Article published online: 2021-08-02

Computers

Computer hardware for radiologists:

Part I
IK Indrajit, A Alam
Department of Radiodiagnosis and Imaging, Command Hospital (Air Force), Bangalore – 560 007, Karnataka, India

Correspondence: Dr. IK Indrajit, Department of Radiodiagnosis and Imaging, Command Hospital (Air Force), Bangalore – 560 007,
Karnataka, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Computers are an integral part of modern radiology practice. They are used in different radiology modalities to acquire, process, and
postprocess imaging data. They have had a dramatic influence on contemporary radiology practice. Their impact has extended further
with the emergence of Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM), Picture Archiving and Communication System (PACS),
Radiology information system (RIS) technology, and Teleradiology. A basic overview of computer hardware relevant to radiology practice
is presented here. The key hardware components in a computer are the motherboard, central processor unit (CPU), the chipset, the
random access memory (RAM), the memory modules, bus, storage drives, and ports. The personnel computer (PC) has a rectangular
case that contains important components called hardware, many of which are integrated circuits (ICs). The fiberglass motherboard
is the main printed circuit board and has a variety of important hardware mounted on it, which are connected by electrical pathways
called “buses”. The CPU is the largest IC on the motherboard and contains millions of transistors. Its principal function is to execute
“programs”. A Pentium® 4 CPU has transistors that execute a billion instructions per second. The chipset is completely different from
the CPU in design and function; it controls data and interaction of buses between the motherboard and the CPU. Memory (RAM) is
fundamentally semiconductor chips storing data and instructions for access by a CPU. RAM is classified by storage capacity, access
speed, data rate, and configuration.

Key words: Chipset; computers; console; CPU; CT; hardware; motherboard; MRI; RAM; workstations

Computers in Radiology Practice Introduction to Computers

Computers are an integral part of modern radiology practice The personnel computer (PC) comes in a rectangular case
and are used by different radiology modalities to acquire, which contains important components, collectively called
process, and postprocess imaging data. Computers have hardware [Table 1]. Different types of cases are available:
had a dramatic influence on contemporary radiology desktop, slim-line desktops, mini-tower, midi-tower, full-
practice. They help in composing radiology reports, with size tower, and notebook. A type commonly seen is the
text and images from different modalities and specialties. midi-tower [Figure 1A and B].[1]
Their impact has extended further with the emergence
of Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine
(DICOM), Picture Archiving and Communication System Table 1: Key hardware components in a computer[3-5]
(PACS), Radiology information system (RIS) technology, Hardware Functions
and Teleradiology. They facilitate newer utilities like voice Motherboard Printed circuit board with chipset, sockets, slots, and ports
dictation and image reviewing on hand-held devices. CPU Master chip for execution of program instructions,
For the practicing radiologist, a working knowledge of arithmetic functions, and access to memory and
computers is an advantage. When exploited fully, they peripherals
transform workflow. With this in mind, we present a basic Chipset ICs controlling CPU, RAM, input/output (I/O) devices,
adapter cards
overview of computer hardware relevant to radiology
RAM Memory modules temporarily holding data and programs
practice. while the CPU processes both
Memory modules Physical microchips holding data
Storage drives Data-storing devices like hard and flash drives
Ports Interface connectors for peripheral devices
DOI: 10.4103/0971-3026.69346

162 Indian J Radiol Imaging / August 2010 / Vol 20 / Issue 3

 Indrajit and Alam: Computer hardware for radiologists

A B
Figure 1: (A) Opened computer showing hardware mounted on a rectangular case. Though appearing a bit complex, the hardware items
have been numerically labeled and easily identifed in Figure 1B. (B) Important contents inside a computer numerically labeled: 1) SMPS Power,
2) Mother Board, 3) Cables for drives, 4) Disc Drives

Many of the hardware components are located within a

computer case in the form of integrated circuits (ICs). The IC,
popularly referred to as a semiconductor “chip,” is small in
size and modular in design.[2] Several ICs are interconnected
on a rectangular circuit board called the motherboard.
Besides ICs, the motherboard also accommodates important
items like power, central processor unit (CPU), memory,
chipset, ports, etc. It is also interfaced with components
like the keyboard, mouse, external drives, networks, etc.

For a radiologist, a basic knowledge of computer hardware

components is important. Let us examine a few salient
features of some important hardware.
Figure 2: Both the panels show a motherboard. The right panel
Motherboard shows important components numerically labeled: 1) CPU Socket for
processor, 2) Processor Core Voltage input, 3) Motherboard power
input, 4) Memory Slots for memory modules, 5) Drive Connectors, 6)
The motherboard is the foundation of a computer. Made of
Primary IDE Connector (for Hard drive, CD drive upto two devices), 7)
fiberglass, it is the main and primary printed circuit board. Secondary IDE Connector (for Hard drive, CD drive upto two devices),
It has mounted on it, important hardware components like 9) CMOS Battery, 10) Chipset at Southbridge, 11) PCI Slots (for plugin
power, CPU, memory, basic input/output system (BIOS), of modems, network, video, sound cards), 12) BIOS chip, 13) AGP
Slot for Accelerated Graphics Port card, 14) Chipset at Northbridge,
chipset, slots, adapter cards, ports, etc. [Figure 2].[6] 16) On-board Audio Jacks (line in, line out, microphone jacks), 17)
Parallel & Serial Ports, 18) USB Ports and 19) PS2 Connectors for
A motherboard contains many electrical pathways or “buses” Keyboard & Mouse
which allow power and data to travel between the various
hardware components by means of thin wires and cables. The
electrical pathways of a bus are etched on the motherboard 1995, is the most popular form factor design amongst the
and connect to every part of the computer.[7] A heat sink/fan newer motherboards.
assembly is available to dissipate the heat generated.
Basic Output/Input System
Issues relevant to radiology practice
A frequently used term offered to explain the size and shape The motherboard contains a chip called BIOS. It contains
of a motherboard is the “form factor.”[7] It describes the software instructions to load the basic computer hardware.
physical layout of different components and devices on a It also includes a diagnostic start-up test called “power on
motherboard. The ATX form factor, introduced by Intel in self-test” (POST) that boots up a computer.[8] The latest

Indian J Radiol Imaging / August 2010 / Vol 20 / Issue 3 163

 Indrajit and Alam: Computer hardware for radiologists

PCs have the BIOS recorded on a flash memory chip – a RISC chips are designed to execute instructions very
flash BIOS. rapidly.[7] Complex instruction set computer (CISC) is an
alternative form of CPU architecture, which uses a broad
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor set of instructions, resulting in fewer steps per operation.

The acronym CMOS stands for complementary metal An efficient CPU is the one that can quickly process a
oxide semiconductor. The CMOS set-up program is part large amount of data. In practice, the efficiency of a CPU is
of the BIOS stored on a chip on the motherboard. It stores expressed as its power. A CPUs power is determined by a)
system information. This includes date and time, hard its speed and b) the amount of data it processes.[7] The speed
drive settings, boot sequence, and default settings of audio, of CPU is expressed in cycles per second since it is driven
video, ports, etc. The latest computers can automatically by an internal clock. Each time the clock pulses, the CPU
detect all settings. processes an instruction. The faster the clock, the quicker
a CPU processes instructions. Typically, the system clock
Central Processor Unit synchronizes all activity happening on a motherboard by
its continuous pulses distributed over a bus to the different
Two companies, Intel and AMD, make most of the CPUs components. Newer CPUs operate at speeds of megahertz
available today.[9] Though small in size, the CPU is the (MHz or millions of cycles per second) or gigahertz (GHz
largest IC on a motherboard. A typical CPU has millions of or billions of cycles per second).
transistors, all compressed together into a very small area
of about 1 cm × 1 cm. Its principal function is to execute a The amount of data a CPU processes at a time depends
“program.” A program is essentially “a sequence of stored fundamentally on the size of the processor data bus or CPU
instructions.”[7] Executing a program implies that “each bus.[7] A wider processor data bus makes the processor more
piece of data is processed as directed by the program and powerful. Presently available processors have either a 32-bit
the instruction set.”[7] A CPU uses a special type of memory or 64-bit processor data bus.
called “cache.” When executing one step of a program, the
remaining steps of instructions and related data are stored Multimedia instructions can be an in-built feature within
in the cache.[7] a CPU as seen in Intel MMX processors.[7] This facilitates
efficient handling of multimedia operations that normally
The often quoted Moore’s law states that “the rate of the are managed by a dedicated sound or video card.
ability to add transistors to chips doubles approximately
every 2 years.”[10] In 1989, a 80486 chip had 1,200,000 Issues relevant to radiology practice
transistors.[11] As shown in Table 2, the growth has continued Computers selected for use as consoles and workstations
according to Moore’s law and, in 2004, a Pentium® 4 chip at radiology departments should have CPUs that routinely
had 125,000,000 transistors and could execute a billion perform at speeds of 3 GHz or more, which means that they
instructions per second.[12] The term Celeron® is given to a should be able to process over 3 billion instructions per
category of cost-effective versions of Pentium® II, III, and second. This should be sufficient for efficiently handling a
4 processors.[12] wide range of applications by simultaneous processing of
multiple instructions.[5]
Two major types of CPUs are available. They are differentiated
based on the relative sizes of the instruction set processed Newer processor technology advantageously incorporates
by them. CPUs of reduced instruction set computer (RISC) more than one CPU core into a single chip. Such CPUs are
type have architectures that use a small set of instructions. described as multi-core CPUs and provide extremely high
computational speed.[5] Thus, there are single-core, dual-
core, quad-core processors available. Instead of a single core,
Table 2: Generations of CPUs from Intel[12]
each of the many cores within a CPU handles processing
CPU Year Clock frequency (MHz) No. of transistors
tasks that were earlier performed by a CPU.
8088 1979 4.8–8 29,000
80286 1982 6–12.5 134,000
More the number of cores, higher is the computational
80386 1985 16–33 275,000 speed. As a result, each core handles processing tasks that
80486 1989 25–100 1,200,000 was earlier performed by a CPU.
Pentium 1993 60–200 3,100,000
Pentium MMX 1997 166–300 4,500,000
Pentium Pro 1995 150–200 5,500,000
Such CPUs are described as multi-core CPU, which forms
Pentium II 1997 233–450 7,500,000 the basis of terms like single core, dual core, Core2Duo,
Pentium III 1999 450–1200 28,000,000 quad core etc. Dual Core is a “class” or architecture of
Pentium 4 2000 1400–2200 42,000,000 processors which refers to any processor with two physical
2004 2800–3600 125,000,000
CPU cores on the same chip. A Core2Duo is a registered
164 Indian J Radiol Imaging / August 2010 / Vol 20 / Issue 3
 Indrajit and Alam: Computer hardware for radiologists

trademark of Intel Corporation, representing a second

generation processor offering improved efficiency for
desktops and laptops.

When matched, Dual Core and Core2Duo have only one

physical “technically” processor, but virtually both of
them has 2 cores meaning 2 processors virtually. When
compared, Core2Duo is much better than Dual Core because
of a separate cache memory and with that Core2Duo offers
much throughput than Dual Core. Likewise, in a QuadCore,
there is one physical processor but virtually 4 cores or 4
processors.

The CPUs used in main computers at consoles of

machines such as computerized tomography (CT) scanners
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs) in radiology Figure 3: Left panel is a line diagram of a motherboard. The right panel
shows a CPU, chipsets, memory, and buses. In Intel-based systems,
departments should ideally contain at least four to eight
chipsets are identified as northbridge and southbridge. In general,
CPUs in one IC. northbridge connections control access to memory and video card.
Southbridge is an input/output device controller, handling the BIOS’ and
Notwithstanding the availability of Intel MMX, computers CPU’s communication with hard drives, LAN, modem, USB ports, etc
dealing with high-end cardiac and neurological applications
at CT scan or MRI consoles or at advanced CT scan or MRI
workstations should have dedicated graphic cards. Random Access Memory

Chipset Random access memory (RAM) chips are fundamentally

semiconductor chips. They temporarily store data and
A chipset is an important piece of hardware, comprising instructions that are accessed by a CPU. Since the contents
a group of chips placed on the motherboard. Though of RAM are erased when a computer is powered off, the
term volatile memory is given to RAM.[7] This is in contrast
completely different from CPUs in design and function, the
to read-only memory (ROM), which permanently retains
chipset is also made of various ICs. It controls the data sent
data and instructions.
and received by a CPU. Unlike CPUs, it has other important
functions like a) controlling interaction of buses between
Different types of RAM are available. These are classified
the motherboard and the CPU; b) exchanging data between
based on their storage capacity (in megabytes MB or
the CPU and memory, hard disk drives, sound and video
gigabytes GB), access speed (in nanoseconds), data rate
cards, etc; and c) determining the memory addable to a
(DDR2) [Figure 4], and configuration [single or dual inline
motherboard.[13]
memory (SIMM or DIMM)].[5] Their salient features are
outlined in Tables 3 and 4.
Intel 810 is a special chipset which integrates 3D accelerated
graphics and software-based audio, modem, and DVD Memory modules are circuit boards with memory chips
capabilities. It offers high performance without the need soldered on them. In the early 80s, computers had individual
for dedicated hardware cards, thereby allowing the creation RAM chips called dual inline package (DIP) chips which
of low-cost PCs.[14] Chipsets from Intel have progressively were installed loosely on the motherboard. These were
advanced, with models Intel 820, 815, 850, 845, 875P, 865, not only difficult to install but were fitted loosely on the
925X, 915, 945, 955X, 965, and 975 becoming available. motherboard and therefore frequently caused the computer
to freeze or hang in mid operation.[7,16] Memory modules,
Issues relevant to radiology practice by being fixed firmly on a motherboard, permanently
Traditionally, the chipsets in Intel-based systems are addressed this issue.
known as the northbridge and southbridge. These two
chipsets functionally perform distinct operations, while Memory modules can be single-sided or double-sided.[17]
interacting with dedicated hardware components which Single-sided memory modules contain RAM on only one
are specifically allotted to them.[15] In general, northbridge side of the module. Double-sided memory modules contain
connections control access to memory and video card, RAM on both sides of the module.
whereas southbridge is an input/output device controller
and hence handles the BIOS’ and CPUs’ communication Issues relevant to radiology practice
with the hard drive, LAN, modem, USB ports, etc. [Figure 3]. As a simple rule of thumb, “increasing the memory of a

Indian J Radiol Imaging / August 2010 / Vol 20 / Issue 3 165

 Indrajit and Alam: Computer hardware for radiologists

radiology, since it has more capacity to handle different

applications. The presence of more and faster RAM is useful
in performing multitasking functions in real-time, as seen
in typical workflow situations in radiology departments.
It allows a radiographer to perform many important tasks
simultaneously at a console: scanning a patient, transferring
images of patients, printing films at the departmental laser
printer, and burning images to a CD.

In radiology, the presence of more and faster RAM is also

useful in postprocessing large 3D datasets of CT scan or MRI.
It is important to remember that vendors offer more RAM
at consoles, in comparison to general purpose workstations.
This is the reason why a high-end dedicated workstation is
to be preferred over a general-purpose workstation.

In advanced vascular, cardiac, and neurological workstations,

Figure 4: RAM chips are physical microchips located on the video memory RAM (VRAM) is specifically available within
motherboard; they temporarily hold data and programs, while the video graphics cards to improve video performance.[5]
CPU processes both. The information in RAM is lost when the PC is
turned off. The displayed RAM is of DDR2 type which operates twice
as fast as SDRAM Read-Only Memory
ROM chips retain their instructions even when the computer
Table 3: Types of computer RAM based on data rate is shut down and their contents cannot be over-written,
Type of RAM Abbreviation Utility Features of rewritten, or erased. ROM is a secondary storage, slower than
memory chip primary, but nevertheless is a permanent form of storage.
Dynamic RAM DRAM Main memory Needs constant The motherboard has a few ROM chips too. These store
refreshing basic instructions for starting the computer (aka booting:
Static RAM SRAM Cache memory Faster; not originating from a term in horse riding) and loading the
refreshed often operating system. To fulfill this function, the ROM chips
Fast page mode FPM Supports paging Faster access to contain instructions that the CPU can access directly.
data
Extended data out EDO RAM Overlaps data Speeds up access Conclusion
accesses time
Sync DRAM SDRAM Synchronized with Data path for CPU
memory to main memory
A working knowledge of computers is important for
Double data rate DDR SDRAM Transfers twice per Twice as fast as
the radiologist as computers play an ever-increasingly
cycle SDRAM important role in the “digital future” of radiology. In a
Double data rate 2 DDR2 SDRAM Less noise and Faster than DDR nutshell, a computer offers basic functions like processing,
crosstalk SDRAM memory storage of data, input and output device integration. We
have dealt with processing in this article. The descriptions
of other functions like storage and input and output device
Table 4: Types of computer RAM based on configuration integration will be covered in Part II of this series.
Type of memory Abbreviation Features of memory chip
modules References
Dual inline package DIP Individual memory chip
Single inline memory SIMM Circuit board with several memory 1. White box (computer hardware) From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia Available from: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
module chips
White_box_(computer_hardware). [last accessed on 2010 Mar 14].
Dual inline memory DIMM Board with SDRAM, DDR SDRAM,
2. Integrated circuit. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available
module DDR2 SDRAM chips
from: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit [last
RAM bus inline RIMM Board with RDRAM chips accessed on 2010 Mar 13].
memory module
3. An Online Glossary of Computer Terms and Acronyms. Available
from: http://www.build-your-own-cheap-computer.com/
computer-terms.html [last accessed on 2010 Mar 7].
4. Components of a Personal Computer. Available from: http://www.
computer is the fastest, simplest, and most cost-effective pchardwarehelp.com/ [last accessed on 2010 Mar 11].
method to upgrade a computer.” [18] A computer with 5. Flanders A. Computers and Networking. In: Branstetter Barton
more RAM is advantageous for improved workflow in F 4th, editor. Practical Imaging Informatics: Foundations and

166 Indian J Radiol Imaging / August 2010 / Vol 20 / Issue 3

 Indrajit and Alam: Computer hardware for radiologists

Applications for PACS Professionals. 1st ed. New York: Springer- accessed on 2010 Mar 10].
Verlag; 2009. p. 16-7. 13. Chipset. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipset [last
6. Unveiling the Mysterious Motherboard A Behind-The-Scenes Look accessed on 2010 Mar 06].
At One Of Your PC’s Most Vital Components. Smart Computing 14. Pentiums. Available from: http://www.sceptre.com/Information/
2001. Available from: http://www.smartcomputing.com/Editorial/ index.htm [last accessed on 2010 Mar 09].
article.asp?article=articles/archive/r0503/06r03/06r03.aspandguid=
15. North bridge and South bridge. Available from: http://www.
[last accessed on 2010 Mar 02].
karbosguide.com/books/pcarchitecture/chapter07.htm [last
7. IT Essentials: PC Hardware and Software Companion Guide. In: accessed on 2010 Mar 04].
Anfinson D, Quamme K, editors. 3rd ed. Indianapolis: Cisco Press,
16. Dual Inline Packages (DIPs) and Memory Modules. Available from:
Cisco Systems Inc; 2008.
http://www.pcguide.com/ref/ram/packDIP-c.html [last accessed
8. Jason’s PC Passion Main Parts of your Computer. Available from: on 2010 Mar 18].
http://jason6101.tripod.com/id1.html [last accessed on 2010 Mar 13].
17. Is there a difference between single and doubled-sided RAM? PC
9. AMD vs. Intel: What to Get? Which is Better? PC Stats. Available User. Available from: http://www.pcuser.com.au/pcuser/hs2.nsf/
from: http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleID=2164 [last lookup+1/BBE482C45B0EF612CA256D02001E2A4E [last accessed
accessed on 2010 Mar 05]. on 2010 Mar 14].
10. Moore’s Law. Available from: http://www.karbosguide.com/books/ 18. Computer Memory What is it used for? Available from: http://
pcarchitecture/chapter27.htm [last accessed on 2010 Mar 06]. www.build-your-own-cheap-computer.com/computer-memory-1.
11. WebHQ’s Motherboard Manuals Data and More. Available from: html [last accessed on 2010 Mar 14].
http://motherboards.mbarron.net/index.html [last accessed on
2010 Mar 12].
12. Seven Generations of CPUs from Intel. Available from: http:// Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
www.karbosguide.com/books/pcarchitecture/chapter27.htm [last

Indian J Radiol Imaging / August 2010 / Vol 20 / Issue 3 167