Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs)

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) uses a cathode ray tube to produce visible graphical
representations of electrical signals. An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to
look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen.
It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with
time. The divisions of the screen grid enable the user to take measurements of voltage and time
from the screen.

The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor
coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a
television picture is produced.

Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit
electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly down the
tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes
to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right.

The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the
oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.

The circuit symbol for an Oscilloscope

A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to easily compare
the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the modest extra cost to
have this facility.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The graphs produced consist of a horizontal axis which is normally a function of time, and a
vertical axis which is a function of the input voltage.

Many physical quantities can be converted into a corresponding electric voltage. The
oscilloscope is a useful tool in many physics experiments.

The components in a cathode ray tube consist of a vacuum glass tube with an electron gun, a
deflection system for deflecting the electron beam, and a fluorescent coated screen.

Electron gun

In a cathode ray tube, a beam of electrons is produced by heating the filament with a small
voltage supply. The power supply can be AC or DC. The electron beam emerging from the
electron gun passes between two pairs of deflection plates, i.e. X and Y - plates mounted
horizontally and vertically.

The electron gun assembly consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid surrounding
the cathode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode. The sole function of the electron gun
assembly is to provide a focused electron beam which is accelerated towards the phosphor
screen. The cathode is a nickel cylinder coated with an oxide coating and emits plenty of
electrons, when heated. The emitting surface of the cathode should be as small as possible,
theoretically a point. Rate of emission of electrons or say the intensity of electron beam depends
on the cathode current, which can be controlled by the control grid |n a manner similar to a
conventional vacuum tube. The control grid is a metal cylinder covered at one end but with a
small hole in the cover. The grid is kept at negative potential (variable) with respect to cathode
and its function is to vary the electron emission and so the brilliancy of the spot on the phosphor
screen. The hole in the grid is provided to allow passage for electrons through it and concentrate
the beam of electrons along the axis of tube. Electron beam comes out from the control grid
through a small hole in it and enters a pre-accelerating anode, which is a hollow cylinder in
shape and is at a potential of few hundred volts more positive than the cathode so as to accelerate
the electron beam in the electric field. This accelerated beam would be scattered now because of
variations in energy and would produce a broad ill-defined spot on the screen. This electron
beam is focused on the screen by an electrostatic lens consisting of two more cylindrical anodes
called the focusing anode and accelerating anode apart from the pre-accelerating anode. The
focusing and accelerating anodes may be open or close at both ends and if covered, holes must
be provided in the anode cover for the passage of electrons. The function of these anodes is to
concentrate and focus the beam on the screen and also to accelerate the speed of electrons.

Deflection system

Electron beam, after leaving the electron gun, passes through the two pairs of deflection pates.
One pair of deflection plates is mounted vertically and deflects the beam in horizontal or X-
direction and so called the horizontal or l-plates and the other pair is mounted horizontally and
deflects the beam in vertical or Y-direction and called the vertical or Y-plates. These plates are to
deflect the beam according to the voltage applied across them. For example if a constant pd is
applied to the set of Y-plates, the electron beam will be deflected upward if the upper plate is
positive. In case the lower plate is positive then the beam will be deflected downward. Similarly
if a constant pd is applied to the set of X-plates, the electron beam will be deflected to the left or
right of the tube axis according to the condition whether the left or right plate is positive. When a
sinusoidal voltage is applied to Y-plates, the beam will be moved up and down according to the
variation of plate potential. If the frequency of variation is more than 16 Hz the deflection will be
a vertical line in the centre of the screen. In case the sinusoidal voltage is applied to X-plates and
frequency of variation is more than 16 Hz the deflection will be a horizontal line. If potentials are
applied to both sets of plates simultaneously, the deflection will be an oblique line. The amount
of deflection is in proportion to the voltage applied to the pair of plates.

CRO has a fluorescent screen. When the screen is struck by a beam of electrons, wave forms will
be traced out on the screen. The kinetic energy of the electrons is changed to light energy.

There is a bright spot on the screen when the beam strikes. By changing the vertical gain on the
Y-plates, the beam is deflected vertically. The beam can be moved up and down and if it moves
fast enough, the dots will appear as a line.

When an AC supply is connected to the Y-plates, the electron beam will move vertically. The
amount of vertical movement can be amplified by increasing gain control. The vertical
movement of the electron depends on the vertical gain control and it can be adjusted, using the
VOLTS/DIV control. The control is adjusted so that the resulting display is neither too small nor
too large, but it fits the screen.

The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produced a left to right movement. The movement is
produced by a circuit called the time base inside the oscilloscope. The time base produces a saw
tooth wave form. During the rising phase (the rising line) of the voltage, the spot is driven at a
uniform rate from left to right across the screen. During the falling phase, (the straight vertical
line downwards) the electron beam returns rapidly from right to left.
As we know that some crystalline materials, such a phosphor, have property of emitting light
when exposed to radiation. This is called the fluorescence characteristic of the materials. These
fluorescent materials continue to emit light even after radiation exposure is cut off. This is called
the phosphorescence characteristic of the materials. The length of time during which
phosphorescence occurs is called the persistence of the phosphor. The end wall of the CRT,
called the screen, is coated with phosphor. When electron beam strikes the CRT screen, a spot of
light is produced on the screen. The phosphor absorbs the kinetic energy of the bombarding
electrons and emits energy at a lower frequency in a visual spectrum. Among the fluorescent
materials used are zinc orthosilicate giving a green trace very suitable for visual observations;
calcium tungstate giving blue and ultra-violet radiations very suitable for photography and zinc
sulphide with other materials giving a white light suitable for TV. Zinc phosphate gives a
pronounced afterglow and is useful when studying transient phenomena because the trace
persists for short while after the transient has disappeared.

Deflection of Moving Electrons in CRO Tubes

We know that a force is experienced by an electron when it is kept in a uniform electric field.
This principle is the basis for the deflection of electron beam owing to deflection plates. Let us
consider an electron having initial velocity of u m/s along X-axis at point O in the space between
the plates A and B, each of length l metres and separated by a distance of d metres. Let the p.d
across the plates be of V volts. For simplicity, let us assume that the field is uniform and does not
extend beyond the ends of the plates. Axial velocity of electron remains unchanged and is equal
to u as there is no axial force and, therefore, no axial acceleration.

Glass Body and Base

The whole assembly is protected in conical highly evacuated glass housing through suitable
supports. The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are usually coated with a conducting
material known as aquadag and this coating is electrically connected to the accelerating anode.
The coating is provided in order to accelerate the electron beam after passing between the
deflecting plates and to collect the electrons produced by secondary emission when electron
beam strikes the screen. Thus the coating prevents the formation of negative charge on the screen
and state of equilibrium of screen is maintained. Horizontal and vertical marks are marked on the
screen of the CRT to provide user a correct measurement. These marks, usually in rectangular
form, are called graticule.

Fundamental Operation Concept of a CRO

This can be explained basing on the thermionic emission.

Electrons are attracted to the nucleus of an atom. There is a strong attractive force between the
electrons and the positive charges of the nucleus. In order to move these electrons farther from
the atom, energy is needed. This can be done by heating a metal using electric current. We can
look at a vacuum diode and see how electrons move between the cathode and anode.

Thermionic emission

A vacuum diode consists of a glass bulb containing two electrodes. One electrode is called the
anode and the other is the cathode. The cathode is made up of tungsten filament. The cathode can
be heated by a small current connected to the filament. This filament when heated will release
electrons from its surface. These electrons can be attracted to the anode when there is a high
potential difference applied between the anode and the cathode.

The filament is connected to an external battery (usually). When it is heated, a large number of
electrons are free to move. As a result, a cloud of electrons is found outside the metal surface of
the filament. Many of these electrons are held back by the attractive force of the atomic nucleus.
Some of the electrons gained enough energy and escape from its surface. This effect is called
thermionic emission.
Thus, Thermionic emission can be defined as the escape of high energy electrons from the
surface of a tungsten filament.

Thermionic emission can be used to produce a continuous flow of electrons in a cathode ray
tube. When the cathode is connected to the anode by an extra high tension (EHT) voltage supply,
a narrow beam of fast electrons will move to the anode. The beam of electrons moving from the
cathode to the anode is called cathode rays.

Thus, Cathode ray is the beam of electrons moving from the cathode to the anode in a cathode
ray tube.

Setting up an oscilloscope

Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set up
and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set wrongly!
There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls so the following
instructions may need to be adapted for your instrument.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the timebase VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle
of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use!

This is what you should be seen on the screen after setting up, when
there is no input signal connected

Connecting an oscilloscope
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead and the diagram shows its
construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V) to
shield the signal from electrical interference (usually called noise).

Construction of a co-axial lead

Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected with a push and
twist action, to disconnect you need to twist and pull. Oscilloscopes used in schools may have
red and black 4mm sockets so that ordinary, unscreened, 4mm plug leads can be used if
necessary.

Professionals use a specially designed lead and probes kit for best results with high frequency
signals and when testing high resistance circuits, but this is not essential for simpler work at
audio frequencies (up to 20 kHz).

An oscilloscope is connected like a Voltmeter but you must be aware that the screen (black)
connection of the input lead is connected to mains earth at the oscilloscope! This means it must
be connected to earth or 0V on the circuit being tested.

Examples of Oscilloscope lead and probes kit

Obtaining a clear and stable trace

Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish to test you will need to adjust
the controls to obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen:
 The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace. Choose a
setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off the
screen.
 The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps
across the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal
across the screen.
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the timebase
setting is not critical.
 The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy signal such as the
output from an AC power pack set to about 4V.

The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set

Measuring voltage and time period

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph
is determined by the nature of the input signal.

In addition to the properties labeled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of
cycles per second.

The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.

 Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V.

 Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
 Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope
trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in
seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds
(µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.
1 1
frequency = and time period =
time period frequency
Voltage

Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y AMPLIFIER
(VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can be read correctly
even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak voltage.

The trace of an AC signal

If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you must check the position of 0V (normally
halfway up the screen): move the AC/GND/DC switch to GND (0V) and use Y-SHIFT
(up/down) to adjust the position of the trace if necessary, switch back to DC afterwards so you
can see the signal again.
Example: Y AMPLIFIER: 2V/cm TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm

Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm

Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm × 2V/cm = 8.4V amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ × peak-
peak voltage = 4.2V

Time period

Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the TIMEBASE
(TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle of the
signal. The frequency is the number of cyles per second, frequency = 1/time period

Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before attempting to take
a time reading.

Time = distance in cm × time/cm

Example: time period = 4.0cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz

Timebase (time/cm) and trigger controls

The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across the screen from left to right at a steady speed
set by the TIMEBASE control. Each setting is labelled with the time the dot takes to move 1cm,
effectively it is setting the scale on the x-axis. The timebase control may be labelled TIME/CM.

At slow timebase settings (such as 50ms/cm) you can see a dot moving across the screen but at
faster settings (such as 1ms/cm) the dot is moving so fast that it appears to be a line.

The VARIABLE timebase control can be turned to make a fine adjustment to the speed, but it
must be left at the position labeled 1 or CAL (calibrated) if you wish to take time readings from
the trace drawn on the screen.

A Slow timebase indicates no input (shows the dot moving across)

The TRIGGER controls are used to maintain a steady trace on the screen. If they are set wrongly
you may see a trace drifting sideways, a confusing 'scribble' on the screen, or no trace at all! The
trigger maintains a steady trace by starting the dot sweeping across the screen when the input
signal reaches the same point in its cycle each time.
For straightforward use it is best to leave the trigger level set to AUTO, but if you have difficulty
obtaining a steady trace try adjusting this control to set the level manually.

The dot is too fast to see so it appears to be a line

Y amplifier (volts/cm) control

The oscilloscope moves the trace up and down in proportion to the voltage at the Y INPUT and
the setting of the Y AMPLIFIER control. This control sets the voltage represented by each
centimetre (cm) on the screen, effectively it is setting the scale on the y-axis. Positive voltages
make the trace move up, negative voltages make it move down.

The amplifier control may be labeled Y-GAIN or VOLTS/CM.

The input voltage moving the dot up and down at the same time as the dot is swept across the
screen means that the trace on the screen is a graph of voltage (y-axis) against time (x-axis) for
the input signal.
 Varying DC (always positive)

The AC/GND/DC switch

The normal setting for this switch is DC for all signals, including AC! Switching to GND
(ground) connects the y input to 0V and allows you to quickly check the position of 0V on the
screen (normally halfway up). There is no need to disconnect the input lead while you do this
because it is disconnected internally.

Switching to GND allows you to quickly check the position of 0V

(normally halfway up)
Switching to AC inserts a capacitor in series with the input to block out any DC signal present
and pass only AC signals. This is used to examine signals showing a small variation around one
constant value, such as the ripple on the output of a smooth DC supply. Reducing the
VOLTS/CM to see more detail of the ripple would normally take the trace off the screen! The
AC setting removes the constant (DC) part of the signal, allowing you to view just the varying
(AC) part which can now be examined more closely by reducing the VOLTS/CM. This is shown
in the diagrams below:

Displaying a ripple signal using the AC switch

Switch in normal DC position. The ripple is difficult to see, but if

VOLTS/CM is reduced to enlarge it the trace will disappear off the screen!
 Switch moved to AC position. The constant (DC) part of the signal
is removed, leaving just the ripple (AC) part.

VOLTS/CM reduced to enlarge the ripple. The ripple can now be

examined more closely.