‭AI Tutorial Questions 👍‬

‭Unit-3‬

‭ . Discuss on knowledge representation using semantic‬‭web? :‬‭UNIT-III PDF‬

1
‭Pgno:70-76‬

‭2. Write a script for the concept going to market to purchase items?:‬‭UNIT-III Pgno:‬

‭3. Explain the concept of case grammars with an example? :‬‭UNIT-III PDF Pgno: 62-69‬

‭ . Apply Conceptual Dependency rules for the following statements:‬

4
‭I. John gave a book to Marry‬
‭RULE 2‬

I‭I. Mary told story to John‬

‭RULE 8‬

I‭II. John went to School from Home‬

‭RULE 7‬

I‭V. Mary travelled from Delhi to Bombay by train‬

‭RULE 7‬

‭UNIT-III PDF Pgno: 46,48-51‬

‭ . Discuss about semantic web? Give the general syntax of Extensible Markup‬
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‭Language with example? :‬‭UNIT-III PDF Pgno: 70-76‬

‭Unit-4‬

‭ . a) What are similarities and differences between certainty factor theory and‬
1
‭probability theory?‬
‭ ertainty Factor Theory and Probability Theory both deal with uncertainty but approach‬
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‭it in different ways, particularly in terms of how they quantify and handle uncertainty in‬
‭reasoning systems. Here’s a breakdown of their similarities and differences:‬

‭Similarities‬

‭1.‬ G ‭ oal: Both theories aim to handle and quantify uncertainty, often used in‬
‭decision-making and expert systems.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Application in Expert Systems: Both are commonly used in expert systems,‬
‭artificial intelligence, and fields where uncertain or incomplete information needs‬
‭to be assessed.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Numerical Representation: Each uses numerical values to represent the degree‬
‭of belief or confidence in a particular event or hypothesis.‬

‭Practical Use Cases‬

‭●‬ C
‭ ertainty Factor Theory: Often applied in expert systems where human-like‬
‭reasoning is required, such as medical diagnosis (e.g., MYCIN, an early expert‬
‭system in medicine).‬
 ‭●‬ P
‭ robability Theory: Commonly used in statistical inference, machine learning,‬
‭and AI models, especially those requiring formal probabilistic reasoning (e.g.,‬
‭Bayesian networks).‬

‭ ) Discuss on Bayesian theory and explain how Bayesian theory handles‬

b
‭un-certainty in the data?‬

‭ ayesian theory is a powerful mathematical framework used to handle uncertainty and‬

B
‭make inferences based on incomplete or probabilistic data. It underpins Bayesian Belief‬
‭Networks (BBNs), which are graphical models that represent the probabilistic‬
‭dependencies among a set of variables. These networks use Bayesian inference to‬
‭update beliefs and make predictions based on observed evidence, allowing for more‬
‭realistic modeling of uncertainty, which is critical in fields such as AI, diagnostics, and‬
‭decision-making systems.‬

‭Overview of Bayesian Theory‬

‭ ayesian theory is based on‬‭Bayes' theorem‬‭, which‬‭calculates the probability of a‬

B
‭hypothesis HHH given new evidence EEE. This is expressed as:‬

‭ (H∣E)=P(E∣H)⋅P(H)P(E)P(H | E) = \frac{P(E | H) \cdot‬

P
‭P(H)}{P(E)}P(H∣E)=P(E)P(E∣H)⋅P(H)​‬

‭where:‬

‭●‬ P ‭ (H∣E)P(H | E)P(H∣E) is the‬‭posterior probability‬‭(probability of hypothesis‬

‭HHH after observing evidence EEE),‬
‭●‬ ‭P(E∣H)P(E | H)P(E∣H) is the‬‭likelihood‬‭(probability‬‭of observing EEE given‬
‭HHH),‬
‭●‬ ‭P(H)P(H)P(H) is the‬‭prior probability‬‭(initial probability‬‭of HHH before observing‬
‭EEE),‬
‭●‬ ‭P(E)P(E)P(E) is the‬‭marginal probability‬‭of EEE.‬

‭Handling Uncertainty in Data‬

‭ ayesian theory is well-suited for managing uncertainty because it allows continuous‬

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‭updating of beliefs as new data is acquired. Here’s how it addresses uncertainty:‬
 ‭1.‬ P ‭ rior Knowledge‬‭: Bayesian models start with a prior belief about the probability‬
‭of each event, which can come from historical data or expert knowledge. This‬
‭prior helps in handling situations with limited or incomplete data by providing an‬
‭initial basis for inference.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Conditional Dependencies‬‭: Bayesian networks use‬‭conditional‬‭probability‬
‭tables (CPTs)‬‭to represent dependencies between variables.‬‭For example, if an‬
‭earthquake influences the occurrence of a tornado, the Bayesian network can‬
‭represent this dependence, adjusting the probability of a tornado when an‬
‭earthquake is observed.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Updating Beliefs‬‭: When new evidence is observed, Bayesian‬‭theory updates‬
‭the probability distribution of each event. In the case of the‬‭alarm example‬
‭(where an alarm might be triggered by events such as earthquake, burglary, or‬
‭tornado), Bayesian networks would update the probability of each cause given‬
‭the observed data about whether the alarm sounded.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Joint Probability Reduction‬‭: Instead of calculating‬‭a full joint probability‬
‭distribution (which would require a large number of entries, 2n2^n2n for nnn‬
‭binary variables), Bayesian networks reduce this complexity by only storing‬
‭conditional probabilities for directly dependent nodes. This dramatically reduces‬
‭storage and computational requirements.‬

‭Example with Bayesian Belief Network (BBN)‬

‭ sing the example provided in Dr. T. K. Rao’s notes, let’s break down a simple Bayesian‬
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‭network with four variables: Alarm (A), Earthquake (E), Burglary (B), and Tornado (T).‬

‭●‬ ‭Conditional Dependencies‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The probability of an alarm sounding depends on an earthquake or‬
‭burglary.‬
‭○‬ ‭The occurrence of a tornado might depend on an earthquake.‬
‭○‬ ‭Each variable has two possible states: True (T) or False (F).‬
‭●‬ ‭Probability Calculation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭To compute the joint probability P(A,B,C,D)P(A, B, C, D)P(A,B,C,D) using‬
‭the Bayesian Network, we need only a subset of probabilities rather than‬
‭all possible combinations.‬
‭○‬ ‭For instance, as shown in the provided data:‬
‭P(A,B,C,D)=P(D∣A,B)⋅P(C∣A)⋅P(B)⋅P(A)P(A, B, C, D) = P(D | A, B) \cdot‬
‭P(C | A) \cdot P(B) \cdot P(A)P(A,B,C,D)=P(D∣A,B)⋅P(C∣A)⋅P(B)⋅P(A)‬
‭○‬ ‭By focusing only on causally linked events, we reduce the number of‬
‭probability values needed from 16 (for all combinations of 4 variables) to‬
‭just 8, which represents a significant efficiency improvement.‬
‭Advantages of Using Bayesian Networks to Handle Uncertainty‬

‭●‬ E ‭ fficient Representation‬‭: Bayesian networks only store‬‭probabilities for‬

‭dependent variables, making it computationally efficient to handle complex‬
‭systems.‬
‭●‬ ‭Intuitive Causality‬‭: Bayesian networks often model‬‭causal relationships, which‬
‭align with human reasoning and allow for a clearer interpretation of how different‬
‭variables influence each other.‬
‭●‬ ‭Missing Data Handling‬‭: Bayesian networks can still‬‭function with some missing‬
‭data by using conditional dependencies to infer probabilities.‬

‭Disadvantages‬

‭However, Bayesian Belief Networks have limitations:‬

‭●‬ P ‭ recision Distortion‬‭: Probabilities are represented‬‭as single values, which‬

‭might oversimplify uncertainty when actual data may have variability or ambiguity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Ignorance vs. Uncertainty‬‭: Bayesian models don't inherently‬‭differentiate‬
‭between lack of data (ignorance) and true uncertainty.‬
‭●‬ ‭Dependence on Priors‬‭: The quality of predictions and‬‭inferences relies on‬
‭accurate prior probabilities. If these priors are inaccurate, the results may also be‬
‭flawed.‬

‭2. a) With a neat sketch present architecture for black board system?‬

‭UNIT-IV Pg no: 30-47‬

‭b) List various advantages of expert system?‬

‭ xpert systems (ES) are computer programs designed to emulate the decision-making‬
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‭ability of a human expert. They leverage knowledge and inference procedures to solve‬
‭complex problems. Here are various advantages of expert systems:‬

‭1.‬ C ‭ onsistency‬‭: Expert systems provide consistent answers‬‭for repetitive‬

‭decisions, processes, and tasks, reducing variability and human error.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Speed‬‭: They can process information and make decisions‬‭faster than human‬
‭experts, significantly increasing the pace of professional work.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Knowledge Retention‬‭: Expert systems hold and maintain‬‭significant levels of‬
‭information, allowing for easy access and retrieval of knowledge.‬
 ‭4.‬ I‭mproved Decision Quality‬‭: They provide improved quality of decision-making‬
‭by applying rigorous reasoning and knowledge consistently across various‬
‭scenarios.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Knowledge Accessibility‬‭: Domain experts may not always‬‭be able to articulate‬
‭their reasoning, whereas expert systems can capture and apply expert‬
‭knowledge systematically.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Cost Savings‬‭: Implementing expert systems can lead‬‭to major internal cost‬
‭savings for companies by reducing the need for expert consultation and‬
‭minimizing errors.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Innovation‬‭: They facilitate the introduction of new‬‭products and services by‬
‭enabling rapid testing and evaluation of ideas and prototypes.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Questioning Capability‬‭: Expert systems can systematically‬‭ask relevant‬
‭questions to gather necessary information, ensuring that no critical details are‬
‭overlooked.‬
‭9.‬ ‭Availability‬‭: They are available 24/7, providing support‬‭and information to users‬
‭whenever needed, without the limitations of human availability.‬
‭10.‬‭Training and Education‬‭: Expert systems can serve as‬‭educational tools, helping‬
‭to train less experienced individuals in specific fields by providing guided‬
‭assistance and feedback.‬
‭11.‬‭Scalability‬‭: Once developed, expert systems can be‬‭easily scaled to handle‬
‭more complex tasks or adapted to new areas without extensive retraining.‬
‭12.‬‭Complex Problem Solving‬‭: They can analyze large amounts‬‭of data and find‬
‭solutions to complex problems that might be too intricate for human analysts.‬
‭13.‬‭Standardization‬‭: Expert systems can standardize processes‬‭across an‬
‭organization, ensuring that everyone follows the same procedures and‬
‭guidelines.‬
‭14.‬‭Enhanced Collaboration‬‭: They can facilitate collaboration‬‭among different‬
‭stakeholders by providing a common knowledge base and decision-making‬
‭framework.‬

‭ y leveraging these advantages, expert systems can significantly enhance productivity,‬

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‭efficiency, and effectiveness in various fields, from medical diagnosis to financial‬
‭planning and beyond.‬

‭3. a) Explain about rule based Expert systems?‬

‭UNIT-IV Pg no: 28-29‬

‭ ) Is expert system capable of giving explanation to users about its reasoning?‬

b
‭Justify your answer?‬
‭ es, expert systems are capable of providing explanations to users about their‬
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‭reasoning. This ability is a crucial feature of many expert systems and serves several‬
‭important functions. Here’s a justification for this capability:‬

‭1.‬ T ‭ ransparency: Many expert systems are designed to include an explanation‬

‭facility, allowing users to understand how conclusions were reached. This‬
‭transparency is vital for gaining user trust, particularly in critical domains like‬
‭healthcare, finance, and legal fields.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Inference Mechanisms: Expert systems typically utilize specific inference‬
‭mechanisms (such as rule-based or frame-based systems) that can be traced‬
‭back to the knowledge base. This traceability allows the system to explain which‬
‭rules were applied and how particular pieces of information contributed to the‬
‭decision-making process.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Justification of Decisions: When an expert system makes a recommendation or‬
‭decision, it can generate explanations that detail the reasoning behind that‬
‭choice. For example, it might outline the specific conditions that led to a particular‬
‭conclusion, such as which rules were activated based on the user’s input.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Learning and Adaptation: In some cases, expert systems incorporate learning‬
‭components that allow them to improve over time. They can provide explanations‬
‭of how their knowledge has evolved, helping users understand the basis of new‬
‭recommendations compared to previous ones.‬
‭5.‬ ‭User Interaction: Many expert systems allow for interactive questioning, where‬
‭users can ask the system to clarify its reasoning. This interaction can provide‬
‭users with insights into the logical flow of the system’s decision-making process.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Educational Role: By providing explanations, expert systems can serve an‬
‭educational purpose, helping users learn and understand the underlying‬
‭principles of the domain in question. This is particularly valuable for training less‬
‭experienced users.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Error Checking: Explanation features enable users to verify and validate the‬
‭reasoning of the expert system. If users can see the logical steps taken, they are‬
‭better positioned to identify errors or misconceptions in the system’s reasoning.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Regulatory Compliance: In fields that require accountability, such as medicine‬
‭and finance, the ability to provide reasoning explanations is often a regulatory‬
‭requirement. It ensures that decisions can be audited and justified.‬

I‭n summary, expert systems can and often do provide explanations about their‬
‭reasoning. This capability enhances transparency, fosters user trust, supports learning,‬
‭and helps ensure accountability, making expert systems valuable tools across various‬
‭domains.‬
‭ . Differentiate between Expert Systems and Traditional Systems? Enlist the‬
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‭advantages and Disadvantages of Bayesian Method‬

‭Comparison Between Expert Systems and Traditional Systems‬

‭Advantages and Disadvantages of Bayesian Method‬

‭ . Enlist the components of Blackboard Systems? Explain the general issues in‬
5
‭blackboard systems for problem solving.‬

‭UNIT-IV Pg no: 30-47‬

‭Unit-5‬

‭1. a) Explain fuzzy set operations?‬

‭Given s={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}‬
‭A={(1,0.1),(2,0.2),(3,0.3),(4,0.5),(5,0.8),(6,0.9),(7,1),(8,1),(9,0),(10,0)}‬
‭B={(1,0.1),(2,0.5),(3,0.5),(4,0.8),(5,0.9),(6,0),(7,1),(8,0.2),(9,1),(10,0)}‬
‭b) Explain the concept of Multi Valued Logic?‬

‭Text book 362‬

‭ a) Discuss on linguistic variables and hedges‬

2
‭Text book 370‬

‭ ) List various operations on fuzzy sets with examples?‬

b
‭Text book 348‬

‭ . Explain about fuzzy logic in detail?‬

3
‭Text book 364‬
‭ . Differentiate between Crisp Set Theory and Fuzzy Set Theory with suitable‬
4
‭examples‬

‭5. What is the form of Fuzzy Logic? Draw the truth table for Three-valued Logic‬

t‭he creation of a truth table for three-valued logic with values 0, 1, and 2, let’s go‬
‭through each step for constructing A AND B (A ∧ B) and A OR B (A ∨ B).‬

‭Step-by-Step Explanation‬

‭1.‬ ‭Define the Truth Values:‬

 ‭ ‬ ‭0 represents False.‬
○
‭○‬ ‭1 represents Unknown or Indeterminate.‬
‭○‬ ‭2 represents True.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Set Up Possible Combinations of A and B:‬
‭○‬ ‭Since both A and B can take any of the values 0, 1, or 2, there are a total‬
‭of 3×3=93 \times 3 = 93×3=9 combinations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Each row in the truth table represents a unique combination of these‬
‭values for A and B.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Define Rules for AND (A ∧ B):‬
‭○‬ ‭AND (∧) returns True (2) only if both A and B are True (2).‬
‭○‬ ‭If either A or B is False (0), the result is False (0).‬
‭○‬ ‭If one of A or B is Unknown (1) and the other is True (2), the result is‬
‭Unknown (1).‬
‭○‬ ‭If both A and B are Unknown (1), the result is Unknown (1).‬
‭4.‬ ‭Define Rules for OR (A ∨ B):‬
‭○‬ ‭OR (∨) returns True (2) if either A or B is True (2).‬
‭○‬ ‭If both A and B are False (0), the result is False (0).‬
‭○‬ ‭If one of A or B is Unknown (1) and the other is False (0), the result is‬
‭Unknown (1).‬
‭○‬ ‭If both A and B are Unknown (1), the result is Unknown (1).‬
‭5.‬ ‭Construct the Truth Table:‬
‭○‬ ‭For each combination of values of A and B, apply the AND and OR rules‬
‭to determine the result.‬
‭○‬ ‭Record the results for A AND B and A OR B in each row.‬

‭Final Truth Table‬

‭ ach row shows the outcome of logical operations for given values of A and B. This‬
E
‭format provides a complete view of how three-valued logic operations behave with‬
‭different input values.‬