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Lecture Notes : Advanced Operating Systems

system software (College of Engineering Chengannur)

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OPERATING SYSTEMS
Lecture Notes

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING SHRI

VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NBA, Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
BHIMAVARAM – 534 202

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UNIT -1
COMPUTER SYSTEM AND OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW
OVER VIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEM
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components
Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer
No universally accepted definition
Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is good
approximation But varies wildly

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“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel. Everything else is either a
system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing An interrupt

Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which
contains the addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost interruptnA
trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling
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vectored interrupt system

Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each type of interrupt

Interrupt Timeline

I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
Wait loop (contention for memory access)
At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing After I/O starts,
control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion System call – request to the
operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion Device-status table contains entry for each
I/O device indicating its type, address, and state Operating system indexes into I/O device table to
determine device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt

Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main memory without
CPU intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache
for secondary storage

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Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system,
software) Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy

Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through mainframes)
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include
1.Increased throughput
2.Economy of scale
3.Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types
1.Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2.Symmetric Multiprocessing

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How a Modern Computer Works

Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

A Dual-Core Design

Clustered Systems

Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each
other Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to Execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
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One job selected and run via job scheduling

When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users
can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory [process If
several jobs ready to run at the same time [ CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each Other or the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware

Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted time

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UNIT - 1

OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive entity,
process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running concurrently on one or
more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:
Creating and deleting both user and system
processes Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing
All instructions in memory in order to execute
Memory management determines what is in memory when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

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Memory management activities

Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or
random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management

Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must be kept for a
“long” period of time
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
MASS STORAGE activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
Still must be managed
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
Performance of Various Levels of Storage

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Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no matter where it is stored in the
storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have
the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist

I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being transferred),
caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of
one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources defined by the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then also associated
with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
Computing Environments
Traditional computer
Blurring over time
Office environment
PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or minicomputers providing batch
and timesharing
Now portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same
resources Home networks
Used to be single system, then modems
Now firewalled, networked
Client-Server Computing

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Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs

Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services (i.e. database)
File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

Peer-to-Peer Computing

Another model of distributed system

P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella
Web-Based Computing
Web has become ubiquitous
PCs most prevalent devices
More devices becoming networked to allow web access
New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar servers: load balancers
Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have evolved into Linux and Windows XP,
which can be clients and servers

Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just binary closed-
source Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM) movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and Sun Solaris
Operating System Services
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI), Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that
program, end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O device

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File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Obviously, programs need to read
and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file Information, permission
management.

A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Services

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user
Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or between computers
over a network Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing (packets
moved by the OS)
Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors May occur in the CPU and
memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program For each type of error, OS should take the
appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing Debugging facilities can greatly enhance
the user’s and programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system itself via
resource sharing
Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must be
allocated to each of them
Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and file storage) may have special
allocation code, others (such as I/O devices) may have general request and release code
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or networked computer
system may want to control use of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each
other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to defending external
I/O devices from invalid access attempts
If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted throughout it. A chain is only as
strong as its weakest link.
User Operating System Interface - CLI
Command Line Interface (CLI) or command interpreter allows direct command entry

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Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems program
Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of programs
If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell modification
User Operating System Interface - GUI

User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various actions (provide information, options,
execute function, open directory (known as a folder)
Invented at Xerox PARC
Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath and shells
available Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)
Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

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The Mac OS X GUI

System Calls

Programming interface to the services provided by the

OS Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program Interface (API) rather than direct
system call usenThree most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for POSIX-based
systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java
virtual machine (JVM)
Why use APIs rather than system calls?(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic)
Example of System Calls

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Example of Standard API

Consider the ReadFile() function in the
Win32 API—a function for reading from a file

A description of the parameters passed to ReadFile()

HANDLE file—the file to be read
LPVOID buffer—a buffer where the data will be read into and written from
DWORD bytesToRead—the number of bytes to be read into the buffer
LPDWORD bytesRead—the number of bytes read during the last read
LPOVERLAPPED ovl—indicates if overlapped I/O is being used

System Call Implementation

Typically, a number associated with each system call System-call
interface maintains a table indexed according to these Numbers

The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel and returns status of the system call
and any return values
The caller need know nothing about how the system call is implemented
Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result call
Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into libraries included with
compiler) API – System Call – OS Relationship

Standard C Library Example

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System Call Parameter Passing

Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system call
Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call
Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block passed as a parameter in a
register
This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and popped off the stack by the operating
system
Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of parameters being passed

Parameter Passing via Table

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Types of System Calls

Process control
File management
Device management
Information maintenance
Communications
Protection

Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

MS-DOS execution

(a) At system startup (b) running a program

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FreeBSD Running Multiple Programs

System Programs
System programs provide a convenient environment for program development and execution. The can be
divided into:
File manipulation
Status information
File modification
Programming language support
Program loading and execution
Communications
Application programs
Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system programs, not the actual system calls
Provide a convenient environment for program development and execution
Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are considerably more complex
File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and generally manipulate files and
directories
Status information
Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory, disk space, number of users
Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information
Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or other output devices
Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve configuration information
File modification
Text editors to create and modify files
Special commands to search contents of files or perform transformations of the text
Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers and interpreters
sometimes provided
Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-
loaders, debugging systems for higher-level and machine language

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Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual connections among processes, users,
and computer systems
Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse web pages, send electronic-mail
messages, log in remotely, transfer files from one machine to another
Operating System Design and Implementation
Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some approaches have proven successful
Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely
Start by defining goals and specifications
Affected by choice of hardware, type of system
User goals and System goals
User goals – operating system should be convenient to use, easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
System goals – operating system should be easy to design, implement, and maintain, as well as
flexible, reliable, error-free, and efficient
Important principle to separate
Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?
Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what will be done
The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important principle, it allows maximum flexibility
if policy decisions are to be changed later
Simple Structure
MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least
space Not divided into modules
Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of Functionality are not well separated

MS-DOS Layer Structure

Layered Approach

The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built on top of lower layers. The
bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface.
With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions (operations) and services of only
lower-level layers

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Traditional UNIX System Structure

UNIX

UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating system had limited structuring.
The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
Systems programs
The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-call interface and above the physical hardware
Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory management, and other operating-system
functions; a large number of functions for one level
Layered Operating System

Micro kernel System Structure

Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space
Communication takes place between user modules using message passing
Benefits:
Easier to extend a microkernel
Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
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More secure
Detriments:
Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication

Mac OS X Structure

Modules

Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules

Uses object-oriented approach
Each core component is separate
Each talks to the others over known interfaces
Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

Solaris Modular Approach

Virtual Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical conclusion. It treats hardware and the
operating system kernel as though they were all hardware

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A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the underlying bare hardware

The operating system host creates the illusion that a process has its own processor and (virtual
memory) Each guest provided with a (virtual) copy of underlying computer
Virtual Machines History and Benefits
First appeared commercially in IBM mainframes in 1972
Fundamentally, multiple execution environments (different operating systems) can share the same
hardware
Protect from each other
Some sharing of file can be permitted, controlled
Commutate with each other, other physical systems via networking
Useful for development, testing
Consolidation of many low-resource use systems onto fewer busier systems
“Open Virtual Machine Format”, standard format of virtual machines, allows a VM to run within many
different virtual machine (host) platforms

Para-virtualization
Presents guest with system similar but not identical to hardware
Guest must be modified to run on paravirtualized hardwareF
Guest can be an OS, or in the case of Solaris 10 applications running in containers
Solaris 10 with Two Containers

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VMware Architecture

The Java Virtual Machine

Operating-System Debugging

Debugging is finding and fixing errors, or bugs

OSes generate log files containing error information
Failure of an application can generate core dump file capturing memory of the process
Operating system failure can generate crash dump file containing kernel memory
Beyond crashes, performance tuning can optimize system performance
Kernighan’s Law: “Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the rst place. Therefore, if you
write the code as cleverly as possible, you are, by definition, not smart enough to debug it.” DTrace
tool in Solaris, FreeBSD, Mac OS X allows live instrumentation on production systems Probes fire
when code is executed, capturing state data and sending it to consumers of those probes

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Solaris 10 dtrace Following System Call

Operating System Generation

Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines; the system must be configured for
each specific computer site
SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific configuration of the hardware
system Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel
Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to locate the kernel, load it into memory, and start
its execution
System Boot
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware can start it
Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location loads bootstrap loader
When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory location Firmware used to hold
initial boot code

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UNIT -2

PROCESS MANAGEMENT

Process Concept
An operating system executes a variety of programs:
Batch system – jobs
Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion
A process includes:
program counter
stack
data section
Process in Memory

Process State

As a process executes, it changes state

new: The process is being created
running: Instructions are being executed
waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
terminated: The process has finished execution
Diagram of Process State

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Process Control Block (PCB)

Information associated with each process

Process state
Program counter
CPU registers
CPU scheduling information
Memory-management information
Accounting information
I/O status information

CPU Switch From Process to Process

Process Scheduling Queues

Job queue – set of all processes in the system

Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute
Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
Processes migrate among the various queues

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Ready Queue and Various I/O Device Queues

Representation of Process Scheduling

Schedulers
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the ready
queue
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and
allocates CPU

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Addition of Medium Term Scheduling

Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently (milliseconds) Þ (must be fast)

Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds, minutes) Þ (may be slow)
The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
Processes can be described as either:
I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts
CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts
Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the
saved state for the new process via a context switch
Context of a process represented in the PCB Context-switch time is overhead; the
system does no useful work while switching Time dependent on hardware
support
Process Creation
Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of
processes
Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)
Resource sharing
Parent and children share all resources
Children share subset of parent’s resources
Parent and child share no resources
Execution
Parent and children execute concurrently
Parent waits until children terminate
Address space
Child duplicate of parent
Child has a program loaded into it
UNIX examples
fork system call creates new process
exec system call used after a fork to replace the process’ memory space with a new program

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Process Creation

C Program Forking Separate Process

int main()
{
pid_t pid;
/* fork another process */
pid = fork();
if (pid < 0) { /* error occurred */
fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed");
exit(-1);
}
else if (pid == 0) { /* child process */
execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);
}
else { /* parent process */
/* parent will wait for the child to complete */
wait (NULL);
printf ("Child Complete");
exit(0);
}
}

A tree of processes on a typical Solaris

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Process Termination
Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to delete it (exit)
Output data from child to parent (via wait)
Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort)
Child has exceeded allocated resources
Task assigned to child is no longer required
If parent is exiting Some operating system do not allow child to continue if its parent
terminates All children terminated - cascading termination
Interprocess Communication
Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes, including sharing data
Reasons for cooperating processes:
Information sharing
Computation speedup
Modularity
Convenience
Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC)
Two models of IPC
Shared memory
Message passing

Communications Models

Cooperating Processes
Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process
Advantages of process cooperation
Information sharing
Computation speed-up
Modularity
Convenience
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Producer-Consumer Problem
Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is consumed by a
consumer process
unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the
buffer bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution
Shared data
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
...
} item;
item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements

Bounded-Buffer – Producer
while (true) {
/* Produce an item */
while (((in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE count) == out)
; /* do nothing -- no free buffers
*/ buffer[in] = item;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE;
}

Bounded Buffer – Consumer

while (true) {
while (in == out)
; // do nothing -- nothing to
consume // remove an item from the
buffer item = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER SIZE;
return item;
}
Interprocess Communication – Message Passing
Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions
Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables
IPC facility provides two operations:
send(message) – message size fixed or variable
receive(message)
If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
establish a communication link between them
exchange messages via send/receive
Implementation of communication link
physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus)
logical (e.g., logical properties)

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Direct Communication
Processes must name each other explicitly:
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
Properties of communication link Links are established
automatically
A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes
Between each pair there exists exactly one link
The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional

Indirect Communication
Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports)
Each mailbox has a unique id
Processes can communicate only if they share a
mailbox Properties of communication link
Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
A link may be associated with many processes
Each pair of processes may share several communication links
Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional Operations

create a new mailbox

send and receive messages through mailbox
destroy a mailbox
Primitives are defined as:
send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A
Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
Who gets the message?
Solutions
Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes Allow
only one process at a time to execute a receive operation
Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.
Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or non-
blocking Blocking is considered synchronous
Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received
Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is available
Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
Non-blocking send has the sender send the message and continue
Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a valid message or null

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Buffering
Queue of messages attached to the link; implemented in one of three ways
1. Zero capacity – 0 messages

2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages

Sender must wait if link full
3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits
Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX
POSIX Shared Memory
Process first creates shared memory segment
segment id = shmget(IPC PRIVATE, size, S IRUSR | S IWUSR);
Process wanting access to that shared memory must attach to it
shared memory = (char *) shmat(id, NULL, 0); Now the process
could write to the shared memory
printf(shared memory, "Writing to shared memory");
When done a process can detach the shared memory from its address
space shmdt(shared memory);
Examples of IPC Systems - Mach
Mach communication is message based
Even system calls are messages
Each task gets two mailboxes at creation- Kernel and Notify
Only three system calls needed for message transfer
msg_send(), msg_receive(), msg_rpc() Mailboxes needed
for commuication, created via
port_allocate()
Examples of IPC Systems – Windows XP
Message-passing centric via local procedure call (LPC) facility
Only works between processes on the same system
Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain communication channels
Communication works as follows:
The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object
The client sends a connection request
The server creates two private communication ports and returns the handle to one of them to the client The
client and server use the corresponding port handle to send messages or callbacks and to listen for
replies

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Local Procedure Calls in Windows XP

Communications in Client-Server Systems

Sockets
Remote Procedure Calls
Remote Method Invocation (Java)
Sockets
A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication
Concatenation of IP address and port
The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host 161.25.19.8
Communication consists between a pair of sockets
Socket Communication

Remote Procedure Calls

Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between processes on networked systems
Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server
The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the parameters
The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the marshalled parameters, and peforms the
procedure on the server

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Execution of RPC

Remote Method Invocation

Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a Java mechanism similar to RPCs
RMI allows a Java program on one machine to invoke a method on a remote object

Marshalling Parameters

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Threads
To introduce the notion of a thread — a fundamental unit of CPU utilization that forms the basis of
multithreaded computer systems
To discuss the APIs for the Pthreads, Win32, and Java thread libraries
To examine issues related to multithreaded programming
Single and Multithreaded Processes

Benefits
Responsiveness
Resource Sharing
Economy
Scalability
Multicore Programming
Multicore systems putting pressure on programmers, challenges include
Dividing activities
Balance
Data splitting
Data dependency
Testing and debugging
Multithreaded Server Architecture

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Concurrent Execution on a Single-core System

Parallel Execution on a Multicore System

User Threads
Thread management done by user-level threads librarynThree primary thread libraries:
POSIX Pthreadsl Win32 threads
Java threads
Kernel Threads
Supported by the Kernel
Examples
Windows XP/2000
Solaris
Linux
Tru64 UNIX
Mac OS X
Multithreading Models
Many-to-One
One-to-One
Many-to-Many
Many-to-One
Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread
Examples:
Solaris Green Threads
GNU Portable Threads

One-to-One
Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread
Examples
Windows NT/XP/2000
Linux

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Solaris 9 and later

Many-to-Many Model
Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many kernel threads
Allows the operating system to create a sufficient number of kernel threads
Solaris prior to version 9
Windows NT/2000 with the ThreadFiber package

Two-level Model
Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user thread to be bound to kernel thread
Examples
IRIX
HP-UX
Tru64 UNIX
Solaris 8 and earlier

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Thread Libraries
Thread library provides programmer with API for creating and managing threads
Two primary ways of implementing
Library entirely in user space
Kernel-level library supported by the OS
Pthreads
May be provided either as user-level or kernel-level
A POSIX standard (IEEE 1003.1c) API for thread creation and synchronization
API specifies behavior of the thread library, implementation is up to development of the library
Common in UNIX operating systems (Solaris, Linux, Mac OS X)
Java Threads
Java threads are managed by the JVM
Typically implemented using the threads model provided by underlying OS
Java threads may be created by:lExtending Thread class Implementing the
Runnable interface
Threading Issues
Semantics of fork() and exec() system calls
Thread cancellation of target thread
Asynchronous or deferred
Signal handling
Thread pools
Thread-specific data
Scheduler activations
Thread Cancellation
Terminating a thread before it has finished
Two general approaches:
Asynchronous cancellation terminates the target thread immediately
Deferred cancellation allows the target thread to periodically check if it should be cancelled
Signal Handling
Signals are used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a particular event has occurred
A signal handler is used to process signals
1.Signal is generated by particular event
2.Signal is delivered to a process
3.Signal is handled
Options:
Deliver the signal to the thread to which the signal applies
Deliver the signal to every thread in the process
Deliver the signal to certain threads in the process
Assign a specific threa to receive all signals for the process
Thread Pools
Create a number of threads in a pool where they await work
Advantages:
Usually slightly faster to service a request with an existing thread than create a new thread
Allows the number of threads in the application(s) to be bound to the size of the pool

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Thread Specific Data

Allows each thread to have its own copy of data
Useful when you do not have control over the thread creation process (i.e., when using a thread pool)
Scheduler Activations
Both M:M and Two-level models require communication to maintain the appropriate number of kernel
threads allocated to the application
Scheduler activations provide upcalls - a communication mechanism from the kernel to the
thread library
This communication allows an application to maintain the correct number kernel threads
Windows XP Threads

Implements the one-to-one mapping, kernel-level

Each thread contains
A thread id
Register set
Separate user and kernel stacks
Private data storage area
The register set, stacks, and private storage area are known as the context of the threads
The primary data structures of a thread include:
ETHREAD (executive thread block)
KTHREAD (kernel thread block)
TEB (thread environment block)

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Linux Threads

Linux refers to them as tasks rather than threads

Thread creation is done through clone() system call
clone() allows a child task to share the address space of the parent task (process)
CPU Scheduling
To introduce CPU scheduling, which is the basis for multiprogrammed operating systems
To describe various CPU-scheduling algorithms
To discuss evaluation criteria for selecting a CPU-scheduling algorithm for a particular system
Maximum CPU utilization obtained with multiprogramming
CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process execution consists of a cycle of CPU execution and I/O wait
CPU burst distribution
Histogram of CPU-burst Times

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Alternating Sequence of CPU And I/O Bursts

CPU Scheduler
Selects from among the processes in memory that are ready to execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them
CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates
Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive
All other scheduling is preemptive
Dispatcher
Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the short-term scheduler;
this involves:
switching context
switching to user mode
jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program
Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running
Scheduling Criteria
CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible
Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per time unit
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process
Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue
Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first response is
produced, not output (for time-sharing environment)
Max CPU utilization
Max throughput
Min turnaround time
Min waiting time
Min response time

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First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:

P1 P2 P3

0 24 27 30

Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order
P2,P3,P1
The Gantt chart for the schedule is:nnnnWaiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3nAverage waiting time: (6 +
0+3)/3=3
Much better than previous case
Convoy effect short process behind long process

P2 P3 P1

0 3 6 30
Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling

Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst. Use these lengths to schedule the process
with the shortest time
SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of processes The difficulty is
knowing
Process Arrival Time Burst Time

P1 0.0 6
P2 2.0 8
P3 4.0 7
P4 5.0 3

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SJF scheduling chart
average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7the length of the next CPU request

P P3 P2
4 P1

0 3 9 16 24
Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

th
1. tn actual length of n CPU burst
2. n 1 predicted value for the next CPU burst
3. , 0 1
4. Define :
Can only estimate the length
Can be done by using the length of previous CPU bursts, using exponential averaging
Prediction of the Length of the Next CPU Burst

Examples of Exponential Averaging

a =0
tn+1 = tn
Recent history does not count
a =1
tn+1 = a tn
Only the actual last CPU burst counts
If we expand the formula, we get:
tn+1 = a tn+(1 - a)a tn -1 + …
j
+(1 - a ) a tn -j + …

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n +1
+(1 - a ) t0
Since both a and (1 - a) are less than or equal to 1, each successive term has less weight than its predecessor
Priority Scheduling
A priority number (integer) is associated with each process
The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (smallest integer º highest priority)
Preemptive
nonpreemptive
SJF is a priority scheduling where priority is the predicted next CPU burst
time Problem º Starvation – low priority processes may never execute
Solution º Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the
process Round Robin (RR)

Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum), usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this
time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue.
If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the
CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q time units.
Performance
q large Þ FIFO
q small Þ q must be large with respect to context switch, otherwise overhead is too high
Example of RR with Time Quantum = 4
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3

The Gantt chart is:

P P P P P P P P
Typically, higher average1 turnaround2 3than SJF,1but better1 response1 1 1

0 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30
Time Quantum and Context Switch Time

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Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

Multilevel Queue
Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues:
foreground (interactive)
background (batch)
Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm
foreground – RR
background – FCFS
Scheduling must be done between the queues
Fixed priority scheduling; (i.e., serve all from foreground then from background). Possibility of
starvation.
Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time which it can schedule amongst its processes;
i.e., 80% to foreground in RR
20% to background in FCFS

Multilevel Queue Scheduling

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Multilevel Feedback Queue

A process can move between the various queues; aging can be implemented this way
Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following parameters: number
of queues
scheduling algorithms for each queue
method used to determine when to upgrade a process
method used to determine when to demote a process
method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that process needs service
Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue
Three queues:
Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
Q2 – FCFS
Scheduling
A new job enters queue Q0 which is served FCFS. When it gains CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds. If it
does not finish in 8 milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q1.
At Q1 job is again served FCFS and receives 16 additional milliseconds. If it still does not complete, it
is preempted and moved to queue Q2.
Multilevel Feedback Queues

Thread Scheduling
Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads Many-to-one and many-to-many models,
thread library schedules user-level threads to run on LWP Known as process-contention scope
(PCS) since scheduling competition is within the process Kernel thread scheduled onto available
CPU is system-contention scope (SCS) – competition among all threads in system

Pthread Scheduling
API allows specifying either PCS or SCS during thread creation
PTHREAD SCOPE PROCESS schedules threads using PCS scheduling
PTHREAD SCOPE SYSTEM schedules threads using SCS scheduling.

Pthread Scheduling API

#include <pthread.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define NUM THREADS 5
int main(int argc, char *argv[])

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{
int i; pthread t tid[NUM THREADS];
pthread attr t attr;
/* get the default attributes */
pthread attr init(&attr);
/* set the scheduling algorithm to PROCESS or SYSTEM */
pthread attr setscope(&attr, PTHREAD SCOPE
SYSTEM); /* set the scheduling policy - FIFO, RT, or
OTHER */ pthread attr setschedpolicy(&attr, SCHED
OTHER); /* create the threads */
for (i = 0; i < NUM THREADS; i++)
pthread create(&tid[i],&attr,runner,NULL);
/* now join on each thread */
for (i = 0; i < NUM THREADS; i++)
pthread join(tid[i], NULL);
}
/* Each thread will begin control in this function */
void *runner(void *param)
{
printf("I am a thread\n");
pthread exit(0);
}

Multiple-Processor Scheduling
CPU scheduling more complex when multiple CPUs are
available Homogeneous processors within a multiprocessor
Asymmetric multiprocessing – only one processor accesses the system data structures, alleviating the
need for data sharing
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) – each processor is self-scheduling, all processes in common ready
queue, or each has its own private queue of ready processes
Processor affinity – process has affinity for processor on which it is currently running
soft affinity
hard affinity

NUMA and CPU Scheduling

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Multicore Processors
Recent trend to place multiple processor cores on same physical chip
Faster and consume less power
Multiple threads per core also growing
Takes advantage of memory stall to make progress on another thread while memory retrieve happens

Multithreaded Multicore System

Operating System Examples

Solaris scheduling
Windows XP scheduling
Linux scheduling
Solaris Dispatch Table

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Solaris Scheduling

Windows XP Priorities

Linux Scheduling
Constant order O(1) scheduling time
Two priority ranges: time-sharing and real-time
Real-time range from 0 to 99 and nice value from 100 to 140

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Priorities and Time-slice length

List of Tasks Indexed According to Priorities

Algorithm Evaluation
Deterministic modeling – takes a particular predetermined workload and defines the performance
of each algorithm for that workload
Queuing models
Implementation
Evaluation of CPU schedulers by Simulation

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UNIT -3
CONCURRENCY
Process Synchronization
To introduce the critical-section problem, whose solutions can be used to ensure the consistency of
shared data
To present both software and hardware solutions of the critical-section problem
To introduce the concept of an atomic transaction and describe mechanisms to ensure atomicity
Concurrent access to shared data may result in data inconsistency
Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly execution of cooperating
processes
Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers.
We can do so by having an integer count that keeps track of the number of full buffers. Initially, count is
set to 0. It is incremented by the producer after it produces a new buffer and is decremented by the
consumer after it consumes a buffer
Producer
while (true) {

/* produce an item and put in nextProduced */

while (count == BUFFER_SIZE)
; // do nothing
buffer [in] = nextProduced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
count++;
}
Consumer
while (true) {
while (count == 0)
; // do nothing nextConsumed
= buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
count--;
/* consume the item in nextConsumed
}
Race Condition
count++ could be implemented as

register1 = count
register1 = register1 + 1
count = register1
count-- could be implemented as

register2 = count
register2 = register2 - 1
count = register2
Consider this execution interleaving with “count = 5” initially:

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S0: producer execute register1 = count {register1 = 5}
S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
S2: consumer execute register2 = count {register2 = 5}
S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 - 1 {register2 = 4}
S4: producer execute count = register1 {count = 6 }
S5: consumer execute count = register2 {count = 4}
Solution to Critical-Section Problem
1. Mutual Exclusion - If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be
executing in their critical sections
2. Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some processes that wish to
enter their critical section, then the selection of the processes that will enter the critical section next cannot
be postponed indefinitely
3.Bounded Waiting - A bound must exist on the number of times that other processes are allowed to enter their
critical sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is granted
Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed
No assumption concerning relative speed of the N processes

Peterson’s Solution
Two process solution
Assume that the LOAD and STORE instructions are atomic; that is, cannot be interrupted.
The two processes share two variables:
int turn;
Boolean flag[2]
The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the critical section.
The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to enter the critical section. flag[i] = true
implies that process Pi is ready!
Algorithm for Process Pi
do {
flag[i] = TRUE;
turn = j;
while (flag[j] && turn == j);
critical section
flag[i] = FALSE;
remainder section
} while (TRUE);
Synchronization Hardware
Many systems provide hardware support for critical section
code Uniprocessors – could disable interrupts
Currently running code would execute without preemption
Generally too inefficient on multiprocessor systems
Operating systems using this not broadly scalable
Modern machines provide special atomic hardware instructions
Atomic = non-interruptable
Either test memory word and set value Or swap contents of two memory words

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Solution to Critical-section Problem Using Locks

do {
acquire lock
critical section
release lock
remainder section
} while (TRUE);
TestAndSet Instruction
Definition:
boolean TestAndSet (boolean *target)
{
boolean rv =
*target; *target =
TRUE; return rv:
}
Solution using TestAndSet
Shared boolean variable lock., initialized to false.
Solution:
do {
while ( TestAndSet (&lock ))
; // do nothing
/ critical section
lock = FALSE;
/ remainder section
} while (TRUE);

Swap Instruction
Definition:
void Swap (boolean *a, boolean *b)
{
boolean temp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = temp:
}

Solution using Swap

Shared Boolean variable lock initialized to FALSE; Each process has a local Boolean variable key
Solution:
do {
key = TRUE;
while ( key == TRUE)
Swap (&lock, &key );

/ critical section
lock = FALSE;

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/ remainder section
} while (TRUE);

Bounded-waiting Mutual Exclusion with TestandSet()

do {
waiting[i] = TRUE;
key = TRUE;
while (waiting[i] && key)
key = TestAndSet(&lock);
waiting[i] = FALSE;
/ critical section
j = (i + 1) % n;
while ((j != i) && !waiting[j])
j = (j + 1) %
n; if (j == i)
lock = FALSE;
else
waiting[j] = FALSE;
/ remainder section
} while (TRUE);

Semaphore
Synchronization tool that does not require busy waiting nSemaphore S – integer
variable Two standard operations modify S: wait() and signal() Originally called P() and
V()
Less complicated
Can only be accessed via two indivisible (atomic) operations
wait (S) {
while S <= 0
; // no-op
S--;
}
signal (S) {
S++;
}

Semaphore as General Synchronization Tool

Counting semaphore – integer value can range over an unrestricted
domain Binary semaphore – integer value can range only between 0
and 1; can be simpler to implement
Also known as mutex locksnCan implement a counting semaphore S as a binary
semaphore Provides mutual exclusionSemaphore mutex; // initialized to do {
wait (mutex);
/ Critical Section
signal (mutex);
// remainder section
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} while (TRUE);

Semaphore Implementation
Must guarantee that no two processes can execute wait () and signal () on the same semaphore at the
same time
Thus, implementation becomes the critical section problem where the wait and signal code are placed in
the crtical section.
Could now have busy waiting in critical section implementation
But implementation code is short
Little busy waiting if critical section rarely occupied
Note that applications may spend lots of time in critical sections and therefore this is not a
good solution.
Semaphore Implementation with no Busy waiting
With each semaphore there is an associated waiting queue. Each entry in a waiting queue has two data
items:
value (of type integer)
pointer to next record in the list
Two operations:
block – place the process invoking the operation on the appropriate waiting queue.
wakeup – remove one of processes in the waiting queue and place it in the ready queue.

Implementation of wait:
wait(semaphore *S) {
S->value--;
if (S->value < 0) {
add this process to S->list;
block();
}
}
Implementation of signal:
signal(semaphore *S) {
S->value++;
if (S->value <= 0) {
remove a process P from S->list;
wakeup(P);
}
}

Deadlock and Starvation

Deadlock – two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be caused by only
one of the waiting processes
Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1

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P0 P1
wait (S); wait (Q);
wait (Q); wait (S);
.

. .
. .
signal (S); signal (Q);
signal (Q); signal (S);
Starvation – indefinite blocking. A process may never be removed from the semaphore queue in which
it is suspended
Priority Inversion - Scheduling problem when lower-priority process holds a lock needed by higher-
priority process
Classical Problems of Synchronization
Bounded-Buffer Problem
Readers and Writers Problem
Dining-Philosophers Problem

Bounded-Buffer Problem
N buffers, each can hold one item
Semaphore mutex initialized to the value 1
Semaphore full initialized to the value 0
Semaphore empty initialized to the value N.
The structure of the producer process
do { // produce an item in nextp
wait (empty);
wait (mutex);
/ add the item to the buffer
signal (mutex);
signal (full);
} while (TRUE);
The structure of the consumer process
do { wait (full);
wait (mutex);
/ remove an item from buffer to nextc
signal (mutex);
signal (empty);

/ consume the item in nextc

} while (TRUE);
Readers-Writers Problem
A data set is shared among a number of concurrent processes
Readers – only read the data set; they do not perform any updates
Writers – can both read and writenProblem – allow multiple readers to read at the same time. Only one
single writer can access the shared data at the same time
Shared Data

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Data set
Semaphore mutex initialized to 1
Semaphore wrt initialized to 1
Integer readcount initialized to 0
The structure of a writer process

do { wait (wrt) ;

/ writing is
performed signal (wrt) ;
} while (TRUE);

The structure of a reader process

do {
wait (mutex) ;
readcount ++ ;
if (readcount == 1)
wait (wrt) ;
signal (mutex)

/ reading is performed
wait (mutex) ; readcount -
-;
if (readcount == 0) signal
(wrt) ;
signal (mutex) ;
} while (TRUE);

Dining-Philosophers Problem

Shared data
Bowl of rice (data set)
Semaphore chopstick [5] initialized to 1
The structure of Philosopher i:
do {
wait ( chopstick[i] );
wait ( chopStick[ (i + 1) % 5] );

// eat
signal ( chopstick[i] );
signal (chopstick[ (i + 1) % 5] );

/ think
} while (TRUE);

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Problems with Semaphores

Incorrect use of semaphore operations:
l signal (mutex)
….
wait (mutex)

wait (mutex) …
wait (mutex)
Omitting of wait (mutex) or signal (mutex) (or both)

Monitors
A high-level abstraction that provides a convenient and effective mechanism for process synchronization
Only one process may be active within the monitor at a time monitor monitor-name

{
/ shared variable declarations
procedure P1 (…) { …. }
…
procedure Pn (…) {……}
Initialization code ( ….) { … }
…
}
}
Schematic view of a Monitor

Condition Variables

condition x, y;
Two operations on a condition variable:
x.wait () – a process that invokes the operation is
suspended.
x.signal () – resumes one of processes (if any) that
invoked x.wait ()

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Monitor with Condition Variables

Solution to Dining Philosophers

monitor DP
{
enum { THINKING; HUNGRY, EATING) state [5] ;
condition self [5];
void pickup (int i) {
state[i] = HUNGRY;
test(i);
if (state[i] != EATING) self [i].wait;
}

void putdown (int i) {

state[i] = THINKING;
/ test left and right neighbors
test((i + 4) % 5);
test((i + 1) % 5);
}

void test (int i) {

if ( (state[(i + 4) % 5] != EATING) &&
(state[i] == HUNGRY) &&
(state[(i + 1) % 5] != EATING) ) {
state[i] = EATING ;
self[i].signal () ;
}
}
initialization_code() {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
state[i] = THINKING;
}
}

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Each philosopher I invokes the operations pickup()
and putdown() in the following sequence:
DiningPhilosophters.pickup (i);
EAT
DiningPhilosophers.putdown (i);

Monitor Implementation Using Semaphores

Variables
semaphore mutex; // (initially = 1)
semaphore next; // (initially = 0)
int next-count = 0;nEach procedure F will be replaced by
wait(mutex);
…
body of F;
…
if (next_count > 0)
signal(next)
else
signal(mutex);nMutual exclusion within a monitor is ensured.

Monitor Implementation
For each condition variable x, we have:
semaphore x_sem; // (initially = 0)
int x-count = 0;nThe operation x.wait can be implemented as:

x-count++;
if (next_count > 0)
signal(next);
else
signal(mutex);
wait(x_sem);
x-count--;

The operation x.signal can be implemented as:

if (x-count > 0) {
next_count++;
signal(x_sem);
wait(next);
next_count--;
}
A Monitor to Allocate Single Resource
monitor ResourceAllocator
{
boolean busy;
condition x;
void acquire(int time) {

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if (busy)
x.wait(time);
busy = TRUE;
}
void release() {
busy = FALSE;
x.signal();
}
initialization code() {
busy = FALSE;
}
}

Synchronization Examples
Solaris
Windows XP
Linux
Pthreads
Solaris Synchronization
Implements a variety of locks to support multitasking, multithreading (including real-time threads),
and multiprocessing
Uses adaptive mutexes for efficiency when protecting data from short code segments
Uses condition variables and readers-writers locks when longer sections of code need access to data
Uses turnstiles to order the list of threads waiting to acquire either an adaptive mutex or reader-writer
lock

Windows XP Synchronization
Uses interrupt masks to protect access to global resources on uniprocessor systems
Uses spinlocks on multiprocessor systems
Also provides dispatcher objects which may act as either mutexes and semaphores
Dispatcher objects may also provide events
An event acts much like a condition variable
Linux Synchronization
Linux:lPrior to kernel Version 2.6, disables interrupts to implement short critical sections
Version 2.6 and later, fully preemptive
Linux provides:
semaphores
spin locks

Pthreads Synchronization
Pthreads API is OS-independent
It provides:
mutex locks
condition variablesnNon-portable extensions include:
read-write locks
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spin locks

Atomic Transactions
System Model
Log-based Recovery
Checkpoints
Concurrent Atomic Transactions

System Model
Assures that operations happen as a single logical unit of work, in its entirety, or not at all
Related to field of database systems
Challenge is assuring atomicity despite computer system failures
Transaction - collection of instructions or operations that performs single logical function
Here we are concerned with changes to stable storage – disk
Transaction is series of read and write operations
Terminated by commit (transaction successful) or abort (transaction failed) operation Aborted
transaction must be rolled back to undo any changes it performed
Types of Storage Media
Volatile storage – information stored here does not survive system crashes
Example: main memory, cache
Nonvolatile storage – Information usually survives crashes
Example: disk and tape
Stable storage – Information never lost
Not actually possible, so approximated via replication or RAID to devices with independent failure
modes
Goal is to assure transaction atomicity where failures cause loss of information on volatile storage

Log-Based Recovery
Record to stable storage information about all modifications by a transaction
Most common is write-ahead logging
Log on stable storage, each log record describes single transaction write operation, including
Transaction name
Data item name
Old value
New value
<Ti starts> written to log when transaction Ti starts
<Ti commits> written when Ti commits
Log entry must reach stable storage before operation on data occurs

Log-Based Recovery Algorithm

Using the log, system can handle any volatile memory errors
Undo(Ti) restores value of all data updated by Ti
Redo(Ti) sets values of all data in transaction Ti to new values
Undo(Ti) and redo(Ti) must be idempotent
Multiple executions must have the same result as one execution
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If system fails, restore state of all updated data via log

If log contains <Ti starts> without <Ti commits>, undo(Ti)
If log contains <Ti starts> and <Ti commits>, redo(Ti)

Checkpoints
Log could become long, and recovery could take long
Checkpoints shorten log and recovery time.
Checkpoint scheme:
1.Output all log records currently in volatile storage to stable storage
2.Output all modified data from volatile to stable storage
3.Output a log record <checkpoint> to the log on stable storage
Now recovery only includes Ti, such that Ti started executing before the most recent checkpoint, and all
transactions after Ti All other transactions already on stable storage

Concurrent Transactions
Must be equivalent to serial execution – serializability
Could perform all transactions in critical section
Inefficient, too restrictive
Concurrency-control algorithms provide serializability

Serializability

Consider two data items A and B

Consider Transactions T0 and T1
Execute T0, T1 atomically
Execution sequence called schedule
Atomically executed transaction order called serial schedule
For N transactions, there are N! valid serial schedules
Schedule 1: T0 then T1

Nonserial Schedule
Nonserial schedule allows overlapped execute
Resulting execution not necessarily incorrect
Consider schedule S, operations Oi, Oj
Conflict if access same data item, with at least one write
If Oi, Oj consecutive and operations of different transactions & Oi and Oj don’t conflict
Then S’ with swapped order Oj Oi equivalent to S
If S can become S’ via swapping nonconflicting operations
S is conflict serializable

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Schedule 2: Concurrent Serializable Schedule

Locking Protocol

Ensure serializability by associating lock with each data

item Follow locking protocol for access control Locks

Shared – Ti has shared-mode lock (S) on item Q, Ti can read Q but not write Q
Exclusive – Ti has exclusive-mode lock (X) on Q, Ti can read and write Q
Require every transaction on item Q acquire appropriate lock
If lock already held, new request may have to wait
Similar to readers-writers algorithm

Two-phase Locking Protocol

Generally ensures conflict serializability
Each transaction issues lock and unlock requests in two phases
Growing – obtaining locks
Shrinking – releasing locks
Does not prevent deadlock
Timestamp-based Protocols
Select order among transactions in advance – timestamp-ordering
Transaction Ti associated with timestamp TS(Ti) before Ti starts
TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) if Ti entered system before Tj
TS can be generated from system clock or as logical counter incremented at each entry of
transaction Timestamps determine serializability order
If TS(Ti) < TS(Tj), system must ensure produced schedule equivalent to serial schedule where Ti
appears before Tj
Timestamp-based Protocol Implementation

Data item Q gets two timestamps

W-timestamp(Q) – largest timestamp of any transaction that executed write(Q) successfully
R-timestamp(Q) – largest timestamp of successful read(Q)

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Updated whenever read(Q) or write(Q) executed

Timestamp-ordering protocol assures any conflicting read and write executed in timestamp order
Suppose Ti executes read(Q)

If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), Ti needs to read value of Q that was already overwritten read operation rejected
and Ti rolled back
If TS(Ti) ≥ W-timestamp(Q) read executed, R-timestamp(Q) set to max(R-timestamp(Q), TS(Ti))
Timestamp-ordering Protocol

Supose Ti executes write (Q)

If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), value Q produced by Ti was needed previously and Ti assumed it would never be
produced Write operation rejected, Ti rolled back If TS(Ti) < W-tiimestamp(Q), Ti attempting to write obsolete value
of Q Write operation rejected and Ti rolled back Otherwise, write executed Any rolled back transaction Ti is
assigned new timestamp and restarted Algorithm ensures conflict serializability and freedom from deadlock
Schedule Possible Under Timestamp Protocol

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UNIT IV

Memory Management

To provide a detailed description of various ways of organizing memory hardware

To discuss various memory-management techniques, including paging and segmentation
To provide a detailed description of the Intel Pentium, which supports both pure segmentation and
segmentation with paging
Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and placed within a process for it to be run
Main memory and registers are only storage CPU can access directly
Register access in one CPU clock (or less)
Main memory can take many cycles
Cache sits between main memory and CPU registers
Protection of memory required to ensure correct operation

Base and Limit Registers

A pair of base and limit registers define the logical address space

Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory

Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses can happen at three different stages
Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute code can be generated; must recompile
code if starting location changes
Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory location is not known at compile time
Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the process can be moved during its execution from
one memory segment to another. Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base and limit
registers)

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Multistep Processing of a User Program

Logical vs. Physical Address Space

The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a separate physical address space is central to
proper memory management
Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address
Physical address – address seen by the memory unit
Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time address-binding
schemes; logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme

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Memory-Management Unit (MMU)

Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address
In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is added to every address generated by a
user process at the time it is sent to memory
The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses
Dynamic relocation using a relocation register

Dynamic Loading
Routine is not loaded until it is called
Better memory-space utilization; unused routine is never loaded
Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently occurring cases
No special support from the operating system is required implemented through program design

Dynamic Linking
Linking postponed until execution time
Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate memory-resident library routine
Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and executes the routine
Operating system needed to check if routine is in processes’ memory address
Dynamic linking is particularly useful for libraries
System also known as shared libraries

Swapping
A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing store, and then brought back into memory
for continued executionnBacking store – fast disk large enough to accommodate copies of all memory
images for all users; must provide direct access to these memory imagesnRoll out, roll in – swapping variant
used for priority-based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process is swapped out so higher-priority
process can be loaded and executednMajor part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer time is directly
proportional to the amount of memory swappednModified versions of swapping are found on many systems
(i.e., UNIX, Linux, and Windows)
System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run processes which have memory images on disk

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Schematic View of Swapping

Contiguous Allocation

Main memory usually into two partitions:

Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector
User processes then held in high memorynRelocation registers used to protect user processes from
each other, and from changing operating-system code and data
Base register contains value of smallest physical address
Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the
limit register
MMU maps logical address dynamically
Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Registers

Multiple-partition allocation
Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout memory
When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate it
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Operating system maintains information about:

a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)

OS OS OS OS

process 5 process 5 process 5 process 5

process 9 process 9
process 8 process 10

process 2 process 2 process 2 process 2

Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem

First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough
Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by size
Produces the smallest leftover hole
Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list
Produces the largest leftover hole
First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization
Fragmentation
External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous
Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size
difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used
Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block
Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time.
I/O problem
Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O
Do I/O only into OS buffers

Paging

Logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory
whenever the latter is available
Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes
and 8,192 bytes)
Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pagesnKeep track of all free frames

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To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames and load program
Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses
Internal fragmentation

Address Translation Scheme

Address generated by CPU is divided into

Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which contains base address of each page in
physical memory
Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the physical memory address that is sent to the
memory unit
For given logical address space 2m and page size 2n

Paging Hardware

page number page offset

p d
m-n n

Paging Model of Logical and Physical Memory

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Paging Example

32-byte memory and 4-byte pages

Free Frames

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Implementation of Page Table

Page table is kept in main memory

Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table Page-
table length register (PRLR) indicates size of the page table
In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and
one for the data/instruction.
The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache
called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)
Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely identifies each
process to provide address-space protection for that process

Associative Memory
Associative memory – parallel search
Address translation (p, d)
If p is in associative register, get frame # out
Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory

Page # Frame #

Paging Hardware With TLB

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Effective Access Time

Associative Lookup = e time unit

Assume memory cycle time is 1 microsecond
Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number is found in the associative registers; ratio related
to number of associative registers
Hit ratio = an Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 + e) a + (2 + e)(1 – a)
=2+e–a
Memory Protection
Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame
Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:
“valid” indicates that the associated page is in the process’ logical address space, and is thus a legal page
“invalid” indicates that the page is not in the process’ logical address space
Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page Table

Shared Pages
Shared code
One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window
systems).
Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes
Private code and data
Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data
The pages for the private code and data can appear anywhere in the logical address space

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Shared Pages Example

Structure of the Page Table

Hierarchical Paging
Hashed Page Tables
Inverted Page Tables

Hierarchical Page Tables

Break up the logical address space into multiple page tables

A simple technique is a two-level page table

Two-Level Page-Table Scheme

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Two-Level Paging Example

A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 1K page size) is divided into:
a page number consisting of 22 bits
a page offset consisting of 10 bits
Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into:
a 12-bit page number
a 10-bit page offset
Thus, a logical address is as follows:

where pi is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the displacement within the page of the
outer page table

page number page offset

p p2
i d

12 10 10
Address-Translation Scheme

Three-level Paging Scheme

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Hashed Page Tables

Common in address spaces > 32 bits

The virtual page number is hashed into a page table
This page table contains a chain of elements hashing to the same location
Virtual page numbers are compared in this chain searching for a match
If a match is found, the corresponding physical frame is extracted

Hashed Page Table

Inverted Page Table

One entry for each real page of memory

Entry consists of the virtual address of the page stored in that real memory location, with
information about the process that owns that page
Decreases memory needed to store each page table, but increases time needed to search the table when
a page reference occurs
Use hash table to limit the search to one — or at most a few — page-table entries

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Inverted Page Table Architecture

Segmentation
Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory
A program is a collection of segments
A segment is a logical unit such as:
main program
procedure function
method
object
local variables, global variables
common block
stack
symbol table
arrays

User’s View of a Program

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Logical View of Segmentation

1 4

4 2

user space

Segmentation Architecture
Logical address consists of a two tuple:
o <segment-number, offset>,
Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addressephysical;each tablememoryentryhas: space
base – contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory
limit – specifies the length of the segment
Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment table’s location in memory
Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by a program;
segment number s is legal if s < STLR
Protection
With each entry in segment table associate:
validation bit = 0 Þ illegal segment
read/write/execute privileges
Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment level
Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation problem
A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram

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Segmentation Hardware

Example of Segmentation

Example: The Intel Pentium

Supports both segmentation and segmentation with paging
CPU generates logical address
Given to segmentation unit
Which produces linear addresses
Linear address given to paging unit
Which generates physical address in main memory
Paging units form equivalent of MMU

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Logical to Physical Address Translation in Pentium

Intel Pentium Segmentation

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Pentium Paging Architecture

Linear Address in Linux

Three-level Paging in Linux

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UNIT – 5

VIRTUAL MEMORY

Objective
To describe the benefits of a virtual memory system.

To explain the concepts of demand paging, page-replacement algorithms, and allocation of page
frames.

To discuss the principle of the working-set model.

Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of process that may not be completely in
memory. The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than physical
memory.

Virtual memory is the separation of user logical memory from physical memory this separation allows an
extremely large virtual memory to be provided for programmers when only a smaller physical memory
is available ( Fig ).
Following are the situations, when entire program is not required to load fully.
1. User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurs in the data or computation.
2. Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
3. Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a small amount of the table
is actually used.
The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter many benefits.
1. Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into memory.
2. A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is available.
3. Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run the same time, with a
corresponding increase in CPU utilization and throughput.

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Fig. Diagram showing virtual memory that is larger than physical memory.
Virtual memory is commonly implemented by demand paging. It can also be implemented in a
segmentation system. Demand segmentation can also be used to provide virtual memory.

Demand Paging

A demand paging is similar to a paging system with swapping(Fig 5.2). When we want to execute a
process, we swap it into memory. Rather than swapping the entire process into memory.

When a process is to be swapped in, the pager guesses which pages will be used before the process is
swapped out again Instead of swapping in a whole process, the pager brings only those necessary pages into
memory. Thus, it avoids reading into memory pages that will not be used in anyway, decreasing the swap time
and the amount of physical memory needed.

Hardware support is required to distinguish between those pages that are in memory and those pages that
are on the disk using the valid-invalid bit scheme. Where valid and invalid pages can be checked checking the
bit and marking a page will have no effect if the process never attempts to access the pages. While the process
executes and accesses pages that are memory resident, execution proceeds normally.

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Fig. Transfer of a paged memory to continuous disk space

Access to a page marked invalid causes a page-fault trap. This trap is the result of the operating system's
failure to bring the desired page into memory. But page fault can be handled as following (Fig 5.3):

Fig. Steps in handling a page fault

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1. We check an internal table for this process to determine whether the reference was a valid or invalid
memory access.
2. If the reference was invalid, we terminate the process. If .it was valid, but we have not yet brought in
that page, we now page in the latter.
3. We find a free frame.

4. We schedule a disk operation to read the desired page into the newly allocated frame.

5. When the disk read is complete, we modify the internal table kept with the process and the page table to
indicate that the page is now in memory.

6. We restart the instruction that was interrupted by the illegal address trap. The process can now access the
page as though it had always been memory.

Therefore, the operating system reads the desired page into memory and restarts the process as though
the page had always been in memory.

The page replacement is used to make the frame free if they are not in used. If no frame is free then other
process is called in.

Advantages of Demand Paging:

1. Large virtual memory.
2. More efficient use of memory.
3. Unconstrained multiprogramming. There is no limit on degree of multiprogramming.

Disadvantages of Demand Paging:

4. Number of tables and amount of processor over head for handling page interrupts are greater than in the
case of the simple paged management techniques.
5. due to the lack of an explicit constraints on a jobs address space size.

Page Replacement Algorithm

There are many different page replacement algorithms. We evaluate an algorithm by running it on a
particular string of memory reference and computing the number of page faults. The string of memory
references is called reference string. Reference strings are generated artificially or by tracing a given system and
recording the address of each memory reference. The latter choice produces a large number of data.

1. For a given page size we need to consider only the page number, not the entire address.

2. if we have a reference to a page p, then any immediately following references to page p will never cause
a page fault. Page p will be in memory after the
first reference; the immediately following references will not fault.

Eg:- consider the address sequence

0100, 0432, 0101, 0612, 0102, 0103, 0104, 0101, 0611, 0102, 0103, 0104, 0101, 0610, 0102,

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0103, 0104, 0104, 0101, 0609, 0102, 0105
and reduce to 1, 4, 1, 6,1, 6, 1, 6, 1, 6, 1

To determine the number of page faults for a particular reference string and page replacement algorithm,
we also need to know the number of page frames available. As the number of frames available increase, the
number of page faults will decrease.

FIFO Algorithm

The simplest page-replacement algorithm is a FIFO algorithm. A FIFO replacement algorithm associates
with each page the time when that page was brought into memory. When a page must be replaced, the oldest
page is chosen. We can create a FIFO queue to hold all pages in memory.
The first three references (7, 0, 1) cause page faults, and are brought into these empty eg. 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3,
0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0, 1 and consider 3 frames. This replacement means that the next reference to 0 will fault.
Page 1 is then replaced by page 0.

Optimal Algorithm

An optimal page-replacement algorithm has the lowest page-fault rate of all algorithms. An optimal
page-replacement algorithm exists, and has been called OPT or MIN. It is simply
Replace the page that will not be used for the longest
period of time.

Now consider the same string with 3 empty frames.

The reference to page 2 replaces page 7, because 7 will not be used until reference 15, whereas page 0
will be used at 5, and page 1 at 14. The reference to page 3 replaces page 1, as page 1 will be the last of the
three pages in memory to be referenced again. Optimal replacement is much better than a FIFO.

The optimal page-replacement algorithm is difficult to implement, because it requires future knowledge
of the reference string.

LRU Algorithm

The FIFO algorithm uses the time when a page was brought into memory; the OPT algorithm uses the
time when a page is to be used. In LRU replace the page that has not been used for the longest period of time.

LRU replacement associates with each page the time of that page's last use. When a page must be
replaced, LRU chooses that page that has not been used for the longest period of time.
R
Let S be the reverse of a reference string S, then the page-fault rate for the OPT algorithm on S is the
R
same as the page-fault rate for the OPT algorithm on S .

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LRU Approximation Algorithms

Some systems provide no hardware support, and other page-replacement algorithm. Many systems
provide some help, however, in the form of a reference bit. The reference bit for a page is set, by the hardware,
whenever that page is referenced. Reference bits are associated with each entry in the page table Initially, all
bits are cleared (to 0) by the operating system. As a user process executes, the bit associated with each page
referenced is set (to 1) by the hardware.

Additional-Reference-Bits Algorithm

The operating system shifts the reference bit for each page into the high-order or of its 5-bit byte,
shifting the other bits right 1 bit, discarding the low-order bit.
These 5-bit shift registers contain the history of page use for the last eight time periods. If the shift
register contains 00000000, then the page has not been

used for eight time periods; a page that is used at least once each period would have a shift register value of
11111111.

Second-Chance Algorithm

The basic algorithm of second-chance replacement is a FIFO replacement algorithm. When a page gets a
second chance, its reference bit is cleared and its arrival e is reset to the current time.

Enhanced Second-Chance Algorithm

The second-chance algorithm described above can be enhanced by considering troth the reference bit
and the modify bit as an ordered pair.

1. (0,0) neither recently used nor modified best page to replace.

2. (0,1) not recently used but modified not quite as good, because the page will need to be written out
before replacement.
3. (1,0) recently used but clean probably will be used again soon.
4. (1,1) recently used and modified probably will be used again, and write out will be needed before
replacing it

Counting Algorithms

There are many other algorithms that can be used for page replacement.

• LFU Algorithm: The least frequently used (LFU) page-replacement algorithm requires that the page with the
smallest count be replaced. This algorithm suffers from the situation in which a page is used heavily during the
initial phase of a process, but then is never used again.

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• MFU Algorithm: The most frequently used (MFU) page-replacement algorithm is based on the argument that
the page with the smallest count was probably just brought in and has yet to be used.

Page Buffering Algorithm

When a page fault occurs, a victim frame is chosen as before. However, the desired page is read into a
free frame from the pool before the victim is written out.
This procedure allows the process to restart as soon as possible, without waiting for the victim page to be
written out. When the victim is later written out, its frame is added to the free-frame pool.
When the FIFO replacement algorithm mistakenly replaces a page mistakenly replaces a page that is still
in active use, that page is quickly retrieved from the free-frame buffer, and no I/O is necessary. The free-frame
buffer provides protection against the relatively poor, but simple, FIFO replacement algorithm.

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UNIT VI

Principles of deadlock
To develop a description of deadlocks, which prevent sets of concurrent processes from completing their
tasks.To present a number of different methods for preventing or avoiding deadlocks in a computer system
The Deadlock Problem

A set of blocked processes each holding a resource and waiting to acquire a resource held by another process in
the set
Example
System has 2 disk drives
P1 and P2 each hold one disk drive and each needs another
one Example
semaphores A and B, initialized to 1
P0 P1

wait (A); wait(B)

wait (B); wait(A)

Bridge Crossing Example

Traffic only in one direction

Each section of a bridge can be viewed as a resource
If a deadlock occurs, it can be resolved if one car backs up (preempt resources and rollback)
Several cars may have to be backed up if a deadlock occurs
Starvation is possible
Note – Most OSes do not prevent or deal with deadlocks

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System Model
Resource types R1, R2, . . ., Rm
CPU cycles, memory space, I/O devices
Each resource type Ri has Wi instances.
Each process utilizes a resource as follows:
request
use
release

Deadlock Characterization

Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously

Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource
Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire additional resources held by other
processes
No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process holding it, after that process has
completed its task
Circular wait: there exists a set {P0, P1, …, P0} of waiting processes such that P0 is waiting for a resource that is
held by P1, P1 is waiting for a resource that is held by
P2, …, Pn–1 is waiting for a resource that is held by
Pn, and P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P0.
n
Resource-Allocation Graph

A set of vertices V and a set of edges E

V is partitioned into two types:
P = {P1, P2, …, Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in the system R =
{R1, R2, …, Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the system
request edge – directed edge P1 ® Rj
assignment edge – directed edge Rj ® Pi

Process

Resource Type with 4 instances

Pi requests instance of Rjn Pi

Rj

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Pi is holding an instance of Rj

Pi
Rj
Example of a Resource Allocation Graph

Resource Allocation Graph With A Deadlock

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Graph With A Cycle But No Deadlock

Basic Facts
If graph contains no cycles Þ no deadlocknIf graph contains a cycle Þlif only one instance per resource type,
then deadlock
if several instances per resource type, possibility of deadlock
Methods for Handling Deadlocks
Ensure that the system will never enter a deadlock statenAllow the system to enter a deadlock state and then
recovernIgnore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never occur in the system; used by most operating
systems, including UNIX
Deadlock Prevention
Restrain the ways request can be made
Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources; must hold for nonsharable resources
Hold and Wait – must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any other
resources
Require process to request and be allocated all its resources before it begins execution, or allow process to
request resources only when the process has none
Low resource utilization; starvation possible
No Preemption –
If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource that cannot be immediately allocated to
it, then all resources currently being held are released
Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the process is waiting
Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is requesting
Circular Wait – impose a total ordering of all resource types, and require that each process requests resources
in an increasing order of enumeration

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Deadlock Avoidance
Requires that the system has some additional a priori information
available
Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum number of resources of
each type that it may need
The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation state to ensure that there can
never be a circular-wait condition
Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated resources, and the maximum
demands of the processes
Safe State
When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the system
in a safe state
System is in safe state if there exists a sequence <P1, P2, …, Pn> of ALL the processes is the systems such that for
each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied by currently available resources + resources held by all
the Pj, with j < inThat is:
If Pi resource needs are not immediately available, then Pi can wait until all Pj have finished
When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed resources, execute, return allocated resources, and terminate When
Pi terminates, Pi +1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on
Basic Facts
If a system is in safe state Þ no deadlocksnIf a system is in unsafe state Þ possibility of deadlocknAvoidance Þ
ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.
Safe, Unsafe , Deadlock State

Avoidance algorithms
Single instance of a resource type
Use a resource-allocation graph
Multiple instances of a resource type
Use the banker’s algorithm

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Resource-Allocation Graph Scheme

nClaim edge Pi ® Rj indicated that process Pj may request resource Rj; represented by a dashed linenClaim
edge converts to request edge when a process requests a resourcenRequest edge converted to an assignment
edge when the resource is allocated to the process
nWhen a resource is released by a process, assignment edge reconverts to a claim edgenResources must be
claimed a priori in the system

Resource-Allocation Graph

Unsafe State In Resource-Allocation Graph

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Resource-Allocation Graph Algorithm

Suppose that process Pi requests a resource Rj.
nThe request can be granted only if converting the request edge to an assignment edge does not result in the
formation of a cycle in the resource allocation graph

Banker’s Algorithm
Multiple instancesnEach process must a priori claim maximum usenWhen a process requests a resource it may
have to wait nWhen a process gets all its resources it must return them in a finite amount of time

Data Structures for the Banker’s Algorithm

Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resources types.
nAvailable: Vector of length m. If available [j] = k, there are k instances of resource type Rj available
nMax: n x m matrix. If Max [i,j] = k, then process Pi may request at most k instances of resource type
RjnAllocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j] = k then Pi is currently allocated k instances of RjnNeed: n x m matrix. If
Need[i,j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances of Rj to complete its task

Need [i,j] = Max[i,j] – Allocation [i,j]

Safety Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively. Initialize:
Work = Available
Finish [i] = false for i = 0, 1, …, n- 1
2. Find and i such that both:
(a) Finish [i] = false(b) Needi £
Work If no such i exists, go to step 4
3. Work = Work + Allocationi
Finish[i] = true
go to step 2
4. If Finish [i] == true for all i, then the system is in a safe state

Resource-Request Algorithm for Process Pi

Request = request vector for process Pi. If Requesti [j] = k then process Pi wants k instances of resource type
Rj1. If Requesti £ Needi go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition, since process has exceeded its maximum
claim
2. If Requesti £ Available, go to step 3. Otherwise Pi must wait, since resources are not available
3. Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the state as follows:
Available = Available – Request;
Allocationi = Allocationi + Requesti;
Needi = Needi – Requesti;
lIf safe Þ the resources are allocated to Pi
lIf unsafe Þ Pi must wait, and the old resource-allocation state is restored

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Example of Banker’s Algorithm

5 processes P0 through P4;

3 resource types:
A (10 instances), B (5instances), and C (7
instances) Snapshot at time T0:
Allocatio
n Max Available
ABC ABC ABC
P0 010 753 332
P1 200 322
P2 302 902
P3 211 222
P4 002 433

The content of the matrix Need is defined to be Max – Allocation Need ABC
P0 7 4 3
P1 1 2 2
P2 6 0 0
P3 0 1 1
P4 4 3 1
The system is in a safe state since the sequence < P1, P3, P4, P2, P0> satisfies safety criteria
Example: P1 Request (1,0,2)
Check that Request £ Available (that is, (1,0,2) £ (3,3,2) Þ true Allocation Need
Available ABC ABC ABC
P0 010 743 230
P1 30 2 020
P2 301 600
P3 211 011
P4 002 431
Executing safety algorithm shows that sequence < P1, P3, P4, P0, P2> satisfies safety requirement
Can request for (3,3,0) by P4 be granted?
Can request for (0,2,0) by P0 be granted?

Deadlock Detection
Allow system to enter deadlock state Detection algorithmRecovery scheme

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Single Instance of Each Resource Type

Maintain wait-for graph
Nodes are processes
Pi ® Pj if Pi is waiting for Pj
Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a cycle in the graph. If there is a cycle, there exists a deadlock
An algorithm to detect a cycle in a graph requires an order of n2 operations, where n is the number of vertices in
the graph

Resource-Allocation Graph and Wait-for Graph

Resource-Allocation Graph Corresponding wait-for graph

Several Instances of a Resource Type
Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available resources of each type.Allocation: An n x
m matrix defines the number of resources of each type currently allocated to each process.Request: An n x m
matrix indicates the current request of each process. If Request [ij] = k, then process Pi is requesting k more
instances of resource type. Rj.

Detection Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively Initialize:
(a) Work = Available(b)For i = 1,2, …, n, if Allocationi ¹ 0, then

(a) Finish[i] == false(b) Requesti £ WorkIf no such i exists, go to step 4

3. Work = Work + Allocationi
Finish[i] = true
go to step 24. If Finish[i] == false, for some i, 1 £ i £ n, then the system is in deadlock state. Moreover, if
Finish[i] == false, then Pi is deadlocked

Algorithm requires an order of O(m x n2) operations to detect whether the system is in deadlocked state

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Example of Detection Algorithm
Five processes P0 through P4; three resource types
A (7 instances), B (2 instances), and C (6 instances)
Snapshot at time T0:
Allocatio
n Request Available
ABC ABC ABC
P0 010 000 000
P1 200 202
P2 303 000
P3 211 100
P4 002 002
Sequence <P0, P2, P3, P1, P4> will result in Finish[i] = true for all i
P2 requests an additional instance of type C Request
ABC
P0 000
P1 201
P2 001
P3 100
P4 002
State of system?
Can reclaim resources held by process P0, but insufficient resources to fulfill other processes; requests
Deadlock exists, consisting of processes P1, P2, P3, and P4

Detection-Algorithm Usage
When, and how often, to invoke depends on:
How often a deadlock is likely to occur?
How many processes will need to be rolled back?
one for each disjoint cyclenIf detection algorithm is invoked arbitrarily, there may be many cycles in the
resource graph and so we would not be able to tell which of the many deadlocked processes “caused” the
deadlock
Recovery from Deadlock: Process Termination
Abort all deadlocked processesnAbort one process at a time until the deadlock cycle is eliminatednIn which
order should we choose to abort?
Priority of the process
lHow long process has computed, and how much longer to
completion lResources the process has used
lResources process needs to complete
lHow many processes will need to be terminated
lIs process interactive or batch?

Recovery from Deadlock: Resource Preemption

Selecting a victim – minimize cost
Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process for that state
Starvation – same process may always be picked as victim, include number of rollback in cost factor

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UNIT VII

FILE SYSTEM INTERFACE

7.1 The Concept Of a File
A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage.
The information in a file is defined its creator. Many different types of information may
be stored in a file.
File attributes:-
A file is named and for the user’s convince is referred to by its name. A name is
usually a string of characters. One user might create file, where as another user might
edit that file by specifying its name. There are different types of attributes.
1)name:- the name can be in the human readable form.
2)type:- this information is needed for those systems that support different types.
3)location:- this information is used to a device and to the location of the file on that
device.
4)size:- this indicates the size of the file in bytes or words.
5)protection:-
6)time,date, and user identifications:-
the information about all files is kept in the directory structure, that also resides
on secondary storage.
File operations:-
Creating a file:-
Two steps are necessary to create a file first, space in the file system must be found
for the file. Second , an entry for the new file must be made in the directory. The
directory entry records the name of the file and the location in the system.
Writing a file:-
To write a file give the name of the file, the system search the directory to find the
location of the file. The system must keep the writer pointer to the location in the file
where the next write is to take place. The write pointer must be updated whenever a
write occurs.
Reading a file:- to read from a file, specifies the name of the file and directory is search
for the associated directory entry, and the system needs to keep read pointer to the
location in the file where the next read is to take place. Once the read has taken place,
read pointer is updated.
Repositioning with in a file:-
The directory is searched for the appropriate entry and the current file position is set to
given value. this is also known as a file seek.
Deleting a file:- to delete a file , we search the directory for the name file. Found that
file in the directory entry, we release all file space and erase the directory entry.
Truncate a file:- this function allows all attributes to remain unchanged(except for file
length) but for the file to be reset to length zero.
Appending:- add new information to the end of an existing file .
Renaming:- give new name to an existing file.
Open a file:-if file need to be used, the first step is to open the file, using the
open system call.
Close:- close is a system call used to terminate the use of an already used file.

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File Types:-
A common technique for implementing file type is to include the type as part of the file
name. The name is split in to two parts
1) the name 2) and an extension .
the system uses the extension to indicate the type of the file and the type of
operations that can be done on that file.

7.2 : ACCESSMETHODS:-
There are several ways that the information in the file can be accessed.
1)sequential method 2) direct access method 3) other access methods.
1)sequential access method:-
the simplest access method is S.A. information in the file is processed in order, one
after the other. the bulk of the operations on a file are reads & writes. It is based on
a tape model of a file. Fig 10.3
2)Direct access:- or relative access:-
a file is made up of fixed length records, that allow programs to read and write
record rapidly in no particular order. For direct access, file is viewed as a numbered
sequence of blocks or records. A direct access file allows, blocks to be read & write.
So we may read block15, block 54 or write block10. there is no restrictions on the
order of reading or writing for a direct access file. It is great useful for immediate
access to large amount of information.
The file operations must be modified to include the block number as a parameter.
We have read n, where n is the block number.
3)other access methods:-
the other access methods are based on the index for the file. The indexed contain
pointers to the various blocks. To find an entry in the file , we first search the index
and then use the pointer to access the file directly and to find the desired entry. With
large files. The index file itself, may become too large to be kept in memory. One
solution is to create an index for the index file. The primary index file would contain
pointers to secondary index files which would point to the actual data iteams

7.3 Directory Structures:-

operations that are be on a directory (read in text book)
single level directory:-
the simple directory structure is the single level directory. All files are contained in the
same directory. Which is easy to understand. Since all files are in same directory,
they must have unique names.
In a single level directory there is some limitations. When the no.of files
increases or when there is more than one user some problems can occurs. If the no.of
files increases, it becomes difficult to remember the names of all the files. FIG 10.7
Two-level directory:-
The major disadvantages to a single level directory is the confusion of file names
between different users. The standard solution is to create separate directory for each
user.
In 2-level directory structure, each user has her own user file directory(ufd). Each ufd
has a similar structure, the user first search the master file directory . the mfd is
indexed by user name and each entry point to the ufd for that user.fig 10.8

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To create a file for a user, the O.S search only that user’s ufd to find whether another
file of that name exists. To delete a file the O.S only search to the local ufd and it can
not accidentally delete another user’s file that has the same name.
This solves the name collision problem, but it still have another. This is
disadvantages when the user wants to cooperate on some task and to access one
another’s file . some systems simply do not allow local user files to be accessed by
other user.
Any file is accessed by using path name. Here the user name and a file name defines
a path name.
Ex:- user1/ob
In MS-DOS a file specification is
C:/directory name/file name
Tree structured directory:-
This allows users to create their own subdirectories and to organize their files
accordingly. here the tree hasa root directory. And every file in the system has a
unique path name. A path name is the path from the root, through all the
subdirectories to a specified file.FIG 10.9.
A directory contains a set of subdirectories or files. A directory is simply another
file, but it is treated in a special way. Here the path names can be of two types.
1)absolute path and 2) relative path.
An absolute path name begins at the root and follows a path down to the
specified file, giving the directory name on the path. Ex:- root/spell/mail/prt/first.

A relative pathname defines a path from the current directory ex:- prt/first is relative
path name.
A cyclic- graph directory:-
Consider two programmers who are working on a joint project. The files associated
with that project can be stored in a sub directory , separating them from other projects
and files of the two programmers. The common subdirectory is shared by both
programmers. A shared directory or file will exist in the file system in two places at
once. Notice that a shared file is not the same as two copies of the file with two
copies, each programmer can view the copy rather than the original but if one
programmer changes the file the changes will not appear in the others copy with a
shared file there is only one actual file, so any changes made by one person would
be immediately visible to the other.
A tree structure prohibits the sharing of files or directories. An acyclic graph
allows directories to have shared subdirectories and files
FIG 10.10 . it is more complex and more flexiable. Also several problems may
occurs at the traverse and deleting the file contents. .

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7.4:File System Mounting

A file system must be mounted before it can be accessed
A unmounted file system (i.e. Fig. 11-11(b)) is mounted at a mount point
(a) Existing. (b) Unmounted Partition

(b)

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Mount Point

7.5:File Sharing
Sharing of files on multi-user systems is desirable nSharing may be done through
a protection schemenOn distributed systems, files may be shared across a
networknNetwork File System (NFS) is a common distributed filesharing method

File Sharing – Multiple Users

User IDs identify users, allowing permissions and protections to be peruser nGroup
IDs allow users to be in groups, permitting group access rights
File Sharing – Remote File Systems
nUses networking to allow file system access between
systems lManually via programs like FTP
lAutomatically, seamlessly using distributed file systems
lSemi automatically via the world wide web
nClient-server model allows clients to mount remote file systems from
servers lServer can serve multiple clients
lClient and user-on-client identification is insecure or complicated
lNFS is standard UNIX client-server file sharing protocol lCIFS is
standard Windows protocol
lStandard operating system file calls are translated into remote calls
nDistributed Information Systems (distributed naming services) such as LDAP,
DNS, NIS, Active Directory implement unified access to information needed for
remote computing
File Sharing – Failure Modes
Remote file systems add new failure modes, due to network failure, server
failure
Recovery from failure can involve state information about status of each remote
request

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Stateless protocols such as NFS include all information in each request,
allowing easy recovery but less security
File Sharing – Consistency Semantics
nConsistency semantics specify how multiple users are to access a shared
file simultaneously
lSimilar to Ch 7 process synchronization algorithms
Tend to be less complex due to disk I/O and network latency (for remote file
systems
lAndrew File System (AFS) implemented complex remote file sharing
semantics lUnix file system (UFS) implements:
Writes to an open file visible immediately to other users of the same open
fileSharing file pointer to allow multiple users to read and write concurrently
lAFS has session semantics
Writes only visible to sessions starting after the file is closed
7.6:Protection
File owner/creator should be able to control:
lwhat can be done
lby whomnTypes of access
lRead
lWrite
lExecute
lAppend
lDelete
lList

Protection:-]
When the information is kept in the system the major worry is its protection
from the both physical damage (Reliability) and improper access(Protection).
The reliability is generally provided by duplicate copies of files.
The protection can be provided in many ways . for some single system user, we
might provide protection by physically removing the floppy disks . in a multi-user
systems, other mechanism are needed.
1) types of access:-
if the system do not permit access to the files of other users, protection is not
needed. Protection mechanism provided by controlling accessing. This can be
provided by types of file access. Access is permitted or denied depending on several
factors. Suppose we mentioned read that file allows only for read . Read:- read from
the file.
Write:- write or rewrite the file.
Execute:- load the file in to memory and execute it.
Append:- write new information at the end of the file.
Delete:- delete the file and free its space for possible reuse.

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FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

7.7:File allocation methods:-

There are 3 major methods of allocating disk space.
1) Contiguous allocation:-
1) The contiguous allocation method requires each file to occupy a set of
contiguous block on the disk.
2) Contiguous allocation of a file is defined by the disk address and length of
the first block. If the file is ‘n’ block long and starts at location ‘b’ , then it
occupies blocks b,b+1,b+2,…..,b+n-1;
3) The directory entry for each file indicates the address of the starting
block and length of the area allocated for this file. Fig 11.3
4) Contiguous allocation of file is very easy to access. For the
sequential access , the file system remembers the disk address of the
last block referenced and, when necessary read next block. For direct
access to block ‘i’ of a file that starts at block ‘b’ , we can immediately
access block b+i. Thus both sequential and direct access can be
supported by contagious allocation.
5) One difficulty with this method is finding space for a new file.
6) Also there are many problems with this method
a) external fragmentation:- files are allocated and deleted , the
free disk space is broken in to little pieces. The E.F exists when
free space is broken in to chunks(large piece) and these chunks
are not sufficient for a request of new file.
There is a solution for E.F i.e compaction. All free space compact in
to one contiguous space. But the cost of compaction is time.
b) Another problem is determining how much space is needed for a
file. When file is created the creator must specifies the size of
that file. This becomes to big problem. Suppose if we allocate
too little space to a file , some times it may not sufficient.
Suppose if we allocate large space some times space is wasted.
c) Another problem is if one large file is deleted, that large space
is becomes to empty. Another file is loaded in to that space whose
size is very small then some space is wasted . that wastage of
space is called internal fragmentation.
2) Linked allocation:-
1) Linked allocation solves all the problems of contagious allocation. With
linked allocation , each file is a linked list of disk blocks, the disk block may be
scattered any where on the disk.
2) The directory contains a pointer to the first and last blocks of the file. Fig11.4
Ex:- a file have five blocks start at block 9, continue at block 16,then block 1,
block 10 and finally block 25. each block contains a ponter to the next block.
These pointers are not available to the user.
3) To create a new file we simply creates a new entry in directory. With linked
allocation, each directory entry has a pointer to the first disk block of the file.
3) There is no external fragmentation with linked allocation. Also there is no
need to declare the size of a file when that file is created. A file can continue to
grows as long as there are free blocks.

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4) But it have disadvantage. The major problem is that it can be used only for
sequential access-files.
5) To find the I th block of a file , we must start at the beginning of that file, and
follow the pointers until we get to the I th block. It can not support the direct
access.
6) Another disadvantage is it requires space for the pointers. If a pointer
requires 4 bytes out of 512 byte block, then 0.78% of disk is being used for
pointers, rather than for information.
7) The solution to this problem is to allocate blocks in to multiples, called
clusters and to allocate the clusters rather than blocks.
8) Another problem is reliability. The files are linked together by pointers
scattered all over the disk what happen if a pointer were lost or damaged.
FAT( file allocation table):-
An important variation on the linked allocation method is the use of a
file allocation table.
The table has one entry for each disk block, and is indexed by block number. The
FAT is used much as is a linked list.
The directory entry contains the block number of the first block of the file. The table
entry contains the block number then contains the block number of the next block in
the file. This chain continuous until the last block, which has a special end of file
values as the table entry. Unused blocks are indicated by a ‘0’ table value.
Allocation a new block to a file is a simple. First finding the first 0-value table
entry, and replacing the previously end of file value with the address of the new
block. The 0 is then replaced with end of file value.
Fig 11.5
3)Indexed allocation:-
1) linked allocation solves the external fragmentation and size declaration
problems of contagious allocation. How ever in the absence of a FAT , linked
allocation can not support efficient direct access.
2) The pointers to the blocks are scattered with the blocks themselves all over the
disk and need to be retrieved in order.
3) Indexed allocation solves this problem by bringing all the pointers together
in to one location i.e the index block.
4) Each file has its own index block ,which is an array of disk block
addresses. The I th entry in the index block points to the ith block of the file.
5) The directory contains the address of the index block. Fig 11.6
To read the ith block we use the pointer in the ith index block entry to find
and read the desired block.
6) When the file is created, all pointers in the index block are set to nil. When the
ith block is first written, a block is obtained from the free space manager, and its
address is put in the ith index block entry.
7) It supports the direct access with out suffering from external fragmentation,
but it suffer from the wasted space. The pointer overhead of the index block
is generally greater than the pointer over head of linked allocation.

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7.8:Free space management:-

1) to keep track of free disk space, the system maintains a free space list. The free
space list records all disk blocks that are free.
2) To create a file we search the free space list for the required amount of space, and
allocate that space to the new file. This space is then removed from the free space
list.
3) When the file is deleted , its disk space is added to the free space list.

1) bit vector:-
The free space list is implemented as a bit map or bit vector. Each block is
represented by 1 bit. If the block is free the bit is 1 if the block is allocated the bit
is 0.
Ex:- consider a disk where blocks 2,3,4,5,8,9,10,11,12,13,17,18,25, are free and
rest of blocks are allocated the free space bit map would be
001111001111110001100000010000……..
the main advantage of this approach is that it is relatively simple and efficient to
find the first free block or ‘n’ consecutive free blocks on the disk
2) Linked list:-
Another approach is to link together all the free disk blocks, keeping a pointer
to the first free block in a special location on the disk and caching it in memory. This
first block contain a pointer to the next free disk block, and so on.
How ever this scheme is not efficient to traverse the list, we must read each
block, which requires I/O time.
Disk space is also wasted to maintain the pointer to next free space.
3) Grouping:-
Another method is store the addresses of ‘n’ free blocks in the first free block.
The first (n-1) of these blocks are actually free. The last block contains the
addresses of another ‘n’ free blocks and so on. Fig 11.8
Advantages:- the main advantage of this approach is that the addresses of a
large no.of blocks can be found quickly.
4) Counting:-
Another approach is counting. Generally several contiguous blocks may be
allocated or freed simultaneously. Particularly when space is allocated with the
contiguous allocation algorithm rather than keeping a list of ‘n’ free disk address. We
can keep the address of first free block and the number ‘n’ of free contiguous blocks
that follow the first block. Each entry in the free space list then consists of a disk
address and a count.

7.9:Directory Implementation:-
1) Linear list:-
1) the simple method of implement ting a directory is to use a linear list of
file names with pointers to the data blocks.
2) A linear list of directory entries requires a linear search to find a particular
entry.
3) This method is simple to program but is time consuming to execute.
4) To create a new file, we must first search the directory to be sure that no
existing file has the same name. Then, we add a new entry at the end of
the directory.

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5) To delete a file we search the directory for the named file, then release the
space allocated to it.
6) To reuse directory entry, we can do one of several things.
7) We can mark the entry as unused or we can attach it to a list of free
directory entries.
Disadvantage:- the disadvantage of a linear list of directory entries is
the linear search to find a file.

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UNIT VIII

MASS-STORAGE STRUCTURE
Mass-Storage Systems
nDescribe the physical structure of secondary and tertiary storage devices and
the resulting effects on the uses of the devices nExplain the performance
characteristics of mass-storage devices nDiscuss operating-system services
provided for mass storage, including RAID and HSM
8.1:Overview of Mass Storage Structure
Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern
computers Drives rotate at 60 to 200 times per second
Transfer rate is rate at which data flow between drive and computer
Positioning time (random-access time) is time to move disk arm to desired cylinder
(seek time) and time for desired sector to rotate under the disk head (rotational
latency) Head crash results from disk head making contact with the disk surface
That’s bad
Disks can be removable
Drive attached to computer via I/O bus
Busses vary, including EIDE, ATA, SATA, USB, Fibre Channel, SCSI
Host controller in computer uses bus to talk to disk controller built into drive or storage
array
Moving-head Disk Mechanism

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Magnetic tape
Was early secondary-storage medium
Relatively permanent and holds large quantities of
data Access time slow
Random access ~1000 times slower than disk
Mainly used for backup, storage of infrequently-used data, transfer
medium between systems
Kept in spool and wound or rewound past read-write head
Once data under head, transfer rates comparable to disk
20-200GB typical storage
Common technologies are 4mm, 8mm, 19mm, LTO-2 and SDLT
8.2:Disk Structure
Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays of logical
blocks, where the logical block is the smallest unit of transfer nThe 1-dimensional
array of logical blocks is mapped into the sectors of the disk sequentially Sector
0 is the first sector of the first track on the outermost cylinder
Mapping proceeds in order through that track, then the rest of the tracks in that
cylinder, and then through the rest of the cylinders from outermost to innermost
8.3:Disk Attachment
Host-attached storage accessed through I/O ports talking to I/O busses
SCSI itself is a bus, up to 16 devices on one cable, SCSI initiator
requests operation and SCSI targets perform tasks
Each target can have up to 8 logical units (disks attached to device
controller FC is high-speed serial architecture
Can be switched fabric with 24-bit address space – the basis of storage
area networks (SANs) in which many hosts attach to many storage units
Can be arbitrated loop (FC-AL) of 126 devices
Network-Attached Storage
Network-attached storage (NAS) is storage made available over a
network rather than over a local connection (such as a bus) NFS and
CIFS are common protocols
Implemented via remote procedure calls (RPCs) between host and storage
New iSCSI protocol uses IP network to carry the SCSI protocol

Storage Area Network

Common in large storage environments (and becoming more common)
Multiple hosts attached to multiple storage arrays – flexible

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8.4:Disk Scheduling
The operating system is responsible for using hardware efficiently — for the disk
drives, this means having a fast access time and disk bandwidth Access time
has two major components
Seek time is the time for the disk are to move the heads to the
cylinder containing the desired sector
Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired
sector to the disk head
Minimize seek time
Seek time » seek distance
Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the total
time between the first request for service and the completion of the last transfer
Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O requests nWe
illustrate them with a request queue (0-199) 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

Head pointer 53
FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders

SSTF
Selects the request with the minimum seek time from the current head
position SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may cause starvation
of some requests
nIllustration shows total head movement of 236 cylinders
SCAN
The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end,
servicing requests until it gets to the other end of the disk, where the head
movement is reversed and servicing continues.nSCAN algorithm Sometimes
called the elevator algorithm

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Illustration shows total head movement of 208 cylinders
C-SCAN
Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN
The head moves from one end of the disk to the other, servicing requests as it
goes
When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning
of the disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip
Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the last cylinder to
the first one
C-LOOK
Version of C-SCAN
Arm only goes as far as the last request in each direction, then reverses
direction immediately, without first going all the way to the end of the disk
Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm
SSTF is common and has a natural appeal
SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that place a heavy load on
the disk
Performance depends on the number and types of requests
Requests for disk service can be influenced by the file-allocation method The
disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as a separate module of the
operating system, allowing it to be replaced with a different algorithm if
necessary Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default algorithm
Disk Management
Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a disk into sectors that
the disk controller can read and write
To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its own
data structures on the disk
Partition the disk into one or more groups of
cylinders Logical formatting or “making a file system”
To increase efficiency most file systems group blocks into clusters
Disk I/O done in blocks
File I/O done in clusters
Boot block initializes system
The bootstrap is stored in ROM
Bootstrap loader program
Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks
Booting from a Disk in Windows 2000

8.5:Swap-Space Management
Swap-space — Virtual memory uses disk space as an extension of main
memory
Swap-space can be carved out of the normal file system, or, more commonly, it
can be in a separate disk partition
Swap-space management
4.3BSD allocates swap space when process starts; holds text segment
(the program) and data segment
Kernel uses swap maps to track swap-space use
Solaris 2 allocates swap space only when a page is forced out of physical

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memory, not when the virtual memory page is first created
Data Structures for Swapping on Linux
Systems
RAID Structure
RAID – multiple disk drives provides reliability via redundancy nIncreases
the mean time to failurenFrequently combined with NVRAM to improve write
performance
RAID is arranged into six different levels
Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of multiple
disks working cooperativelynDisk striping uses a group of disks as one
storage unitnRAID schemes improve performance and improve the reliability
of the storage system by storing redundant data
Mirroring or shadowing (RAID 1) keeps duplicate of each disk
Striped mirrors (RAID 1+0) or mirrored stripes (RAID 0+1) provides high
performance and high reliabilitylBlock interleaved parity (RAID 4, 5, 6) uses much less redundancy
RAID within a storage array can still fail if the array fails, so automatic replication of the data
between arrays is common
Frequently, a small number of hot-spare disks are left unallocated, automatically
replacing a failed disk and having data rebuilt onto them
RAID (0 + 1) and (1 + 0)
Extensions
RAID alone does not prevent or detect data corruption or other errors, just
disk failures
Solaris ZFS adds checksums of all data and metadata
Checksums kept with pointer to object, to detect if object is the right one and
whether it changed
Can detect and correct data and metadata corruption
ZFS also removes volumes, partititions
Disks allocated in pools
Filesystems with a pool share that pool, use and release space like “malloc”
and “free” memory allocate / release calls
ZFS Checksums All Metadata and Data
Traditional and Pooled Storage
Stable-Storage Implementation
Write-ahead log scheme requires stable storage nTo implement stable storage:
Replicate information on more than one nonvolatile storage media with
independent failure modes
Update information in a controlled manner to ensure that we can recover the
stable data after any failure during data transfer or recovery
Tertiary Storage Devices
Low cost is the defining characteristic of tertiary storage nGenerally, tertiary
storage is built using removable medianCommon examples of removable media
are floppy disks and CD-ROMs; other types are available
Removable Disks
Floppy disk — thin flexible disk coated with magnetic material, enclosed in a
protective plastic caselMost floppies hold about 1 MB; similar technology is used
for removable disks that hold more than 1 GB
Removable magnetic disks can be nearly as fast as hard disks, but they are at
a greater risk of damage from exposure
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A magneto-optic disk records data on a rigid platter coated with magnetic
material
Laser heat is used to amplify a large, weak magnetic field to record a bit
Laser light is also used to read data (Kerr effect)
The magneto-optic head flies much farther from the disk surface than a magnetic
disk head, and the magnetic material is covered with a protective layer of plastic
or glass; resistant to head crashesnOptical disks do not use magnetism; they
employ special materials that are altered by laser light
WORM Disks
The data on read-write disks can be modified over and over
WORM (“Write Once, Read Many Times”) disks can be written only once
Thin aluminum film sandwiched between two glass or plastic platters
To write a bit, the drive uses a laser light to burn a small hole through the
aluminum; information can be destroyed by not altered
Very durable and reliable
Read-only disks, such ad CD-ROM and DVD, com from the factory with the data
pre-recorded
Tapes
Compared to a disk, a tape is less expensive and holds more data, but
random access is much slower
Tape is an economical medium for purposes that do not require fast random
access, e.g., backup copies of disk data, holding huge volumes of data
Large tape installations typically use robotic tape changers that move tapes
between tape drives and storage slots in a tape library stacker – library that
holds a few tapes
silo – library that holds thousands of tapes
A disk-resident file can be archived to tape for low cost storage; the computer
can stage it back into disk storage for active use
Operating System Support
nMajor OS jobs are to manage physical devices and to present a virtual machine
abstraction to applicationsnFor hard disks, the OS provides two abstraction:
Raw device – an array of data blockslFile system – the OS queues and schedules the interleaved
requests from
several applications
Application Interface
Most OSs handle removable disks almost exactly like fixed disks — a new
cartridge is formatted and an empty file system is generated on the disk Tapes
are presented as a raw storage medium, i.e., and application does not not open
a file on the tape, it opens the whole tape drive as a raw device Usually the
tape drive is reserved for the exclusive use of that application Since the OS
does not provide file system services, the application must decide how to use
the array of blocks
Since every application makes up its own rules for how to organize a tape,
a tape full of data can generally only be used by the program that created it
Tape Drives
The basic operations for a tape drive differ from those of a disk drive
locate() positions the tape to a specific logical block, not an entire track
(corresponds to seek())
The read position() operation returns the logical block number where the

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tape head is
The space() operation enables relative motion
Tape drives are “append-only” devices; updating a block in the middle of the
tape also effectively erases everything beyond that block An EOT mark is
placed after a block that is written
File Naming
The issue of naming files on removable media is especially difficult when we
want to write data on a removable cartridge on one computer, and then use the
cartridge in another computer
Contemporary OSs generally leave the name space problem unsolved for
removable media, and depend on applications and users to figure out how to
access and interpret the data
Some kinds of removable media (e.g., CDs) are so well standardized that
all computers use them the same way
(Hierarchical Storage Management HSM)
A hierarchical storage system extends the storage hierarchy beyond
primary memory and secondary storage to incorporate tertiary storage —
usually implemented as a jukebox of tapes or removable disks
Usually incorporate tertiary storage by extending the file system
Small and frequently used files remain on disk
Large, old, inactive files are archived to the jukebox
HSM is usually found in supercomputing centers and other large installations
that have enormous volumes of data
Speed
Two aspects of speed in tertiary storage are bandwidth and latency nBandwidth
is measured in bytes per second
Sustained bandwidth – average data rate during a large transfer; # of
bytes/transfer time
Data rate when the data stream is actually flowing
Effective bandwidth – average over the entire I/O time, including seek() or
locate(), and cartridge switching
Drive’s overall data rate
Access latency – amount of time needed to locate data
Access time for a disk – move the arm to the selected cylinder and wait for the
rotational latency; < 35 milliseconds
Access on tape requires winding the tape reels until the selected block reaches
the tape head; tens or hundreds of seconds
Generally say that random access within a tape cartridge is about a thousand
times slower than random access on disk
The low cost of tertiary storage is a result of having many cheap cartridges
share a few expensive drives
A removable library is best devoted to the storage of infrequently used data,
because the library can only satisfy a relatively small number of I/O requests
per hour
Reliability
A fixed disk drive is likely to be more reliable than a removable disk or tape
drivenAn optical cartridge is likely to be more reliable than a magnetic disk or
tapenA head crash in a fixed hard disk generally destroys the data, whereas the
failure of a tape drive or optical disk drive often leaves the data cartridge

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unharmed
Cost
Main memory is much more expensive than disk storage nThe cost per
megabyte of hard disk storage is competitive with magnetic tape if only one tape
is used per drivenThe cheapest tape drives and the cheapest disk drives have
had about the same storage capacity over the years nTertiary storage gives a
cost savings only when the number of cartridges is considerably larger than the
number of drives

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