as well as those in Africa, face shared challenges that are distinct to
their region, as a result of these changes. Countries must confront these regional
challenges in addition to the global and national challenges.

 With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Central and Eastern Europe has been
characterized by "transition" since the early 1990s. Countries in this region have

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 been making a conscious shift from, in effect, a one-party to a multi-party political
system and a centrally planned to a market-oriented economy.
 The transition process has far-reaching implications for the role of the business
service, as they try to keep countries operating in the face of rapid and wrenching
economic, political, and social dislocations.
 Business persons must adapt themselves to the rethinking of the role of the state,
with respect to its broad functions and separation of powers. This change in role, hi
turn, demands a new personnel profile-requiring new kinds of knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and above all, professionalism.
 Further, as an institution, the business service ensures the continuity of
administration between transitions of power, which are the hallmarks of modern day
democracy.
Given these crucial roles, a country expects its business service to demonstrate
professionalism and ethics. Experience has shown that the costs of poor performance
and corruption in the business service are too great to bear. This is true not only for the
public service but also for the entire business sector, political leadership, and other
strata of society.
 Financially, public officials' diversion of funds into their own pockets means less
money for the development of nations and peoples.
 Politically, the erosion of public confidence in and cynicism toward government can
break down fragile peace and order in a society.
 Economically, a lack of predictable business institutions and a sense of fair
regulations will deter investment and trade.
 Empirical evidence based on cross-country comparisons does indeed suggest that
corruption has large, adverse effects on private investment and economic growth.
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 Socially, all these factors will lead to a general deterioration of trust among citizens.
These effects take a toll on countries, many of which are already straining to grow
under severe resource constraints and weak institutions.

Challenges for the business service in development These problems are exacerbated in a
world that may no longer be threatened by the cold war but must cope, instead, with
escalating ethnic conflicts, spreading democratization and its growing pains, a shifting
balance between the state/market/civil society forces, globalization, and increasing

Strong business service leadership and performance are now more critical than ever in
preventing further sub-national disintegration and to slow down the spreading gap in
regional and income inequalities.
Many countries in Africa have been undergoing macro-economic structural adjustment
in the face of burgeoning debts since the 1980s.
Economic decision-making became centralized and public enterprises proliferated. This
resulted in a growing bureaucracy with increasing discretionary power, which was put to
use as a conduit for graft.

However, the attempt to rationalize the business service has not been complemented
by a rapid development of the private sector or civil society in a region where, typically,
these have not been well developed. The net result has been a weakened business
service with no other well-developed local institutions to satisfactorily step into the
vacuum.
 In addition to the global and regional challenges, countries also face changes at the
national level. For example, Brazil, as the largest country in Latin America, is
becoming an emerging economic force in the world. Following the examples of many

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 other countries, it has been trying to introduce administrative reforms to render its
state more efficient. At the federal level, Brazil has been trying to streamline its
business sector and apply "managerial" or more private sector management
principles to its administration.
 In this ideological shift, the public service is, again, challenged in having to observe
traditional values such as probity, neutrality, fairness, and the like and incorporate
new values such as efficiency, performance, and accountability for results.
 Within the context of this course, business service professionalism is defined as the
overall value that encompasses all other values that guide the business service.
 They include loyalty, neutrality, transparency, diligence, punctuality, effectiveness,
impartiality, and other values that may be specific to the business services of
individual countries.
 Business service professionalism embraces the notion that those people who join the
business service need to be inculcated with shared values and trained in basic skills
to professionally carry out their official duties.
 Complementary to this process is a need to set up management structures to ensure
that a business service ethos and competence is achieved. Business service ethics is
defined as broad norms that delineate how business persons as agents of the state
and, where applicable, as members of an established profession such as accounting,
law, etc. -should exercise judgment and discretion in carrying out their official duties.
 A business service committed to professionalism and ethics is more likely to attain its
goals if it has in place an "ethics infrastructure or its country, a "national integrity
system.

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These concepts represent, in a sense, a system of rules, activities, and agents that
provide incentives and penalties for public officials to professionally carry out their
duties and engage in proper conduct. Initiatives to promote professionalism can begin
simply with the existence of sound public Service.

Professionalism and Efficiency

A professional and efficient organizations implies competent, motivated and impartial
business persons working in a system dedicated to serving the business interest. A
professional and efficient organizations implies; competent, motivated and impartial
business persons working in a system dedicated to serving the business interest.

Unit Four: Professionalism and Ethics in the Public Service

To start with, a career system based on the merit principle, which fairly and impartially
recruits and promotes business persons, must be in place. This structure should be
underpinned by a clear business service law that outlines the legal rights and
responsibilities of business persons. Further, well-articulated and fair human resource
policies on appropriate remuneration, training opportunities, disciplinary procedures
and the like should be implemented and enforced.
o More importantly, a culture of professionalism and pride needs to be nurtured

through the recognition of good work and correction of poor performance.

o Initiatives promoting ethics include the addition of special measures which focus

on preventing, detecting and reporting, investigating, prosecuting and enforcing

the appropriate laws against misconduct, ranging from unethical to criminal acts.
o They should also focus on creating an environment conducive to and training

business persons to observe high standards of conduct. o In these endeavours,

good example set by leadership is essential to the credibility of the exercise.
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Unit Five; Obstacles to business service professionalism and ethics
In reality however, there are many challenges and resource constraints in setting up a
system, as described above. In many parts of the globe, large segments of the
population face crushing poverty. There are not enough basic infrastructures and
services in housing, health, education and employment to meet basic needs. Vast
numbers of people are unemployed or under-employed; Many countries have recently
experienced or are experiencing strife and conflict, where its citizens have had to fear
for their lives and have lost all. In some cases, they do not have guarantees that their
basic human rights will be respected. When a breakdown of law and order and extreme
social dislocation occur, the moral fabric of a society can be torn apart. When survival
becomes the paramount value, corruption can become a way of life. In this context,
business persons in many parts of the world are asked to accomplish the impossible-
settle conflicts, rebuild nations, set up infrastructures, and develop prosperous
societies-from meager or borrowed funds.

Many times, they are pressured to become partisan in carrying out their duties or else
are punished upon refusal. On a personal level, they are earning for months or
underemployed, sometimes not allowing them to support their families. There are few
opportunities in their societies for them or their family members to advance
professionally or financially. These conditions breed low morale and make corruption
seem inevitable and a necessary evil. In areas where basic needs of citizens cannot be
met, talking about professionalism and ethics can seem a luxury. Even under the harsh
conditions noted above, a countless number of business persons around the world have

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continued to selflessly serve the public. They are worthy reminders that business service
performance and integrity are an integral part of democracy, good governance and
development.
Business persons need not only to avoid criminal acts but actually strive for professional
and ethical conduct. For, as observed above, without the necessary public confidence in
government, popular participation and cooperation necessary for a vibrant democracy
and sustainable development, business will not grow.

Unit Six: Moral Behaviour

The term "moral behaviour" is applied in evaluating the personal conduct of a citizen
and is judged in comparison to society's norms. The term "ethical behavior" is applied to
that citizen's conduct in professional matters and is judged in comparison to the
standards of the profession, which are formally expressed in statements called codes of
Ethics, Distinguishing between moral and ethical behavior is necessary because people
have a wider array of value obligations when functioning as professionals than when
resolving value dilemmas in their personal lives. A professional has specialized
knowledge that must be applied to serve four entities: the employer, the client of the
employer, the profession, and, most importantly, society.

A professional also has legitimate moral obligations. In addition to the application of

technical knowledge and the proper consideration of economic factors, the professional
must properly balance the value obligations to each of the four entities. For example,
the employee should be loyal to the employer, honest with the client, respectful of the
profession, and sensitive to the health and safety of the public. Values such as loyalty,
honesty, respect, and sensitivity to public safety are emphasized in professional codes of
ethics.
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Unit Seven: The Challenge of Ethical Decision-Making
Rational ethical judgment by professional business managers is important because of
the significant implications of their decisions to society.
 They make decisions that affect the business, allocate resources, influence public
health and safety, distribute monies, and affect the lives of future generations.
 Ethical conduct, or professional decision-making, is a necessary requisite to being
called a professional.
 A professional must be able to properly balance competing values in making
decisions that affect both society and the client, especially where personal, societal,
and cultural values conflict.
 The value issues must be properly balanced within the framework of Professional
ethics is an overlooked but critical factor in the successful management of resources.
Situations with ethical concerns require mature and rational value decisions -
economic, political, and sociological constraints.
 Mature ethical decision-making is not easy, and the professional often is criticized by
those who feel adversely affected by the decisions.

Unit Eight: The Example of Sustainable Development.

Sustainable development, which is development that meets current needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, involves
numerous value conflicts: namely,

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  the freedom of the current generation to use resources that a future generation
may need for survival, and;
 the need for the current generation to practice self-discipline so that business will
remain vibrant for future generations.
 Freedom,
 survival,
 self-discipline, and
 Health - are all values.
 Environment mitigation

Codes of Ethics
Codes of ethics are the value guidelines that a professional must follow in order to
remain registered as a member of the profession. Codes are not a list of do's and don'ts.
Therefore, to a young professional, they may; appear to ; be vague statements. For
example, a code might state that the professional should hold paramount the safety,
health, and welfare of the public, or that they should act as faithful agents in
professional matters for each employer or client. The emphasis on values is evident
through the terms "public safety" and "faithful."

When one is confronted by decisions related to business matters, such as sustainable

development and environmental mitigation, interpretation of these guidelines is not
always clear-cut. Differences of opinion can lead a professional to blow the whistle.
Misinterpreting the codes or ignoring them can result in a person's losing his or her job,
or even being expelled from the profession. Thus, understanding value issues and being
able to make mature value decisions are just as important to the Administrators.

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Whistle-Blowing
Whistle-blowing is the reporting of purported, misconduct that occurs within an
organization to those outside the organization. This action usually is undertaken after
internal appeals to resolve the issues are unsuccessful. Generally, the whistleblower is
viewed as an outcast by those within the company, but may be seen as a "savior" by
those affected outside the company. For example, should the education officer report to
the state the deteriorating quality of education even though the ministry orders him or
her to not report it?

In some cases, whistle-blowing may be the ethical decision, but in other cases, the
ethical action would be to "swallow the whistle." Making value-laden decisions can be
stressful to the professional.

SECTIONS: Conflict Resolution and Management

Working can provide our lives with structure, purpose, satisfaction, self-esteem and
financial income. However, the workplace can also be a cause of stress, worry and
frustration if there are lack of interpersonal relationships among employees and _with
their managers. We all need people as colleagues in our workplaces, because we are
social-beings and we need to belong (Hawthorne's Studies) - but it is all about the
personality styles of the individuals at work that will determine interpersonal
relationships at the workplace. Organizations today experience countless conflict
situations. The management of conflicts in organizations is as complex and as varied as
the nature of conflicts themselves, and the conflict situations can contribute to a highly
adversarial environment (Volpe & Chandler, 1999.

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Most common conflicts that affect interpersonal relationships in business are over
relationships, personalities, power and resources; and there is an endless list. Any one
organization may experience the full range of conflicts from the interpersonal to the
international. Managers and staff should recognize that these conflicts are part and
partial of organizations, but what is important are the strategies to resolve these
conflicts.
Interpersonal relationships between co-workers are one of the most important factors
in any work environment - and personality conflicts are a leading cause of problems in
the workplace. If two co-workers continually butt heads on work-related issues, it
affects everyone around them and impacts the workplace in a negative way. Malicious
gossip and character assassination undermine relationships in a huge way. They poison
peoples perspectives of each other, fill voids of understanding with misinformation and
deceit, and create an atmosphere of distrust, disrespect and paranoia.

Research has therefore shown that lack of mutual understanding and respect for others,
mistrust and unfriendly workplace environment undermine interpersonal relationship
(Sandelin, 1997). Further, the absence of health interpersonal relationships causes
stress, frustration and depression in individuals. This leads to;
 Reduced motivation,
 Low morale,
 Poor or low productivity and eventual quitting.

This in the end will disrupt the shared vision of the organization, affect cohesion,
relationship and harmony of the workforce which will impact on the quality of the
products and finally destroy reputation and integrity of the organization. Workplace
conflicts no question, affect interpersonal relationships, and this has an impact not only
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on the individual, but also creates a ripple effect, the repercussions of which are felt
throughout the departments, the faculties and the entire institution. Resolving
personalized conflicts are a real challenge and yet, other than affecting concerned
parties, they tend to stretch to the students, quality of services, retention of qualified
staff and above all, encroaching on the scarce resources as the management institutes
inquiries into matters which are often times an "art" of personalized conflicts and could
be dealt with by HR professionals. Dealing with interpersonal relationships is a complex
subject that is often given inadequate attention by communities, business inclusive.
Each individual in a group has a particular and unique personality style that has been
shaped by the lifetime of their experience.
 There are diver types and quiet folk,
 Expressive,
 Analytical,
 Reserved,
 Shy,
 Reactive and many others.

After you have been working together for a while, an attentive person with training will
recognize members' personalities and styles and then use that understanding to predict
how the individual or group will react to different situations. As the group gets into
conflicts (Sandeline, 1997), the elements of group dynamics and personality style need
to be taken into account by the facilitators of the groups (the line managers). It is
important to note that academics particularly, are complex employees and they require
conceptual as well as human skills in handling such a complex workforce. Resolving

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conflicts and building a coherent and harmonious workforce in a complex environment,
one requires to go an extra mile in understanding the nature of the work environment.

First, they like to fight - every decision that is taken in opposition to a particular person's
view is a threat to that person's status. They tend to have very strong views on almost
everything, regardless of whether they understand the subject or not (Kammrath and
Dweck, 2005). They tend to have very strong views on almost everything, regardless of
whether they understand the subject or not. When people get into conflicts with each
other, one of the fine arts of conflict is to use triangulation to bring people to your side
of the issue. The goal of this type of triangulation is to degrade the person not present.
This kind of malicious gossip can occur very easily and spontaneously, you may not even
realize what it has done until you analyze why you feel a certain way towards someone,
or how you ever got such a wrong notion about someone.

Malicious triangulation is very dysfunctional behaviour and is one of the worst things
that can happen in an, organization or to an individual. Conflicts can lead to anger,
avoidance, sniping, shouting, frustration, fear of failure, sense of personal inadequacy.

It can also lead 4o; withholding of critical information^ lower productivity' from wasteful
conflict, careers can be sidetracked; relationships can be ruined, can create disrupted
patterns of work, and it can also consume huge amount of time-loss of productivity. In
trying to establish effective conflict management to be applied by business managers,
two models have been provided that can assist in resolving personalized conflicts.

Unit One: The Concept of Conflicts

No workplace will ever be totally devoid of conflict, which is a natural outcome in an
environment where employees with varying priorities, ideas and behaviours must work
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together toward a common goal. If managers sensibly "push back", it may enable
employees to learn valuable workplace skills, and allow managers to protect their own
time. Webster's Dictionary (1983) defines conflict as sharp disagreement or opposition
of interests or ideas.

In other words, what I want does not match what you want. When conflict occurs in the
workplace, it can reduce morale, lower work productivity, increase absenteeism, and
cause large-scale confrontations that can lead to serious and violent crimes.
Unit Two: The Context of Personalized Conflicts
Effectively dealing with conflict is not as easy as seizing the opportunity and choosing an
appropriate approach. If it were possible, we would all be more successful in doing so.
Some people seem to naturally manage disagreements with confidence and tact while
others become locked in fear or lash out with anger. Our often unconscious personal
reaction to the stress associated with conflict puts us into a "fight or flight" response
which primes our body with energy for this experience and causes us to either compete
or withdraw.

Constructive efforts to manage interpersonal issues requires the ability te control",

impulses, engage our cognitive skills and direct our energy toward a positive outcome.
The foundation for our typical reaction and approach, or "attitude", in dealing with
conflict is formed by our personality and life experiences.

 Genetic makeup and childhood experiences affect the development of our

personality and orientation toward conflict.

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 Role modeling by parents, family members, teachers and other significant people is
an important factor in how we learn to handle feelings and solve problems.
Sometimes this is constructive and sometimes it is not.
 A person's cultural characteristics will also influence their approach to conflict
management. We bring into our adult family and work life the values, beliefs, and
methods of dealing with conflict that we learned in our youth-be they constructive
or destructive.
 Our education and experiences as an adult may reinforce these dynamics or begin
to alter them.
 Once we begin to understand our personal approach to conflict we can make more
mature and informed choices about ways to deal with problems and concerns.

There is a danger with personalized conflicts because they are never a good thing.

First, personalized conflict is fuelled primarily by emotion (usually anger, frustration)

and perceptions about someone else's personality, character or motives. When conflict
is personalized and extreme each party acts as if the other is suspect as a person.

Second, because personalized conflict is about emotion-and not issues, problem solving
almost never works, because neither party is really interested in solving a problem - in
fact, in extreme cases, the parties go out of their ways to create new ones, imagined or
real.

Third, personalized conflicts almost always get worse over time, if they cannot be
converted to substantive conflict. That is because each person expects problems, looks
for them, finds them, and gets angrier. In most cases, the failure of two people to reach

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the "optimal" resolution or best alternative stems from intangible factors such as
psychological factors that will affect negotiations, for example;
 how comfortable each feels about conflict
 how each perceives or mis-perceives the other
 the assumptions each makes about the other and the problem
 the attitudes and expectations about the other
 the decisions each makes about trust, about how important "winning" is, how
important it is to avoid conflict, how much one likes or dislikes the other; how
important it is to "not look foolish."

Unit Three: Causes of Conflicts

First and foremost, whenever workers compete for scarce resources, recognition, and
power in the organization's "pecking order", conflict can occur. Since everyone requires
a share of the resources (office space, supplies, the boss's time, or the budget fund) to
complete their jobs (Hart, 2002), it should come as no surprise when the "have-nots"
gripe and plot against the "haves" (Bell, 2002).

Secondly, because individuals are individuals, they differ, in the way they approach
people and problems. Administrators need to understand their own styles and those of
their subordinates and learn how to accept conflicting styles and manage them
appropriately. An example of conflicting styles would be where one worker works best
in a very structured environment while another worker works best in an unstructured
environment. These two workers could easily drive each other crazy if they constantly
work in conflict with one another and do not learn to accept one another's work style.

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Thirdly, there is the fine art of conflicting perceptions, just as two or more workers can
have conflicting styles, they can also have conflicting perceptions. They may view the
same incident in dramatically different ways. An example is what might happen, if a new
administrative assistant were hired in the organization. One member of staff might see
the new hire as an advantage (one more set of hands to get the job done), while
another employee might see the same new hire as an insult or a competitor (a clear
message that the current staff are not performing adequately). Memos, performance
reviews, company rumors, hallway comments, and client feedback are sources for
conflicting perceptions. What was meant gets lost in a firestorm of responses to
perceived wrongs (Bell, 2002). Resentment and conflict can also occur when an
employee is viewed as more valuable, more hardworking and promising to the
organization than others (Hart, 2002).

Fourthly, there are always conflicting goals - where staff may have different viewpoints
about an incident, plan, or goal. Problems in the workplace can occur when staff are
responsible for different duties in achieving the same goal.

Fifthly, there may be conflicting pressures. These can occur when two or more
members of staff or departments are responsible for separate actions with the same
deadline. What is the best solution?

The extent to which we depend on each other to complete our work can contribute
greatly to conflict (Hart, 2002). Conflicting roles can occur when a member of staff is
asked to perform a function that is outside his/her job requirements or expertise or
another member of staff is assigned to perform the same job. This situation can
contribute to power struggles for territory. This causes intentional or unintentional

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aggressive or passive-aggressive (sabotage) behavior.' Everyone has experienced
situations where members of staff have wielded their-power in inappropriate ways.
Most workplace conflicts are caused by differing personal values. Segregation in the
workplace leads to gossiping, suspicion, and ultimately, conflict (Hart, 2002). Lastly,
conflicts may be caused by unpredictable policies.

Whenever company policies are changed, inconsistently applied, or non-existent,

misunderstandings are likely to occur. Employees need to know and understand
company rules and policies; they should not have to guess. Otherwise, unpredictable
things can occur such as staff members dressing inappropriately or giving out wrong
information. The absence of clear policies or policies that are constantly changing can
create an environment of uncertainty and conflict (Hart, 2002).

Conflict is a challenge facing both employers and employees alike. This module
highlights causes and effects of conflicts - including personalized conflicts - which
administrators and employees would likely encounter on a day-to-day basis and what
strategies can be put in place to resolve these conflicts. Interpersonal conflict arises
from a variety of sources. They are:
 Organizational change: People hold differing views over the direction to-go, the
routes to take and their likely success, the resources to be used, and the probable
outcomes. With the pace of technological, political, and social change increasing and
the marketplace hurtling toward a global economy, organizational changes will be
ever-present.
 Personality clashes: The concept of individual differences is fundamental to
organizational behavior. Not everyone thinks, feels, looks, or acts alike. Some people
simply "rub us the wrong way," and we cannot necessarily explain why Although
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 personality differences can cause conflict, they are also a rich resource for creative
problem solving. Employees need to accept, respect, and learn how to use these
differences when they arise.
 Different sets of values: People also hold different beliefs and-adhere to different
value systems. Their philosophies may diverge, or their ethical values may lead them
in different directions. The resulting disputes can be difficult to resolve, since they
are less objective than disagreements over alternative products, inventory levels, or
promotional campaigns.
 Threats to status: The social rank of a person in a group, is very important to many
individuals. When one's status is threatened, face saving becomes a powerful driving
force as a person struggles to maintain a desired image. Conflict may arise between
the defensive person and whoever created a threat to status.
 Contrasting perceptions: People perceive things differently as a result of their prior
experiences and expectations. Since their perceptions are very real to them (and
they feel that these perceptions must be equally apparent to others), they
sometimes fail to realize that others may hold contrasting perceptions of the same
object or event. Conflict may arise unless employees learn to see things as others see
them and help others do the same.
 Lack of trust: Every continuing relationship requires some degree of trust-the
capacity to depend on each other's word and actions. Trust opens up boundaries,
provides opportunities in which to act; and enriches the entire social fabric of an
organization. It takes time to build, but it can be destroyed in an instant. When
someone has a real or perceived reason not to trust another, the potential for
conflict rises grow among people who need to coordinate their efforts.

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 At the individual level some people may feel defeated, while the self image of others
will decline, and personal stress levels will rise. Predictably, the motivation level of
some employees will be reduced. It is important, then, for managers to be aware of
the potential for interpersonal and intergroup conflicts, to anticipate their likely
outcomes, and to use appropriate conflict resolution strategies.

Some Principal Causes Of Conflict Identified:

 Communication failure
 Personality conflict
 Value differences
 Goal differences
 Methodological differences
 Substandard performance
 Lack of cooperation
 Differences regarding authority
 Differences regarding responsibility
 Competition over resources
 Non-compliance with rules

There are three general causes of conflict:

1. Communication
2. Organizational
3. Personal

For purposes of analysis of the causes of conflict, it may be useful to identify three
general categories:

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Organizational Structure
Group interdependence: The greater the degree of interdependence, the greater is the
likelihood of communication difficulties. Greater interdependence also increases the
possibility that the parties need to share resources. If these resources are scarce, the
probability of conflict is increased. This interdependence can become the cause of
interdepartmental conflict. If either end of this interdependent relationship does not
provide the other with adequate information, poor performance results. In this case, the
department initiating the poor performance becomes the recipient of the other's poor
performance conflict escalates. They are; task specialization, reward systems, authority
relationships, group or organizational size. There are also:
 Personal Variables
 Personality types
 Value systems
 Communication
 Channels of communication
 Mode of communication

Conflict is frequently characterized by opposition, scarcity and blockage

Specifically, we define intergroup conflict as a process of opposition and confrontation;
when one group obstructs the progress of another.
 Scarcity of resources can bring about conflict as each department within the
organization seeks to secure for itself the scarce resources it requires for its survival;
each department acts out of self interest. In order to secure these scarce resources,
a department may block another department's access to the resources ~ this too

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 contributes to the level of conflict. Furthermore, one party's opposition to the
proposals or action of a second party may also result in conflict.
 It is also useful to distinguish between conflict and competition. Competition takes
place within a structure of rules. Conflict, on the other hand, generally involves some
interference by one party with the other party's pursuit of its goals.

Unit Four: Levels of Conflict

Conflict can occur within an employee, between individuals or groups, and across
organizations as they compete.

 Intrapersonal Conflict
 Although most role conflict occurs when an employee's supervisor or peers send
conflicting expectations to him or her, it is possible for intrapersonal role conflict to
emerge from within - an individual, as a result of competing roles taken.
 For example, Gloria may see herself as both the manager of a team responsible for -
protecting and enlarging its resources and as a member of the executive staff
charged with the task of reducing operating costs.

 Interpersonal Conflict
 Interpersonal conflicts are a serious problem to many people because they- deeply
affect a person's emotions.
 There is a need to protect one's self image and self esteem from damage by others:
When self-concept is threatened, serious upset occurs and relationships deteriorate.
Sometimes the temperaments of two persons are incompatible and their
personalities clash.

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 In other instances, conflicts develop from failures of communication or differences in
perception.
 An office employee was upset by a conflict with another employee in a different
department. It seemed to the first employee that there was no way to resolve the
conflict.
 However, when a counselor explained the different organizational roles of the two
employees as seen from whose organization's point of view, the first employee's
perceptions changed and the conflict vanished.

 Intergroup Conflict
 Intergroup conflicts, for example, between different departments, also cause
problems. On a major scale such conflicts are something like the wars between
juvenile gangs.
 Each group sets out to undermine the other, gain power, and improve its image.
 Conflicts arise from such causes as different viewpoints, group loyalties, and
competition for resources.
 Resources are limited in any organization and are increasingly tight as organizations
struggle to be competitive. Since most groups feel that they need more than they
can secure; the seeds of intergroup conflict exist wherever there are limited
resources.
 For example, the production department may want -new and, more efficient
machinery while, at the same time, the sales department wants to expand its sales
force, but there are only enough resources to supply the needs of one group.

Effectively dealing with conflict is not as easy as seizing the opportunity and choosing an
appropriate approach. If it were we would all be more successful in doing so.
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Some people seem to naturally manage disagreements with confidence and tact while
others become locked in fear or lash out with anger.

Our often unconscious personal reaction to the stress associated with conflict puts us
into a "fight or flight" response which primes our body with energy for this experience
and causes us to either compete or withdraw. Constructive efforts to manage
interpersonal issues requires the ability to control impulses, engage our cognitive skills
and direct our energy toward a positive outcome. The foundation for our typical
reaction and approach, or "attitude", in dealing with conflict is formed by our
personality and life experiences. Genetic makeup and childhood experiences affect the
development of our personality and orientation toward conflict.

Role modeling by parents, family members, teachers and other significant people is an
important factor in how we learn to handle feelings and solve problems. Sometimes this
is constructive and sometimes it is not. A person's cultural characteristics will also
influence their approach to conflict management. We bring into our adult family and
work life the values, beliefs, and methods of dealing with conflict that we learned in our
youth - be they constructive or destructive. Our education and experiences as an adult
may reinforce these dynamics or begin to alter them. We can gain an understanding of
our conflict related personality characteristics through use of assessment tools such as
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or the Thomas-Kilmani Conflict Mode Instrument.

Once we begin to understand our personal approach to conflict we can make more
mature and informed choices about ways to deal with problems and concerns. When
such things as money, information, or supplies are limited or riot shared, when task
responsibilities are unclear, and when people are simply pursuing different goals,

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conflict is inevitable. A part of us wishes that it would go away, or that perhaps over
time, a sort of social healing will transpire. As leaders we may even see fit to suggest
that it be taken care of at the level that it was created, but our intervention may be
needed if the conflict is not resolved. For as tempting as it may be to ignore it or be in
denial about it, this is not a socially healthy or viable response.

With a lucid approach to the specific conflict and a comprehensive understanding of the
nature of conflict, we will have a solid foundation with which to negotiate resolution. To
that end, here are three of the dynamics that usually occur during inharmonious
interactions:
1) Differing perceptions of the conflict,
2) Nondisclosure of common ground, and
3) Seeing the past, rather than the future.
Although we may be aware of the productive results that effective conflict management
can bring most of us still have an aversion to it and prefer not to engage in trying to
resolve conflict with others. We typically want to avoid the stress and emotional
responses that conflict causes. We may perceive conflict as something risky with the
potential for escalation. Some of these reactions are based on the uncertainty of how
the other party will deal with the problem or issue. We also may fear that things will get
worse instead of better.

Sometimes we tell ourselves that we are just too busy to take the time to address the
issue as a way of rationalizing our choice not to get involved. It is often easier to avoid a
problem hoping that it will go away or that someone else will deal with it. Our
perception of conflict as negative, coupled with our lack of experience in successfully

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managing conflict, may lead us in this direction. There is a danger with personalized
conflicts because they are never a good thing.

o First, personalized conflict is fuelled primarily by emotion (usually anger, frustration)

and perceptions about someone else's personality, character or motives. When

conflict is personalized and extreme each party acts as if the other is suspect as a
person.
o Second, because personalized conflict is about emotion and not issues, problem,

solving almost never works, because neither party is really interested in solving a
problem - in fact, in extreme cases, the parties go out of their ways to create new
ones, imagined or real.
o Third, personalized conflicts almost always get worse over time, if they cannot be

converted to substantive conflict. That is because each person expects problems,

looks for them, finds them, and gets angrier. In most cases, the failure of two people
to reach the "optimal" resolution or best alternative stems from intangible factors
such as psychological factors that will affect negotiations, for example;
 How comfortable each feels about conflict
 How each perceives or mis-perceives the other
 The assumptions each makes about the other and the problem
 The attitudes and expectations about the other
 The decisions each makes about trust, about how important "winning" is,
how important it is to avoid conflict, how much one likes or dislikes the other;
how important it is to "not look foolish."

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  Understanding the "rational" part of the negotiation is relatively easy.
Understanding the "psychological" part is more difficult. We need to understand
ourselves and our opponents psychologically.
 Failure to understand these psychological needs and issues is at the root of most
unsuccessful negotiations. This is made more difficult because norms in most
organizations discourage open expression of negative personal feelings. Thus
intense emotional conflicts are often expressed and rationalized as substantive
issues.
 People often drum up disagreements on trivial issues to provide justification for
an emotional conflict with another individual (Ware and Barnes, 2002).

Batcheldor, after perusing so many books on "conflicts" in organization vividly

appreciates Rahim's conclusion that "..Without an understanding of ethics by managers,
conflict cannot be handled".

SECTION C: Diversity Management and International HRM

The state is the guarantor of social, political, and economic stability and it also sets an
example as a model institution and employer. It sets norms and creates precedence for
interethnic interactions. Its ability to comply with diversity-friendly policies and norms
has a strong social impact. Both institutional competence and personal competence are
key for governments to manage diversity and the implementation of these policies.

The establishment of new business institutions and the -reform of organizations are
central events in a countries sustainable development systems. However, despite the
diverse composition of most of the countries, diversity principles have not been
integrated into these institutions or have remained largely marginal. This has created a

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development deficit, inequality for different groups, loss of government legitimacy,
inadequate decision-making, and has led to various degrees and forms of tensions. This
module therefore attempts to create awareness to employees in business sectors on the
role of diversity management especially for human resource management. The module
addresses the subject of human resource management of diversity in the business
sector to tackle challenges of inequality and exclusions.

The means of an end approach in the transformation of personnel administration into

human resource management is crucial at the level of the preparation of the soil,
concretized by the descriptive differences of personnel administration and human
resource management. Undoubtedly, the reformist school of thoughts informs the
perceived ideas while the purist's traditional school of thought adheres dogmatically to
personnel administration orientation. Although human resource management is
associated with the private sector and personnel administration with the business
sector, the multidisciplinary approach of Organizations closes the binary divide through
the creation of soft boundaries.

The role of the Human Resource Manager is evolving with the change in competitive
market environment and the realization that Human Resource Management must play a
more strategic role in the success of an organization. Organizations that do not put their
emphasis on attracting and retaining talents may find themselves in dire consequences,
as their competitors may be outplaying them in the strategic employment of their
human resources. This module will highlight on how a public administrator can meet the
challenges of workplace diversity, how to motivate employees through gain-sharing and
executive information system through proper planning, organizing, leading and
controlling their human resources.
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Unit One: The Concept of Diversity
With the increase in competition, locally, or globally, organizations must become more
adaptable, resilient, agile, and customer-focused to succeed. And within this change in
business environment, the HR professional has to evolve to become a strategic partner,
an employee sponsor or advocate, and a change mentor within the organization. In
order to succeed, HR must be a business driven function with a thorough understanding
of the organization's big picture and be able to influence key decisions and policies. In
general, the focus of today's HR Manager is on strategic personnel retention and talents
development. HR professionals will be coaches, counselors, mentors, and succession
planners to help motivate organization's members and their loyalty. The HR manager
will also promote and fight for values, ethics, beliefs, and spirituality within their
organizations, especially in the management of workplace diversity.

Why Diversity?
 We are constantly reminded that ethno-cultural diversity remains a challenge for
states and communities across the globe.
 Innumerable historical and contemporary examples show the risks and grave
repercussions that accompany attempts to eliminate or deny the existence of ethno-
cultural differences. Such efforts can and do provoke bitter resistance, harden
divisions in society, and have long-lasting, destructive effects.
 It is also apparent that diversity is not only isolated to a few "multiethnic" states.
With globalization, communities everywhere are experiencing new and complex
challenges for social cohesion: ethno-cultural identity, intersects with other, forms of
difference, such as in income, educational attainment- and lifestyle. In short,
diversity is more the rule than the exception.
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What is Diversity Management?
Diversity management aims at achieving social cohesion through the recognition of
diversity. It is the action an organization undertakes when it recognizes that society
consists of different ethnic groups.
 Pro-actively recognizing and addressing the needs and demands of diverse groups
necessitates the strategic use of various policy and governance tools. In effect,
diversity management can be understood as providing a toolbox that combines
several elements:
 Consensus now holds that the management of diverse interests and needs is a key
element of good governance.
 Diversity management entails the mainstreaming of values of fair, transparent, and
inclusive government.
 Diversity management builds on the ideas and practices of effective local democracy.
 Diversity management sees international standards of human and minority rights as
positive managerial tools that can facilitate the broader inclusion of all groups at all
levels of governance.

By strengthening communities and social capital, enhancing government capacity,

supporting effective institutions and policies, diversity management can benefit all social
groups and society as a whole.

Why Direct Training?

Advancing both institutional and personal competence in diversity management is
necessary for achieving social cohesion, strengthening democratic institutions, and
achieving development goals. Policymakers need to be aware of the pros and cons of
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using (or not using) various diversity management mechanisms such as diversity aware
policy-making, power-sharing mechanisms, inclusive and responsive service delivery
methods in diverse communities, minority rights standards and instruments, as well
conflict management methods. In order to make informed decisions and choices they
also need to be aware and understand the impact of such strategies and their own
actions or their lack on their own diverse contexts, and local communities.

They need to understand processes of discrimination, exclusion and marginalization and

their consequence in order to tackle them effectively. A multi-focused, integrated, and
comprehensive' training series and program is needed. Adult-learning-based,
experiential training is uniquely positioned in addressing these components in their
inter-connectedness; these are a special asset when training senior staff and decision-
makers, who are instrumental hi driving diversity initiatives. Committed leaders and key
staff are essential in spearheading the needed structural/organizational change and to
promote enabling and unbiased institutional structures.

Why Training of Trainers?

Through Training of Trainers (ToT), aims to develop a group of trainers that specialize in
training public and business policy makers, councilors and officials, and that build
ongoing consultancy relationship through their organizations with the local
governments. The ToT sessions provide normative and argumentative framework for
the accommodation of ethnicity and diversity within democratic means. Trainings
introduce concepts on the political, legal and administrative environments of local
public policies towards multiethnic communities. These concepts can be used to
formulate an argumentative support introducing/new, policies sensitive to multiethnic.
Special attention is paid to the analysis of decentralization examples and multiethnic
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arrangements from across SEE and beyond. Besides conceptual framework, ToT includes
various exercises aimed to improve participants' capacity in turning those concepts into
practice through policy decisions.

 To this end, sessions include several case studies based on concrete examples from
the field. Through analyzing the situation described in the case study exercises as a
policy problem that require further governmental action, participants apply the
conceptual frameworks to the concrete problems.
 Moreover, participants also became familiar with various participatory techniques
and skills of policy-making, such as conflict and force-field analysis, mediation,
negotiation and participatory planning.
 At central level of government policies of diversity management imply legal
guarantees for the integration, non-discrimination as well as social and political
participation of minorities. But because most of the interaction of diverse groups
happens at the local level on an everyday basis, local authorities must also develop
practices accommodating diversity in all relevant areas of their activity.
 They have ample opportunity to effectively represent all citizens in their domain, as
they are at the level closest to them, where policies responsive to the needs of
different groups are best designed and implemented.
 The integration of all groups through good governance needs to be addressed in a
holistic manner, cutting across sectoral domains (business, education, housing,
employment, health and welfare) and integration also implies a two-sided process
involving reciprocity, negotiation and democratic contestation among groups. This
process of integration and reinterpretation of common belonging and common good
lays special responsibilities on local governments.

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Furthermore, business managers needs to move beyond merely providing services
(welfare included) and supporting economic activity; they need to strategically shape
and enable the lively coexistence (not merely parallel lives) of diverse communities. The
challenge is both in building bridges between communities as well as between citizens
and their governments, to employ the latter for the benefits of the former and vice-
versa. Presently, part of the problem remains the inequality in business democracy and
its institutional capacity to respond to diverse needs. Moreover, diversity seems often
not to be valued but rather feared by business organizations, due to lack of trust in
institutions as a legitimate, peaceful bargaining system for diverging interests.
Part of the problem also remains the insufficient awareness that the accommodation of
diverse needs and the provision of development opportunities for all ethnic groups but
especially vulnerable ones is a long-term investment, which ultimately benefits both
majority and minority populations. Our approach and training manual series builds on
the well-established tradition of UN-Habitat training and technical assistance in the field
of sustainable development, but we intend to do so from a particular angle, that of
managing diversity.

Unit Two: Workplace Diversity

According to Thomas (1992), dimensions of workplace diversity include, but are not
limited to: age, ethnicity, ancestry, gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, sexual
orientation, educational background, geographic, .location, income, .marital .status,
military experience, religious beliefs, parental status, and work experience.

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The Challenges of Workplace Diversity
The future success of any organizations relies on the ability to manage a diverse body of
talent that can bring innovative ideas, perspectives and views to their work. The
challenge and problems faced of workplace diversity can be turned into a strategic
organizational asset if an organization is able to capitalize on this melting pot of diverse
talents. With the mixture of talents of diverse cultural backgrounds, genders, ages and
lifestyles, an organization can respond to business opportunities more rapidly and
creatively, especially in the global arena (Cox, 1993), which must be one of the
important organizational goals to be attained. More importantly, if the organizational
environment does not support diversity broadly, one risks losing talent to competitors.
This is especially true for multinational companies (MNCs) who have operations on a
global scale and employ people of different countries, ethical and cultural backgrounds.
Thus, a HR manager needs to be mindful and may employ a 'Think Global, Act Local'
approach in most circumstances. The challenge of workplace diversity is also prevalent
amongst Singapore's Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). With a population of only
four million people and the nation's strive towards high technology and knowledge-
based economy; foreign talents are lured to share their expertise in these areas.

Thus, many indigenous HR managers have to undergo cultural-based Human

Resource Management training to further their abilities to motivate a group of
professional those are highly qualified but culturally diverse. Furthermore, the HR
professional must assure the indigenous professionals that these foreign talents are not
threat to their career advancement -.(Ton, 1993). In many ways, the effectiveness of
workplace diversity management is dependent on the skilful balancing act of the HR
manager. One of the main reasons for ineffective workplace diversity management is he
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predisposition to pigeonhole employees, placing them in a different silo based on heir
diversity profile (Thomas, 1992). In the real world, diversity cannot be easily categorized
and those organizations that respond to human complexity by leveraging the talents of
a broad workforce will be the most effective in growing their businesses and their
customer base.

Unit Three: The Management of Workplace Diversity

'n order to effectively manage workplace diversity, Cox (1993) suggests that a HR
Manager needs to change, from an ethnocentric view ("our way is the best way") to a
culturally relative perspective ("let's take the best of a variety of ways"). This shift in
philosophy has to be ingrained in the managerial framework of the HR Manager in
his/her planning, organizing, leading and controlling of organizational resources.

As suggested by Thomas (1992) and Cox (1993), there are several best practices that a
HDR. Manager can adopt in ensuring effective management of workplace diversity in
order to attain organizational goals. They are:

Planning a Mentoring Program for Diversity Management

One of the best ways to handle workplace diversity issues is through initiating a
Diversity Mentoring Program. This could entail involving different departmental
managers in a mentoring program to coach and provide feedback to employees who are
different from them. In order for the program to run successfully, it is wise to provide
practical training for these managers or seek help from consultants and experts in this
field. Usually, such a program will encourage organization's members which emerged as
a clearly defined field by the 1920s (at least in the US), was largely concerned the
technical aspects of hiring, evaluating, training, and compensating employees and was

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very-much of "staff function in most organizations. The field did not normally focus on
the relationship of disparate employment practices on overall organizational
performance or on the systematic relationships among such practices.

The field also lacked a unifying paradigm. HRM developed in response to the substantial
increase in competitive pressures American business organizations began experiencing
by the late 1970s as a result of such factors as globalization, deregulation, and rapid
technological change. These pressures gave rise to an enhanced concern on the part of
firms to engage in strategic planning-a process of anticipating future changes in the
environment conditions (the nature as well as level of the market) and aligning the
various components of the organization in such a way as to promote organizational
effectiveness. Although the technical aspects of traditional personnel administration are
still an integral component of HRM, strategy formulation and implementation has
become its dominant and integrating paradigm.

Human resource (HR) managers are concerned with designing overall employment
systems that are internal complementary and ultimately contribute to the firm's
attainment of its principal goals. The function is also seen to be much closer to the
strategic apex of the firm than personnel administration.
The strategic human resource management (SHRM) literature envisions HR managers as
utilizing, in effect, a kind of toolkit of HRM methods that can be crafted into an overall
organizational HR system. Schuler (1988), for example, argues that the general
organization strategies firms generate give rise to a need to promote specific behaviors
on the part of employees (e.g., risk-taking vs. risk-avoidance, individual vs. team-based,
innovative vs. conventional); HR strategies are then designed to elicit desired behavioral
repertoires. Issues addressed in HR strategy formulation include:
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Staffing:
 Does the firm rely primarily on internal versus external sources in filling jobs? Are
career paths broad versus narrow?
 Is there a single or are there multiple promotion ladders?
 Are the criteria used in making staffing decisions explicit versus implicit?
 Does the firm rely on extensive versus limited socialization?
 Are the staffing procedures generally open versus closed and secretive?

Compensation:
 Does the firm pay generally low versus high wages in comparison to the market?
 Is there an emphasis on internal (task-based) versus external (market-based) equity
in compensation decision? ^ Are there few versus many fringe benefits?
 Does the company utilize many versus few performance incentives?
 Finally, does the firm offer high employment security, coupled with variable pay,
versus low employment security, coupled with fixed pay (i.e., does the firm lay
people off rather than cut pay in times of adversity)?

Training and development:

 To what extent does the firm engage in training and development efforts?
 If it does, are these short-term versus long-term in focus?
 Is training -narrow versus broad and is the focus on 'enhancing productivity-versus
improving employee quality of life! Is training planned and systematic versus
spontaneous?

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The above are only some of the activities that serve as the design components of HR
strategies; others include employee assessment, job design, employee involvement, and
labor-management relations. Of course, HR strategy may vary within organizations,
depending upon the strategic objectives associated with a particular component of the
firm. There is an extensive empirical literature in the SHRM area that has investigated
the relationship between HRM strategies and organizational performance (stock market
performance (e.g., yield), accounting measures (e.g., return on investment), and
subjective measures). This work has generally demonstrating statistically meaningful
relationships between strategy and performance.

 An important issue in this research is the extent to which empirical analysis indicates
that certain universal "best practices" are superior to contingency approaches that
utilize HR strategies designed be highly complementary to organizational strategy.
 Much of the evidence seems to support the former view, with "high performance" or
"high involvement" work systems seemingly have generally superior effects.
 Such systems are typically teamed-based, with lower level employees enjoying
greater autonomy than in conventional organizations. High-involvement HRM
strategies also are characterized by performance-based pay, an emphasis on
training, employee participation.
 There is considerable work in HRM on issues related to opportunities for women at
all levels in organizations, including factors the promote the so-called "glass ceiling."
 A HR Manager needs to advocate a diverse workforce by making diversity evident at
all organizational levels. Otherwise, some employees will quickly conclude that there
is no future for them in the company.

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 As the HR Manager, it is pertinent to show respect for diversity issues and promote
clear and positive responses to them. He/she must also show a high level of
commitment and be able to resolve issues of workplace diversity in an ethical and
responsible manner.

Control and Measure Results-

 A HR Manager must conduct regular organizational assessments on issues like pay,
benefits, work environment, management and promotional opportunities to assess
the progress over the long term.
 There is also a need to develop appropriate measuring tools to measure the impact
of diversity initiatives at the organization through organization-wide feedback
surveys and other methods.
 Without proper control and evaluation, some of these diversity initiatives may just
fizzle out, without resolving any real problems that may surface due to workplace
diversity.

SECTION D: International focus on Managing HR

Introduction
The term "human resource management" has been commonly used for about the last
ten to fifteen years. Prior to that, the field was generally known as "personnel
administration." The name change is not merely domestic. Personnel administration, to
air their opinions and learn how 4o resolve conflicts due to their, diversity. More,
importantly, the purpose of a Diversity Mentoring Program seeks to encourage
members to move beyond their own cultural frame of reference to recognize and take
full advantage of the productivity potential inherent in a diverse population.

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Unit Four: Organizing Talents Strategically
Many companies are now realizing the advantages of a diverse workplace. As more and
more companies are going global in their market expansions either physically or virtually
(for example, E-commerce-related companies), there is a necessity to employ diverse
talents to understand the various niches of the market.
 With this trend in place, a HR Manager must be able to organize the pool of diverse
talents strategically for the organization. He/she must consider how a diverse
workforce can enable the company to attain new markets and other organizational
goals in order to harness the full potential of workplace diversity.
 An organization that sees the existence of a diverse workforce as an organizational
asset rather than a liability would indirectly help the organization to positively take
in its stride some of the less positive aspects of workforce diversity.

Leading the Talk-

 The conventional wisdom of HRM today seems to be that organizational diversity is
generally good for the firm by promote a variety of perspectives and insights (not
too mention, of course, legal requirements).

I have heard mention of some research that has shown that diverse firms (including
those with significant opportunities for women at all levels) have higher levels of
performance than firms that are more homogeneous or those that have high levels of
occupational segregation by gender. Unfortunately, I do not have the specific
references.

International HRM
Work on international HRM breaks down into three major categories:
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 HRM practices and expatriate employees in multinational corporations
 (MNCs),
 HRM practices and host-country nationals as employees of MNCs, and Comparative
employment systems.

The second and, to some extent the third, are. Let me deal primarily with HRM practices
and host-country nationals here, with more on comparative HRM issues in following
section.
 A crucial issue in HRM and host-country nationals (HCNs) is the extent to which an
MNC elects to transfer its national or global HRM system to a particular subsidiary or
allow the subsidiary to develop (or maintain existing) employment practices rooted
in indigenous practices.
 This seems to depend upon a range of factors, including the structure of the MNCs
market (is it a globally unified or diverse?), the significance of a given subsidiary to
the MNC’s overall operations, the importance of specific employee behaviors
as the MNC's source of competitive advantage, the degree to which the MNC
controls the subsidiary (in joint-venture situations) and the extent to which host-
country culture and employment laws differ from those of the MNC's home country
(the greater the differences, the less likely the transfer of home-country practices)
(Taylor, Beechler, and Napier, 1996). Empirical work on the transfer of HRM
practices is extensive and varied (e.g., Rosenzweig and Nohria, 1994; various articles
in Jain, Lawler, and Morishima, 1998).

Unit Three: Cultural and Gender Issues in International HRM

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Much of the work in the international HRM area concerns ways in national culture
impacts employment practices in host countries and the limitations culture, creates
regarding the ability of MNCs to transfer employment practices to host countries.
National culture may be thought of as the values, beliefs, perceptual orientations, and
norms typical of the members of a particular society.
The introduction of management techniques inconsistent with national culture can lead
to the failure of the method, not to mention conflict between an MNC and its
employees and, perhaps, the broader society.
Comparative studies of national culture across a large number of countries are limited
because of the significant costs associated with data collection. A study by Hofstede
(1991), using data collected in around 60 countries in the late 1970s, remains influential
despite controversy over his methodology and interpretation of the findings. However,
other work (e.g. Triandis, 1995), would tend to support the general findings of Hofstede.

There are various dimensions of culture that have been identified and can be measured
(via survey questionnaires) cross-nationally. Hofstede's work focuses on four such
dimensions, all of which are related to work behaviors:
 Individualism/collectivism: The extent to which personal versus group objectives
govern a person's life. Most industrialized Western countries have individualist
cultures, while much of the rest of the world is collectivist, including virtually all
developing countries.
 Power distance: The extent to which a low-status persons accept and legitimize the
power and influence of high-status persons. Power distance and individualism /
collectivism are correlated, so that individualist cultures are generally low on power
distance (less hierarchical) and collectivist cultures are typically high on power

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 distance (more hierarchical). Again, industrialized Western countries are generally
lower on power distance and most other countries are higher.
 Masculinity/femininity: The extent to which aggressiveness and material well-being
are valued in a society versus good interpersonal relationships and general quality of
life. "Masculine" cultures may also tend to be more patriarchal, while "feminine"
cultures tend to have greater inequality between the sexes. This dimension does not
seem to be related to economic development or even geographical location. Japan
has the highest score of any country on the masculinity dimension, though several
other East Asian countries score in the middle of the scale. Egalitarian societies, such
as the Scandavian countries, tend to be having more feminine cultures.
 Uncertainty avoidance: Cultures where people are troubled by change and risk.
Work specifically on gender issues in the international HRM field is somewhat
limited. A book edited by Adler and Izraeli (1994) contains several case studies of
countries from all parts of the world; the authors discuss the extent to which women
have achieved managerial positions in these countries and consider the role factors
such as national culture have played in promoting opportunity for women.

More quantitative work by Deva and Lawler (1998), using aggregate national data from
the UN database on women, combined with Hofstede's national culture norms, suggests
that culture certainly plays a distal, but perhaps not a proximate, role in generating
employment opportunities for women. Ironically, the masculinity/femininity dimension
seems unrelated to the 'proportion of managers in a country that are women; more
important is the degree to which the country's culture is individualist or collectivist.
Individualist cultures tend to emphasize personal achievement and merit as a basis for
mobility, whereas collectivist cultures are more ascriptive. Thus, individualism is

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positively related to employment opportunity for women in managerial positions. Some
work suggests that workforce gender composition in subsidiaries of MNCs tends to
conform to host-country norms (Rosenzweig and Nohria, 1994).
However, some of our work suggests that the national culture of an MNCs home
country, which presumably influences the firm's corporate culture, carries over to
policies regarding employment opportunities for women in a developing country that
imposes no specific limitations on gender-based employment discrimination (Lawler and
Bae, 1998). This study was conducted in Thailand, though more recent work we have
done finds similar relationships in Taiwan. Very few studies have undertaken to assess
the situation of QWL in Nepal. From workers' perspective, the QWL situation of
Nepalese shop floor jobs described in the following ways:

SECTION E: Employment Discrimination

Discrimination in the workplace negatively affects 'businesses in that discriminatory
policy can hurt a company's reputation.
 A business self-limits itself when it restricts advancement to certain groups or types
of employees.
 Speaking negatively about a former employee can be damaging for a potential
employee.
 There is also a direct correlation between loyalty, retention, and discrimination.
Employees are more likely to be looking for new jobs when they feel they have been
wronged.
 Sending wrong signals to potential clients can also cause conflict because customers
can sense when employees aren't enthusiastic or don't believe in their company.
This is one reason that it is important for a job applicant to observe the attitudes of

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 people they wish to work with. Sending positive signals to employees attracts future
potential employees.
 Inequalities suffered by discriminated groups spreads. Due to affirmative action
policies, a new middle class has been created that consists of formerly discriminated
people in some countries but in others, people who are from discriminated groups
are frequently involved in the worst jobs, denied benefits, capital, land, social
protection, training, or credit.
 Discrimination at a workplace can lead to poverty. "Discrimination creates a web of
poverty, forced and child labor and social exclusion, (seeking to eliminate
discrimination is indispensable to any strategy for poverty reduction and sustainable
economic development).

Gender discrimination and the workplace

Even though there are regulations that are used to promote equality within the
workplace, discrimination is still rampant.
 Women still do not measure up to men when it comes to income, employment rates
and occupational range.
 They face higher unemployment rates. "Discrimination can occur at every stage of
employment, from recruitment to education and remuneration, occupational
segregation, and at time of layoffs."

Unintentional discrimination
Unintentional discrimination (often termed "statistical discrimination") occurs when
neutral selection practices produce a substantial disparity of outcomes between one
group and another. Such practices include the use of standardized tests (which may
disadvantage certain groups) or height (which may disadvantage women and some
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ethnic groups) in the hiring process. If the requirements are job-related and a "business
necessity", the disparity is irrelevant.
 Some laws prohibit unintentional as well as intentional discrimination, but may have
different standards for deciding what is acceptable.
 Substantial disparities in outcome are not necessarily illegal, if the practices that
produce them are necessary.

MODULE SEVEN: Labour Relations

Aim:
Introduction
Labour Relations
The basic concepts of mutual trust between labor and management are: improvements
the lives of employees are realized through the prosperity of the company, and labor
are management thus share the same goal of company prosperity as a common value
management will take into consideration to the greatest possible extent stable
employee; and will continuously strive to improve working conditions; and employees
will cooperate with the company's policies in order to promote the company's
prosperity.

MODULE EIGHT: HEALTH AND SAFETY

Students will receive the following:

 Participant Manual
You will receive a detailed participant manual that is designed to stimulate participant
learning and act as a reference point for their future learning. This manual is fully

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customizable to allow you to meet the exact needs of your training group. Print as many
copies as required.

 PowerPoint Slides
We've created the slides so you don't have to. Slides can be opened in Microsoft
PowerPoint. Slides are also customizable so that you can easily make any change you
need to meet the exact needs of your training group.

 Course Exercises
Each course comes with carefully created exercises that encourage participants to apply
their learning to their own organizations.

 Training Games
21 training games ready-to-use in any training session.

 Course Tests
A Pre-Course test will help you evaluate your participants prior to the training and
collect important information on participants needs and their current understanding of
the course topic. A post-course test will evaluate participants learning at the end of the
training.

 Further Reading
Provide your participants with a summary of additional materials on the subject matter.
Course Evaluation
Provide your participants with a detailed evaluation tool to evaluate the effectiveness of
the course.
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Action Plan
Provide your participants with an action plan that they can use to maximize their
learning long after the course is over.

Expert Guides
You will also receive three informative expert guides on developing participation,
evaluating training and listening skills that will help you maximize the learning in all your
training sessions.

Strategy game: Management Behaviour

This game will simulate the work of an entire department. There are no defined
individual exercises or roles; rather participants will find themselves in an absolute
reality. These tasks must be solved under the most difficult conditions and in stressful
conflict situations. After each simulation round, the entire process is analyzed in a
feedback session in two or three hours.

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