ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE CRIME: AN OVERVIEW OF

MALICIOUS USE AND ABUSE OF AI

SEMINAR REPORT
Submitted by

BINIL GEORGE
(Reg No: VJC21EC024)

To
The APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree
of
Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

December 2023
VISWAJYOTHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
VAZHAKULAM
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Vision
Moulding Electronics Engineers with Professional Competence and Global Outlook.

Mission
1. To create a vibrant academic ambience conducive for progressive learning.
2. Build up excellent infrastructure and lab facilities to train the students in the current &
emerging technology.
3. Maintain well qualified faculty who are willing to upgrade their knowledge continuously.
4. Groom students towards successful careers by facilitating industry-institute relationships and
value addition through regular skill-development programmes.

Program Educational Objectives

Our Graduates shall be,

1. Suitably employed in allied industries/services with professional competency and
knowledge of modern tools.
2. Capable of developing economically viable, technically feasible eco-friendly electronic
systems.
3. Capable to pursue higher studies/research in the field of engineering and management.
 Program Outcomes

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering

problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse complex

engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of

mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis

of the information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern

engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering

activities with an understanding of the limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member

and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage

in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes

Our Students shall be able to,

1. Analyze and modify electronic products which will find applications in the field of
communication and automation.

2. Apply the concepts of signal processing and develop algorithms to solve real-world
electronics and communication problems.

3. Design and manage cost effective low power electronic systems to address global
challenges with a strong social commitment and ethical values.
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the seminar report entitled "IoT Based Agriculture" submitted by me to the
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Viswajyothi College of Engineering
& Technology, Vazhakulam, in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
B.Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering is a bonafide report of the seminar work
carried out by me under the guidance of Ms.Ranjini Surendran, Assistant Professor & Asst.HOD,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering. The material contained in this report
has not been submitted either in part or in full, to any university or institution for the award of any
degree.

Place: Vazhakulam
Date: 05-11-2024

Binil George
Reg No. VJC21EC024
VISWAJYOTHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, VAZHAKULAM

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “IOT BASED AGRICULTURE” submitted by
BINIL GEORGE (Reg No. VJC21EC024) to APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University,
Thiruvananthapuram in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering is a bonafide record of
the seminar presented by him. This report in any form has not been submitted to any other
University or Institute for any purpose.

Ms. Rose Maria Jose Dr. Naveen Jacob

Assistant Professor Head of Department
Seminar Coordinator ECE, VJCET
ECE, VJCET
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we thank God Almighty for His divine grace and blessings in making all this
possible. May he continue to lead us in the years to come. It is my privilege to render my heartfelt
thanks and gratitude to our most beloved manager, Msgr. Dr. Pius Malekandathil, our director Rev.
Fr. Dr. Paul Parathazham and our Principal, Dr. K.K. Rajan for providing me the opportunity to do
this seminar during the fourth year of my B.Tech degree course. I am deeply thankful to our Head
of the Department, Dr. Naveen Jacob for his support and encouragement.

I would like to express our sincere gratitude to our seminar coordinator Ms. Rose Maria Jose,
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering for her
motivation, assistance and help for the seminar.

I also thank all the staff members of the Electronics and Communication Engineering department
for providing their assistance and support. Last, but not the least I thank all our friends and my
family for their valuable feedback from time to time as well as their help and encouragement.

i
 ABSTRACT

This seminar explores the transformative role of the Internet of Things (IoT) in modern agriculture,
emphasizing its potential to enhance productivity, resource efficiency, and sustainability. By
integrating IoT-enabled devices such as smart sensors and actuators, agricultural processes can be
optimized through real-time data collection and analysis, facilitating precise farming practices,
improved water management, and remote crop and livestock monitoring. The report discusses IoT
architecture tailored to agricultural needs, highlighting key components like wireless sensor
networks, cloud computing, and farm management software. Additionally, it identifies critical
challenges that impact IoT adoption in agriculture, including high capital investment, data privacy,
connectivity issues, and the need for standardized protocols. Addressing these barriers could
significantly advance IoT implementation, leading to sustainable growth and innovation in
agriculture, particularly in rural and remote areas. This seminar underscores IoT’s potential to
revolutionize the agriculture sector while paving the way for scalable, data-driven solutions to
agricultural challenges.

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 CONTENTS

Title Page No.

Acknowlegdement i
Abstract ii
List of Figures iiv
Abbreviations v
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Literature survey 2
2.1. Smart Agriculture Management System 2
2.2. IoT Architecture for Agricultural Applications 3
2.3. IoT for Precision Agriculture in Rural Areas 3
2.4. Agriculture Prediction and Monitorng using IoT 3
Chapter 3 What is internet of things? 4
3.1. Technologies that have made IoT possible 5
3.2. Layers of Internet of Things 6
Chapter 4 IoT and Agriculture 8
4.1. Significance of IoT in Agriculture 8
4.2. IoT Enabled Crop Monitoring 10
4.2.1. Data flow in IoT basedAgriculture 12
4.3. Remote Sensingusing Smart Sensors 13
4.3.1. Acoustic Sensors 14
4.3.2. Electromagnetic Sensors 14
4.3.3. Electrochemical Sensors 17
4.3.4. LIDAR. 17
4.3.5. Opticcal Sensors 18
4.3.6. Mechanical Sensors 19
4.4. Actuators 19
4.5. IoT Architecture in Agriculture 22
4.5.1. Wireless Sensor Network 23
4.5.2. Gate Ways. 23
4.5.3. Wifi Based Long Distance Network 24
4.5.4. Cloud Computing 25
4.5.5. Farm Management Softwares 25
Chapter 5 Challenges in IoT Based Agriculture 27
Chapter 6 Conclusion 29
References 30

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES
NO. Title Page No.

Fig 3. 1 IoT 4
Fig 3. 2 Layer of IoT 6
Fig 4. 1 Iot enabled crop monitoring 10
Fig 4. 2 data flow 12
Fig 4. 3 Smart sensor architecture 13
Fig 4. 4 Acoustic sensor 14
Fig 4. 5 GPR 15
Fig 4. 6 Electrochemical sensor 16
Fig 4.7 LIDAR 17
Fig 4. 8 Optical sensor 18
Fig 4.9 mechanical sensor 19
Fig 4.10 Architecture 22
Fig 4.11 WSN 23
Fig 4.12 Gateway 24

iv
ABBREVIATIONS

AI – Artificial Intelligence
CCW – Certain Conventional Weapons
GAN – Generative Adversarial Network
LAWS – Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems
NLP – Natural Language Processing
UN – United Nations

v
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Farming and agriculture is the basis of human life which gives food, grains, and other raw
materials. Technology holds a tremendous role in increasing production and decreasing extra
manpower. Internet of Things (IoT) has opened up a suit- able solution for smart farming and
agriculture, however, it remains a dream till the connectivity is not reached to rural areas. The
WiFi-based long distance (WiLD) network is successfully been used to connect the rural
regions with low cost With the extended range, for bet- ter and efficient IoT in such region
and cloud computing solutions can be incorporated in WiFi devices. Implementation of
IoT in field of agriculture can greatly take agriculture to next level by increasing productivity,
scalabilty, feasibility and quality of agro products. With the advent of high processing
technologies, strong connectivity, sensitive and smart sensors, internet of things can be more
efficiently and effectively implemented in agricultural scenario. This seminar deals about
importance of internet of things in the field of agriculture and IoT architecture that has to be
enabled in agriculture for efficient and feasible working. This seminar also points out various
challenges that needs to be overcome to make this technology sustainable.

1
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Agriculture has always been a backbone of economies worldwide, with its evolution pivotal to
addressing food security and resource management. In recent years, the integration of the Internet
of Things (IoT) in agriculture has emerged as a revolutionary approach to optimizing agricultural
productivity, sustainability, and resource management. IoT-based agriculture harnesses smart
devices, sensors, and data analytics to monitor and manage essential factors like soil moisture,
crop health, and environmental conditions. By connecting these sensors and devices to the internet,
real-time data collection and analysis are possible, empowering farmers to make data-driven
decisions that enhance efficiency and reduce waste.

This literature survey explores key advancements in IoT-based agriculture, including the latest
sensor technologies, network architectures, data management techniques, and applications in
precision farming. It also examines the challenges and limitations, such as connectivity issues in
rural areas, data security, and the economic viability of IoT solutions for small-scale farmers. The
survey reviews and synthesizes findings from recent studies, presenting insights into how IoT is
transforming traditional agricultural practices and outlining areas where further research and
development are needed.

2.1. SMART AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Nagaraja et al. propose an IoT-based Smart Agriculture Management System (SAMS) focused on
precision farming. SAMS integrates various sensors (e.g., DHT-11 for temperature and humidity,
hygrometers for soil moisture) to collect real-time environmental data, which is visualized through
cloud platforms like ThingSpeak and Firebase. Using machine learning, particularly a Support
Vector Machine (SVM) classifier, the system recommends suitable crops based on historical and
real-time data. This system addresses resource optimization, suggesting optimal water and
fertilizer usage, which can significantly reduce waste and enhance crop yield.

2
2.2. IOT ARCHITECTURE FOR AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS
Ojha et al. present a comprehensive survey of IoT architectures, highlighting how various
frameworks (e.g., Sensor-Cloud, Edge Computing, and WSNs) can be optimized for agricultural
applications. The study discusses critical aspects of IoT in agriculture, such as heterogeneity,
context-awareness, and scalability. They emphasize the need for robust communication
technologies (e.g., 6LoWPAN for addressing scalability) and propose using a cloud-edge hierarchy
to handle the diverse data generated by agricultural IoT systems. This layered architecture ensures
data processing efficiency, reduces latency, and enhances system resilience, making it ideal for
precision agriculture, irrigation, pest control, and livestock monitoring.

2.3. IOT FOR PRECISION AGRICULTURE IN RURAL AREAS

Ahmed et al. focus on IoT applications tailored for rural agriculture, leveraging fog computing
and WiFi-based long-distance (WiLD) networks to extend connectivity in remote areas. Their
proposed architecture integrates wireless sensor networks (WSNs) with fog nodes to minimize
latency and enable real-time monitoring of soil, crop health, and climate conditions. The use of
6LoWPAN technology facilitates low-power communication over extended distances, allowing
rural farmers to access real-time insights on environmental parameters and machinery status. This
setup is particularly beneficial for precision agriculture, enabling timely interventions in irrigation
and fertilization based on sensor data.

2.4. AGRICULTURE MONITORING AND PREDICTION USING IOT

paper provides a detailed case study on IoT-based solutions for agriculture, emphasizing crop and
soil monitoring through integrated sensor networks and cloud computing. These systems analyze
environmental factors such as soil moisture, pH levels, and crop growth, and communicate the
data to a cloud-based platform for further analysis. The study highlights the role of IoT in ensuring
the scalability, data processing, and real-time monitoring required for effective agricultural
management .

3
 CHAPTER 3
WHAT IS INTERNET OF THINGS
The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects “things” that are
embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of connecting and
exchanging data with other devices and systems over the internet. These devices range from
ordinary household objects to sophisticated industrial tools. Physical objects may exchange
and gather data with little assistance from humans by means of low-cost computers, the cloud,
big data, analytics, and mobile technologies. In this world of hyperconnection, every contact
between connected objects can be recorded, watched over, and modified by computer systems.
Meeting point: the digital and physical realms work together.

Figure 3.1: IoT

4
3.1. TECHNOLOGIES THAT HAVE MADE IOT POSSIBLE

While the idea of IoT has been in existence for a long time, a collection of recent advances
in a number of different technologies has made it practical.

• Access to low-cost, low-power sensor technology. Affordable and reliable

sensors are making IoT technology possible for more manufacturers.

• Connectivity. A host of network protocols for the internet has made it easy to
connect sensors to the cloud and to other “things” for efficient data transfer.

• Cloud computing platforms. The increase in the availability of cloud plat- forms
enables both businesses and consumers to access the infrastructure they need to
scale up without actually having to manage it all.

• Machine learning and analytics. With advances in machine learning and analytics,
along with access to varied and vast amounts of data stored in the cloud, businesses
can gather insights faster and more easily. The emergence of these allied technologies
continues to push the boundaries of IoT and the data produced by IoT also feeds these
technologies.

• Conversational artificial intelligence (AI). Advances in neural networks

have brought natural-language processing (NLP) to IoT devices (such as dig-
ital personal assistants Alexa, Cortana, and Siri) and made them appealing,
affordable, and viable for home use.

5
 3.2. LAYERS OF INTERNET OF THINGS

Figure 3.2: Layers of IOT

General IoT architecture can be divided into four layers. They are Sensing layer, network layer,
Data processing layer and application layer. The 4 layer architecture of Iot is shown in the figure
3.2.

• Sensing Layer :The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is
responsible for collecting data from different sources. This layer includes sensors and
actuators that are placed in the environment to gather information about temperature,
humidity, light, sound, and other physical parameters. These devices are connected to the
network layer through wired or wireless communication protocols.
• Network Layer :The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for providing
communication and connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It includes protocols
and tech- nologies that enable devices to connect and communicate with each other and
6
 with the wider internet. Examples of network technologies that are commonly used in IoT
include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks such as 4G and 5G.
• Data processing Layer :The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the
software and hardware components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data from IoT devices. This layer is responsible for receiving raw data from
the devices, pro- cessing it, and making it available for further analysis or action.The data
processing layer includes a variety of technologies and tools, such as data management
systems, analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms.
• Application Layer :The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that
interacts directly with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly interfaces
and function- alities that enable users to access and control IoT devices.This layer
includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web portals, and other
user interfaces that are designed to interact with the underlying IoT infrastructure. It also
includes middleware services that allow different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and share data seamlessly.

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 CHAPTER 4
IOT AND AGRICULTURE
4.1. SIGNIFICANCE OF IOT IN AGRICULTURE
The Internet of Things (IoT) plays a crucial role in transforming various industries, and
agriculture is no exception. The integration of IoT in agriculture brings about nu- merous
benefits, contributing to increased efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. Here are some
key aspects highlighting the importance of IoT in agriculture:
.

4.1.1. Precision Farming

Data-Driven Decision Making: IoT devices such as sensors, drones, and satel- lite imagery
provide real-time data on soil moisture, temperature, humidity, and crop health. Farmers
can make informed decisions based on this data to optimize irrigation, fertilization, and pest
control.
4.1.2.Resource Efficiency
Water Management: IoT enables smart irrigation systems that adjust water usage based on
actual crop needs. This helps in conserving water resources and preventing over-irrigation.
Energy Optimization: IoT devices can monitor and control the usage of farm equipment,
optimizing energy consumption and reducing operational costs.
4.1.3.Crop Monitoring and Management
Remote Sensing: Drones and satellite technology equipped with IoT sensors can monitor
large agricultural areas, providing insights into crop health, growth patterns, and potential
issues. Livestock Monitoring: IoT devices such as RFID tags and health sensors help
farmers monitor the health, location, and behavior of livestock, leading to better management
and disease prevention.
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4.1.4.Supply Chain Optimization
Real-Time Tracking: IoT facilitates real-time tracking of agricultural products from the
farm to the market. This enhances supply chain visibility, reduces wastage, and ensures
better quality control.Predictive Analytics: IoT data can be used for predictive analytics,
helping farmers anticipate market demands and plan production accordingly.
4.1.5. Enviornmental Monitoring
Climate Adaptation: IoT devices help farmers adapt to changing climate conditions by
providing real-time weather data and early warnings for extreme events. This enables farmers
to take proactive measures to protect their crops.

4.1.6. Automation and Robotics

Smart Equipment: IoT-enabled machinery and equipment can be automated and controlled
remotely. This leads to increased efficiency, reduced labor costs, and optimized use of
resources. Precision Application: Automated systems can precisely apply fertilizers,
pesticides, and herbicides, minimizing waste and environmental impact. Automation and
robotics play transformative roles in IoT-based agriculture, enhancing productivity, precision,
and sustainability. In this domain, sensors and connected devices gather real-time data on soil
moisture, temperature, and crop health, which helps farmers make data-driven decisions.
Automated systems, including drones and robotic machinery, can manage tasks such as
planting, watering, and fertilizing with minimal human intervention. Robotics also aids in
monitoring plant growth and identifying diseases early through computer vision. By using
IoT and automation, farmers can improve yields, reduce resource usage, and optimize labor
costs, making agriculture more efficient and environmentally friendly.

9
4.2. IOT ENABLED CROP MONITORING

IoT has brought about a significant change in crop monitoring, turning it from an
experience-based, qualitative effort into a quantitative, data-driven endeavor that includes
soil, microclimate, and crop sensing. IoT based technology enables farmers to precisely
monitor crop health and growth. Different scenarios in IoT enabled crop monitoring is
depicted in the figure 4.1

.Figure 4.1: Iot enabled crop monitoring

It assists farm workers to evaluate insect attacks and plant diseases in real time. Acquisition
and processing of real time data by IoT tagged sensors offer great ad- vantage to farmers and
researchers for intelligent management of crop cultivation, fertilizer application, irrigation,
and plant surroundings. The key components of IoT-based smart crop monitoring systems are
sensors that are deployed in the field to collect data on various environmental factors,

10
including as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and nutrient levels. Due to the frequent
networking of these sensors, real-time data transfer to a centralized cloud-based plat- form is
made possible. The information obtained from these sensors is then analyzed using machine
learning and other data analytics methods to get insights on crop health, growth rates, and
yield potential. Farmers can use this information to make choices on crop management
including irrigation, pest control, and harvest Implication of wireless sensor technologies can
alert administrators and farmers regarding equipment fault and initiates troubleshooting. IoT-
enabled UAS are emerging trends in agriculture where the system allow the farmers to
gather landscape imaging in real time with smooth workflow of processing and data storage.
Moreover, IoT-based systems are effective in monitoring agricultural environmental
parameters such as plant growth morphology, air temperature, light intensity, soil moisture,
humidity, CO2 concentration, pH values, and crop water use efficiency. In a study, CC2430,
an intelligent irrigation system was developed and employed to evaluate multiple agricultural
parameters.
IoT-based devices are used to accurately perform data acquisition, monitoring, and field
surveillance in multipoint assessment systems. Farmers can trace pests in real time and
quickly take appropriate preventive action with the help of IoT-enabled devices. A
variety of sensors, including the Noir camera, DHT11, LDR, DS18B20, and soil
moisture sensors, as well as single-board microcontrollers and Application
Programming Interfaces (APIs), assist in collecting data related to crop growth
parameters like sun light intensity and other factors. Utilizing machine learning
algorithms like decision trees, SVM, KNN, Random Forest, and Gaussian Na¨ıve Bayes,
the Smart Crop Selection (SCS) model is based on information about soil and
metrological fac- tors like pH, temperature, rainfall, phosphorus, potassium, CO2, and
humidity. This will make it possible for the farmers to take the required actions to
improve crop growth.

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4.2.1. Data Flow in IoT Based Agriculture
The figure 4.2 show the flow of data through various layers of IoT architecture. The Data
comprises of information collected from sensors. These data is then passed to cloud based
platforms where it is processed using various machine learning techniques. The results are then
passed to farmers for taking better decisions based on that.

Figure 4.2: data flow

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4.3. REMOTE SENSING USING SMART SENSORS
Due to the swift progress in communication technologies, the semiconductor industry, and
computing, a new generation of sensors, referred to as ”smart” sensors, has emerged as cutting-
edge technologies. These sensors can engage in wireless communication from a remote location
and possess the capability for inter-device communication, coupled with automated data
processing networks. As a result smart sensors are highly effective in detecting patterns and
correlations within raw data, as well as establishing cause-and-effect relationships among
various factors. Unlike earlier sensor networks that were primarily focused on sensing
capabilities, subsequent versions have been endowed with intelligence to conduct computations
alongside data sensing. What defines a sensor as ”smart” is its capacity to facilitate
communication among these intelligent sensing devices, thereby forming a ”smart sensor
network. The basic architecture of a smart sensor is shown in the figure 4.3. It includes
one or more sensors, a microcontroller, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a communication
link, memory, and a power source. A smart sensor node is made up of three fundamental
components viz. a physical transducer, a memory core or processor, and a network
interface. The physical parameters are sensed by the physical transducer, which are then
converted into an electrical signal. The ADC aids in producing a digital value for use by the
processor. Signal processing on the sensed data and conveying the resulting data to the network
is done by the processor, which is often a microcontroller.

Figure 4.3: smart sensor architecture

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4.3.1. Acoustic Sensors
Acoustic-based sensors are electronic instruments utilized for recognizing changes in sound
frequencies (Figure 4.4). These sensors possess the capability to pick up vibrations emitted by a
mobile object. Insects commonly generate sounds during activities like general movement,
feeding, and mating. Acoustic devices, including portable accelerometer and microphone systems,
can capture these sounds. The in- formation collected by these devices is subsequently transmitted
to global databases, enabling researchers worldwide to analyze it. The collaborative goal is to
propel the advancement of automated acoustic sensors, thereby improving the accuracy of pest
detection at the species level.

Figure 4.4: acoustic sensor

4.3.2. Electromagnetic Sensors

Electromagnetic sensors play a crucial role in identifying soil quality and contamination in
agriculture, as well as mapping the topographical features of agricultural lands. These sensors
have the capability to detect a wide spectrum of electromagnetic waves emitted by various
objects. The methodology involves utilizing electrical circuits that register the conduction
or accumulation of electrical impulses in the soil. Typically, sensing techniques and
devices, such as electromagnetic induction, ground-penetrating radar, and gamma radiometric
devices, are deployed using un- manned aerial vehicles to gather detailed information about

14
surface processes and vegetation types. Ground penetrating radar(Figure 4.5) and
electromagnetic induction are particularly effective in estimating soil-water content.
Furthermore, these sensors are valuable for measuring residual nitrate levels, concentrations
of organic matter in the soil, and providing real-time measurements of transpiration rates.
Electromagnetic sensors are essential in IoT-based agriculture for monitoring soil and
environmental conditions accurately and non-invasively. These sensors use electromagnetic
waves to measure soil properties like moisture, salinity, and nutrient levels, which are crucial
for plant growth and health. By integrating electromagnetic sensors with IoT, farmers can
access real-time data on soil conditions, allowing for precise irrigation and fertilization. For
instance, soil moisture sensors inform when and how much water crops need, reducing water
wastage. Electromagnetic sensors can also monitor crop growth, detect pests, and assess plant
health, helping farmers make informed decisions and optimize resources, ultimately boosting
yield and sustainability.

Figure 4.5: GPR

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4.3.3. Electrochemical Sensors
Electrochemical sensors are the light weight eco-friendly sensors that are easily portable to the
agricultural lands. These sensors have efficiency to monitor plant growth, diseases, and
environmental pollution more accurately in real time. Moreover envi- ronmental impacts of
electrochemical sensors are comparatively less. Several sensors have been tested for biochemical
parameters that are critical to agricultural yields. For instance, humidity sensors containing
graphene oxide is employed in sensing plant leaf water (figure 4.6). NO2 sensor consisting
silver and reduced graphene oxide can be used to sense toxic gases in the agricultural fields.
For example, a fully flexible device was constructed using metallic single-walled carbon
nanotubes as conductive electrodes and AgNPs-decorated reduced graphene oxide as sensing
layers. The de- vice was able to sense as low as 0.2 ppm NO2 at room temperature.

Figure 4.6: electrochemical sensor

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4.3.4. LIDAR
LIDAR technology relies on measuring the distance between a sensor and a target object
using light-based techniques. Due to the constant speed of light, LIDAR can precisely
determine the distance by analyzing the time taken for emitted light to reach the object and
return to the sensor. The system emits light pulses periodically, detecting collisions to construct a
detailed map of the surrounding environment. Advanced LIDAR systems use fewer pulses to
enhance efficiency, and key performance features include operating range, estimated error, and
scanning frequency. The co- ordinates obtained from light collisions are stored in a “point
cloud” file, facilitating the creation of a 3D space. LIDAR has diverse applications in
agriculture, such as monitoring fruit ripening, assessing vegetation structure, and measuring
agricultural landscapes and topography. It is particularly useful for sensing structural
characteristics of trees, including leaf area index and canopy volume. The figure 3.7 shows
a TF-LUNA Micro LiDAR Distance Sensor with a range of 8 meters.

Figure 4.7: LIDAR

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4.3.5. Optical Sensors

Wide range of optical sensors has potential implications in agriculture. Such sensors are
based on their ability to detect lights of various wavelengths. Light of specific wavelength
is emitted from a light source to collide with the target object. The re- flected light is sensed
by the optical sensor to generate reflectant data and stored as text file. Freidenreich et al
employed non-distructive optical sensors such as SPAD and GreenSeeker for analysis of
nutrient uptake. Parameters like Normalized Dif- ference Vegetation Index, soil leachate,
and total leaf Carbon:Nitrogen levels were examined.The figure 3.8 is the image of an
optical sensor that can be employed in agiculture.

Figure 4.8: optical sensor

4.3.6. Mechanical Sensors

Physical and chemical factors of soil are responsible for variability in crop yield across the
agricultural lands. Soil strength reflects the compactness of soil particles in a particular area.

18
 Higher soil compactness imposes negative impacts on crop yield. Mechanical sensors can be
used to measure the soil compactness and mechanical resistance in soil. This information
could be helpful to customize the irrigation process according to the mechanical features of
the land. Honeywell FSG15N1A is an example of mechanical sensor (Figure 3.9).
Honeywell FSG15N1A senses the force that is exerted by plant roots to absorb water. In
a study, vertical and horizontal sensors were used to measure the soil compactness in a
given area. This integrated approach utilized an ultrasonic distance sensor to measure the
depth penetrated by coulter into the topsoil layer. Results indicated that, the integrated
approach was useful to sense the alterations in top soil strength according to the depth. This
could help in mapping the mechanical resistance of soil in agricultural lands

Figure 4.9: mechanical sensor

4.4. ACTUATORS
An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism of the
system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform. different types of actuators are given
below.

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• Irrigation Actuators:

Solenoid Valves: These are commonly used to control the flow of water in irrigation systems.
IoT-based irrigation systems can use solenoid valves that are remotely controlled based on data
from sensors such as soil moisture sensors.

• Precision Farming Actuators:

Electric Motors: Electric motors can be used to control various precision farming
equipment, such as automated plows, planters, and harvesters. These can be remotely
operated or programmed based on data received from sensors.

• Ventilation Actuators:

Motorized Louvers and Fans: In controlled environment agriculture (CEA) or greenhouses,

actuators control the opening and closing of ventilation systems. These can be adjusted based on
temperature, humidity, or other environmental parameters monitored by sensors.

• Shading Actuators:

Motorized Shade Systems: In greenhouses, shading systems can be au- tomated using motorized
shades. These shades can be adjusted based on the intensity of sunlight, helping to optimize the
light conditions for plant growth.

• Fertilization Actuators:

Dosing Pumps: IoT systems can control the amount of fertilizers or nutrients delivered
to plants using dosing pumps. These pumps can be adjusted based on real-time data from
soil nutrient sensors.

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• Harvesting Actuators:

Robotic Arms and Harvesters: Autonomous or semi-autonomous robotic arms and

harvesting equipment can be used for precision harvesting. These devices can be
controlled based on data from vision sensors or other sensors that detect ripeness or
maturity of crops.

• Pest Control Actuators:

Automated Spraying Systems: Actuators in the form of nozzles or spray systems can be
used for automated application of pesticides or insecticides. These can be triggered based
on data from pest monitoring sensors.

• Livestock Monitoring Actuators:

Automated Feeders and Water Dispensers: For smart livestock farming, automated feeders
and water dispensers can be controlled based on data from sensors monitoring the health
and needs of the animals.

• Weather Protection Actuators:

Roll-up Sidewalls and Curtains: Actuators can control roll-up sidewalls or curtains in
greenhouses to protect crops from adverse weather conditions or to regulate temperature
and humidity.

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4.5. IOT ARCHITECTURE IN AGRICULTURE

Figure 4.10: architecture

Internet of things Architecture in Agriculture comprises of Wireless Sensor network,

Border router, Wifi based long distance network,Gateway, Cloud platform and application
Layer. The figure 4.10 depicts the overall architecture of IoT implemented in Agriculture.
The data collected by various sensors passes through these network layers and reaches the
cloud. In cloud, the data is processed and the result is send to farmers via certain application
softwares.

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4.5.1. Wireless Sensor Network
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a wireless network structure devoid of a fixed setup,
where numerous wireless sensors are strategically placed to monitor system, physical, or
environmental conditions. The conceptual image of WSN is as shown in the figure 4.11.
Sensor nodes within the WSN are furnished with onboard processors tasked with overseeing
and managing conditions in a designated area. These sensor nodes communicate with a Base
Station, which functions as a processing unit in the WSN system. The Base Station is
connected to the Internet, facilitating the exchange of data. The 6LoWPAN-based wireless
sensor and actuator network is used in the farm domain for sensing and actuating many
operations. 6LoWPAN is a low power wireless personal area network with devices of IEEE
802.15.4 standard using IPv6.A sensor node is a tiny device accessible using IPv6 address having
low storage capacity, capable of low computation and processing capability, and low power
consuming. A large number of IoT devices need larger address space and auto-configuration which
is provided by IPv6. Characteristics of a 6LoWPAN network are small packet size, low bandwidth,
lossy link, and mesh management. It uses the 6LoWPAN protocol stack (IPv6 and adaptation
layer).

Figure 4.11: WSN

4.5.2. Gate Ways

A Gateway functions as a link between diverse communication technologies, serving as a
mediator to establish connections between the cloud and controllers sensors/devices within the
Internet of Things (IoT). Through the use of gateways, communication can be established
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either between devices or from devices to the cloud. Gateways can take the form of dedicated
hardware devices or software programs. In addition to facilitating IoT communication,
gateways undertake various tasks, including protocol translation, data aggregation, local
processing, and filtering before transmitting data to the cloud. They also play a role in locally
storing data, autonomously controlling devices based on input data, and enhancing device
security. The figure 4.12 below illustrates how IoT Gateways facilitate communication between
sensors and the cloud (Data System). As IoT devices work with low power consumption, in
other words they are energy constrained so if they will directly communicate to cloud/internet
it won’t be effective in terms of power. So they communicate with Gateway first using short
range wireless transmission modes/network like ZigBee, Bluetooth, etc or they can also be
connected using long range like Cellular and WiFi etc. Then Gateway links them to Internet/
cloud by converting data into a standard protocol like MQTT.

Figure 4.12: Gateway

4.5.3. Wifi Based Long Distance Network

Various LoPWAN technologies, including LoRaWAN, SigFox, are specifically de- signed
for long-range connections. However, due to their limited data rates and processing capabilities,
they are not well-suited for handling large amounts of data or running fog computation.
Nevertheless, the WiLD network easily accommodates both LoRaWAN and NB-IoT. The
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WiLD network serves the purpose of connecting remote rural regions located far from points
of Internet connectivity. In the WiLD network, a graph G(R, E) is employed, where R
represents a set of WiLD nodes comprising a gateway, relay nodes, and leaf nodes, and
E signifies the set of long-distance point-to-point links. This network is characterized by
multiple point-to-point links forming a mesh scenario. The network connectivity extends
from a gateway node situated at a district headquarters to rural areas, providing last-
mile coverage. The proposed architecture adopts a Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)-based MAC protocol, specifically a two-color scheduling (2C-MAC) pro-
tocol.The figure 3.13 below illustrates how WiLD network facilitate communication between
sensors in rural areas point of internet connectivity.
4.5.4. Societal AI Bias
Societal AI bias refers to the manifestation of systemic societal inequalities and prejudices within
artificial intelligence systems. This bias can emerge when AI algorithms, trained on data reflecting
societal norms and disparities, inadvertently perpetuate and amplify existing social biases, leading
to discriminatory outcomes in areas such as hiring, law enforcement, and healthcare. This is where
our assumptions and norms as a society cause us to have blind spots or certain expectations in our
thinking.

4.5.5. Farm Management Softwares

A Farm Management System (FMS) is an advanced IoT-based software application designed to
help farmers and managers streamline and optimize their agricultural operations. Acting as the
application layer of an IoT agricultural system, it allows farmers to access real-time, processed
data from cloud platforms on both personal computers and handheld devices. FMS offers seven
significant benefits: it supports better, timely agronomic decisions by gathering and analyzing data
from multiple sources like weather stations, soil monitors, drones, satellite imagery, and
agricultural databases, enabling informed choices that boost yield quality and mitigate risks during
adverse conditions. It enhances input use efficiency, helping farmers optimize costly resources like
fertilizers by tailoring application levels to specific field needs, maximizing profitability while
avoiding overuse. Through improved workforce and field operations management, FMS ensures

25
smoother coordination of remote teams, particularly during high-activity seasons like harvest,
contributing to productivity gains and cost savings. It also provides secure traceability and
compliance management, allowing farmers to meet increasing regulatory standards and consumer
demands for transparent, safe food production, which can open doors to premium markets. FMS
also simplifies financial and inventory management by providing detailed insights into harvest
inventory, supplies, and profitability for individual fields or crops, improving budgeting accuracy
and profitability. The continuous monitoring of farming practices supported by FMS promotes
better soil health, biodiversity, and sustainability, ensuring the production of safe, nutritious food
and fostering a satisfied workforce. Lastly, FMS streamlines administrative tasks by digitizing
paperwork and record-keeping, replacing outdated notebooks and spreadsheets with centralized
tracking, making farm administration more efficient and freeing up time for essential on-field
work. This holistic approach allows farms to leverage data-driven strategies, boosting productivity,
profitability, and sustainability.

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 CHAPTER 5
CHALLENGES IN IOT BASED AGRICULTURE
1. High Capital investment
The capital investment cost for the implementation of IoT systems need to be minimized to ensure
its widespread implementation in agri-food sector.

2. Lack of security
With the implementation of numerous embedded devices along the SC, the potential for their
hacking increases, leading to manipulation of system, or unethical collection of data. As a result,
lack of data privacy and security is the foremost technical concern influencing IoT adoption.

3. Lack of interoperability
The application of IoT systems along the agri-food sector demands seamless exchange of data
among several entities, people, and systems to work together. Further, IoT applications require
greater interoperability amongst different systems and shareholders.

4. Network Challenges
IoT systems rely heavily on network communication technology and issues like communication
range, propagation losses, routing, etc. significantly influence its adoption in AFSC.

5. Lack of standardization
The existence of several parallel standards and protocols for communication, frequency, etc. cause
problems in the interpretation and sharing of data. Thus, the lack of standardization is a significant
factor influencing IoT adoption.

6. Energy Efficiency
IoT systems generally consist of several sensor nodes that depend on batteries to power
themselves, and are deployed in large quantities at remote locations. Due to the large numbers of
sensor nodes there is a demand for energy-efficient systems.

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7. Technical Complexity
Each novel technology comes with its own challenges and restrictions such as complexity of
equipment, software, etc. The adoption of IoT for the agriculture sector is heavily dependent on
the choice of technology.

8. Huge volume of data

The vast scope of IoT solutions leads to the challenge of collecting, storing, analyzing and
visualization of huge volume of heterogeneous data regarding the AFSC.

9. Lack of connectivity
IoT solutions require huge number sensor connections to form a network over internet. However,
lack of internet connectivity in rural areas is a major concern. Rural areas of emerging economies
must have good 4G/5G coverage.

10. Scalability
A large quantity of IoT devices need to be deployed in the agricultural sector in future. The system
architecture must be designed to enable up-gradation of computational resources alone, instead of
the need for an overall redesign of the system.

11. Heterogeneity
There are various entities in the agri-food sector, ranging from farmers, to supermarkets, suppliers,
etc. Additionally, the number of sensors, both wired and wireless technologies deployed in the SC
is bound to increase. Hence, no single solution will accommodate the needs of all facets.

12. Lack of Legislation

There is an urgent need for policies and legal frameworks regarding the application of IoT
technology in the AGFC to ensure compliance to legal and societal requirements of safety.

13. Trust
Lack of support, technical complexities and high cost of novel technologies severely affect the
farmers trust in technology. As a result, trust plays a important role in the IoT adoption for the agri-
food domain.

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14. Lack of data reliability
IoT solutions in the AFSC may be used for monitoring various climatic conditions, perishability,
etc. and may have to alert users about critical information immediately. For this, there must be
minimal loss of data during its transmission for it to be reliable. Thus, many researchers have been
experimenting with various data compression techniques.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
IoT offers potential benefits such as automated systems, bio control, ecological feedback, energy
management, and dematerialization. It facilitates information between objects at different
locations which are interconnected and has enormous applications in AFSC. This seminar has
presented about various layers of Internet of Things and it’s implementations in the field of
agriculture. This seminar explained about specific architecture of internet of things in relation to
agriculture. The use of Wifi based long distance network has tremendously enhanced scalability
of IoT based agriculture. This field offers many startup opportunities also. However there are
certain challenges we have to face in initial stages. Overcoming those challenges can bring
substantial amount of positive changes in agricultural sector of India.

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 REFERENCES

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2018
[2] M. K. Saini and R. K. Saini, "Agriculture monitoring and prediction using Internet of Things
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Waknaghat, India, 2020, pp. 53-56
[3] T. Ojha, S. Misra and N. S. Raghuwanshi, "Internet of Things for Agricultural Applications:
The State of the Art," in IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 8, no. 14, pp. 10973-10997, 15
July15, 2021
[4] A. Hasan, N. S. Diya and S. Sultana, "IoT Based Smart Agriculture Management System,"
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(ICAEEE), Gazipur, Bangladesh, 2024, pp. 1-5

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