CHARGE CARRIER GENERATION/RECOMBINATION

GENERATION: process where electrons and holes are created At thermal equilibrium electrons are
continually excited from valence to
RECOMBINATION: process where electrons and holes annihilates conduction band by random thermal process

At thermal equilibrium:

𝐺𝑛0 = 𝐺𝑝0 thermal-generation rates of electrons and

holes [# cm-3 s-1]
Considering direct band-to-band generation, the electrons
and holes are created in pairs

𝑅𝑛0 = 𝑅𝑝0 recombination rates of electrons and holes

In direct band-to-band recombination, the electrons and holes

recombine in pairs

𝐺𝑛0 = 𝐺𝑝0 = 𝑅𝑛0 = 𝑅𝑝0 In thermal equilibrium the concentration of holes/electrons in

a semiconductors are independent of time→their
generation/recombination rates are equal
 CHARGE CARRIER GENERATION/RECOMBINATION – NON EQUILIBRIUM

When an external stimulus (e.g. high energy photon impinging in the SC) is applied to the SC additional
electron-hole pairs are created in the SC.

→ Excess holes in the VB and excess electrons in the CB

𝑔𝑛′ = 𝑔𝑝′ generation rates of excess electrons and holes [#

cm-3 s-1] generated by an external force

Considering direct band-to-band generation, also the excess

electrons and holes are created in pairs

Upon the formation of excess carrier pairs, the concentration of electrons/holes in CB/VB will vary:

𝑛 = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛, 𝛿𝑝: Excess electron and hole concentration

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝
In non-equilibrium condition: 𝑛𝑝 ≠ 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖2
CHARGE CARRIER GENERATION/RECOMBINATION – NON EQUILIBRIUM

In steady-state also recombination of excess carriers takes

place to re-estabilish thermal equilibrium with a rate:

𝑅𝑛′ = 𝑅𝑝′ Excess carriers recombine in pairs

Since the band-to-band recombination occurs spontaneously,

the probability of recombination is constant with time and the
rate must be proportional to electron/hole concentration

𝑑𝑛(𝑡)
= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑝(𝑡) Net rate of change in the electron concentration
𝑑𝑡

𝑛(𝑡) = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛(𝑡) 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑝(𝑡) Since excess carriers are created in pairs

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝(𝑡) 𝑛0 , 𝑝0 are time independent

𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 Is the thermal equilibrium generation/recombination rate (independent of time)

CHARGE CARRIER GENERATION/RECOMBINATION – NON EQUILIBRIUM

𝑑𝑛(𝑡) 𝑛(𝑡) = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛(𝑡) 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑝(𝑡)

= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑝(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝(𝑡) 𝑛0 , 𝑝0 are time independent

𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − (𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )(𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑛𝑖2 = 𝑛0 𝑝0
𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝑛0 𝑝0 − 𝑝0 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑛0 𝛿𝑝 𝑡 − 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 𝛿𝑝 𝑡 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑝(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 (𝑝0 + 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
= −𝛼𝑟 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 𝑝0 + 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
CHARGE CARRIER GENERATION/RECOMBINATION – NON EQUILIBRIUM

𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
= −𝛼𝑟 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 𝑝0 + 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Low-level injection condition: the excess charge carrier concentration is much less than the thermal majority
carrier concentration

For a p-type SC (𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0 ): 𝛿𝑛(𝑡) ≪ 𝑝0

𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
≈ −𝛼𝑟 𝑝0 𝛿𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑛 0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑟 𝑝0𝑡 = 𝛿𝑛 0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏𝑛0 Decay of minority carrier electrons from initial excess concentration

1
𝜏𝑛0 = Excess minority carrier lifetime (constant for low-level injection)
𝛼𝑟 𝑝0
CHARGE CARRIER GENERATION/RECOMBINATION – NON EQUILIBRIUM

𝑑(𝛿𝑛 𝑡 )
≈ −𝛼𝑟 𝑝0 𝛿𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 𝛿𝑛 𝑡
𝑅𝑛′ = − = 𝛼𝑟 𝑝0 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = Recombination rate of excess minority carrier electrons
𝑑𝑡 𝜏𝑛0

𝛿𝑛 𝑡 In a p-type SC, for the direct band-to-band recombination, majority holes and
𝑅𝑛′ = 𝑅𝑝′ =
𝜏𝑛0 minority electrons recombine with the same rate

For a n-type SC (𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0 ): 𝛿𝑛(𝑡) ≪ 𝑛0

𝛿𝑛 𝑡
𝑅𝑛′ = 𝑅𝑝′ =
𝜏𝑝0

1
𝜏𝑝0 = Excess minority hole lifetime (constant for low-level injection)
𝛼𝑟 𝑛0
 NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – CONTINUITY EQUATIONS

Let’s consider a 1D hole carrier flux going throughout a differential

volume element, entering at x coordinate and leaving the element at
x+dx

+
𝜕𝐹𝑝𝑥 → Taylor expansion of
+
𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = +
𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 for small 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑥

𝜕𝐹 + Net increase of hole concentration in the

𝜕𝑝 + 𝑥 − 𝐹 + 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑝𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 differential volume element due to the hole flux
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
in x direction

+ 𝑥 > 𝐹 + 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 →
𝜕𝑝
If: 𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 > 0 The hole concentration increases in the differential volume element
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑝
In 3D: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = −∇ ∙ 𝐹𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 In the following we will limit to the 1D case
𝜕𝑡
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – CONTINUITY EQUATIONS
+
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝐹𝑝𝑥
Taking into account also the effect of generation and recombination rates: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
+
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑔𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡
Due to… hole flux generation recombination
of holes of holes

+
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑝
=− + 𝑔𝑝 − Continuity equation for holes (1D)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡

−
𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝐹𝑛𝑥 𝑛
=− + 𝑔𝑛 − Continuity equation for electrons (1D)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡

− : Electron flux in 1D
𝐹𝑛𝑥
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – TIME-DEPENDENT DIFFUSION EQUATIONS
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑛
𝐽𝑝 = 𝑒𝜇𝑝 𝑝E − 𝑒𝐷𝑝 𝐽𝑛 = 𝑒𝜇𝑛 𝑛E + 𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝐽𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝐹𝑝+ = = 𝜇𝑝 𝑝E − 𝐷𝑝 → hole/electron fluxes as function of current density
(+𝑒) 𝜕𝑥
Continuity equations
+
−
𝐽𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝐹𝑝𝑥 𝑝 𝜕𝑛 −
𝜕𝐹𝑛𝑥 𝑛
𝐹𝑛 = = −𝜇𝑛 𝑛E − 𝐷𝑛 =− + 𝑔𝑝 − ; =− + 𝑔𝑛 −
(−𝑒) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡

𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑝E 𝜕2𝑝 𝑝 𝜕 𝑝E 𝜕𝑝 𝜕E
= −𝜇𝑝 + 𝐷𝑝 2 + 𝑔𝑝 − =E +𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
In 1D
𝜕𝑛 𝜕 𝑛E 𝜕2𝑛 𝑛 𝜕 𝑛E 𝜕𝑛 𝜕E
= +𝜇𝑛 + 𝐷𝑛 2 + 𝑔𝑛 − =E +𝑛
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – TIME-DEPENDENT DIFFUSION EQUATIONS
𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑝E 𝜕2𝑝 𝑝 𝜕 𝑝E 𝜕𝑝 𝜕E
= −𝜇𝑝 + 𝐷𝑝 2 + 𝑔𝑝 − =E +𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
In 1D
2
𝜕𝑛 𝜕 𝑛E 𝜕 𝑛 𝑛 𝜕 𝑛E 𝜕𝑛 𝜕E
= +𝜇𝑛 + 𝐷𝑛 2 + 𝑔𝑛 − =E +𝑛
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕E 𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝐷𝑝 2 − 𝜇𝑝 E +𝑝 + 𝑔𝑝 − = Time-dependent
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡 𝜕𝑡
diffusion equations 𝑛(𝑡) = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛(𝑡)
for holes and
𝜕2𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝜕E 𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝(𝑡)
𝐷𝑛 2 + 𝜇𝑛 E +𝑛 + 𝑔𝑛 − = electrons
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑛0 , 𝑝0 are time independent and
also space independent for
𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑝) 𝜕(𝛿𝑝) 𝜕E 𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝) homogeneous SC
𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇𝑝 E +𝑝 +𝑔𝑝 − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡 𝜕𝑡
As function of excess carrier concentration
𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜕E 𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
𝐷𝑛 + 𝜇𝑛 E +𝑛 + 𝑔𝑛 − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑡
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

The excess holes and electrons will tend to drift to opposite directions upon the application of an external
electric field.

→ This separation between negative and positive charges will induce an internal electric field E𝑖𝑛𝑡

→ Such E𝑖𝑛𝑡 will attract electrons and holes back toward each other. The pulses of excess electrons and
holes are hold toghether by such field and will drift/diffuse toghether with a single effective
mobility/diffusion coefficient

AMBIPOLAR TRASPORT

The relation between such internal field and the excess carrier concentration is:

𝑒 𝛿𝑝 − 𝛿𝑛 𝜕E𝑖𝑛𝑡
∇ ∙ E𝑖𝑛𝑡 = = 𝜖𝑠 : permittivity of the SC
𝜖𝑠 𝜕𝑥
POISSON’s EQUATION
 NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

We saw that also in nonequilibrium condition the generation and recombination rates for electrons and
holes are equal:

𝑔𝑛 = 𝑔𝑝 = 𝑔
𝑛 𝑝
𝑅𝑛 = 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑝 = 𝜏 =𝑅
𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑡 𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑝) 𝜕 𝛿𝑝 𝜕E 𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝)
𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇 𝑝 E + 𝑝 + 𝑔𝑝 − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝𝑡 𝜕𝑡
For charge neutrality condition: 𝛿𝑛 ≈ 𝛿𝑝
𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜕E 𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
𝐷𝑛 + 𝜇 𝑛 E + 𝑛 + 𝑔𝑛 − =
𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝜕E 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇𝑝 E +𝑝 +𝑔−𝑅 = 1
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜕E 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)

𝐷𝑛 + 𝜇𝑛 E +𝑛 +𝑔−𝑅 = 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜇𝑛 𝑛 1 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 2
 NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT
𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝜕E 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇 𝑝 E + 𝑝 + 𝑔 − 𝑅 = 1
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜕E 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜇𝑛 𝑛 1 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 2
𝐷𝑛 + 𝜇 𝑛 E + 𝑛 + 𝑔 − 𝑅 = 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝜕E 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝜕E
(𝜇𝑛 𝑛𝐷𝑝 +𝜇𝑝 𝑝𝐷𝑛 ) − 𝜇 𝜇
𝑝 𝑛 𝑛 E + 𝑝 + 𝜇 𝜇
𝑛 𝑝 𝑝 E + 𝑛
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
+ (𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝)(𝑔 − 𝑅) = (𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2 (𝛿𝑛) 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
(𝜇𝑛 𝑛𝐷𝑝 +𝜇𝑝 𝑝𝐷𝑛 ) + (𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 )(𝑝 − 𝑛)E + (𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝)(𝑔 − 𝑅) = (𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜇𝑛 𝑛𝐷𝑝 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝𝐷𝑛 Ambipolar Diffusion

𝜕2𝛿𝑛 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑛) 𝐷′ =
𝐷′ + 𝜇′E +𝑔−𝑅 = Ambipolar 𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 Coefficient
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 Transport Equation
(𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 )(𝑝 − 𝑛) Ambipolar
𝜇′ =
𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 Mobility
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT
𝜇𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝑛𝐷𝑝 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝𝐷𝑛
𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 𝑘𝑇 𝜇𝑛 𝐷𝑝 = 𝜇𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝜇𝑛 = 𝐷′ =
= = Einstein Relation 𝐷𝑝 𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝
𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝 𝑒

𝜇𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑛
𝜇𝑛 𝑛𝐷𝑝 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝𝐷𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝐷𝑝 (𝑛 + 𝑝) 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑝 (𝑛 + 𝑝) 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑝 (𝑛 + 𝑝)
′
𝐷 = = = =
𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 𝜇𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑛
𝐷𝑝 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝑛 + 𝑝

𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 (𝑛 + 𝑝) D’ and 𝜇’ are function of n and p, that depend

𝐷′ = on the excess carrier concentration.
𝐷𝑛 𝑛 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑝
→ They are not constant

𝑛 = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛
𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 + 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑛
𝐷′ = 𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑛
𝐷𝑛 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑛
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT
𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 + 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝
𝐷′ =
𝐷𝑛 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝

(𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 ) 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝 − (𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛)

𝜇′ =
𝜇𝑛 (𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛) + 𝜇𝑝 (𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝) (𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 )(𝑝 − 𝑛)
𝜇′ =
𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇 𝑝 𝑝

For a p-type SC: 𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0

For low-level injection: 𝛿𝑛 ≪ 𝑝0

Assuming: 𝐷𝑛 ≈ 𝐷𝑝
𝐷𝑛2 𝑝0
𝐷′ = = 𝐷𝑛 For extrinsic p-type SC, with low-level injection, the ambipolar diffusion
𝐷𝑛 𝑝0
coefficient and the ambipolar mobility are those of the minority-carrier
𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 𝑝0 electron, that are constants.
𝜇′ = = 𝜇𝑛
𝜇𝑝 𝑝0
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT
𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 + 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝
𝐷′ =
𝐷𝑛 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝

(𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 ) 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝 − (𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛)

𝜇′ =
𝜇𝑛 (𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛) + 𝜇𝑝 (𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝) (𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 )(𝑝 − 𝑛)
𝜇′ =
𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇 𝑝 𝑝

For a n-type SC: 𝑛0 ≫ 𝑝0

For low-level injection: 𝛿𝑛 ≪ 𝑛0

Assuming: 𝐷𝑛 ≈ 𝐷𝑝

𝐷 2𝑛
𝑝 0
𝐷′ = = 𝐷𝑝 For extrinsic n-type SC, with low-level injection, the ambipolar diffusion
𝐷𝑝 𝑛0
coefficient and the ambipolar mobility are those of the minority-carrier hole,
𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑛 𝑛0 that are constants.
𝜇′ =− = −𝜇𝑝
𝜇𝑛 𝑛0
 NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

If we consider extrinsic semiconductors and low-level injection:

→ The concentration of majority carriers can be considered constant, even when excess carriers are present

→ The minority charge lifetime is constant since the probability to recombine with a majority carrier, i.e. its
inverse, is constant (e.g. for a p-type SC: 𝜏𝑛0 = 𝜏𝑛𝑡 )

→ The minority charge concentration can change a lot even with low injection→ majority carrier lifetime
may change drastically when excess carriers are present since the probability per unit time of a majority
carrier encountering a minority carrier may change drastically

For electrons 𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝑔𝑛 − 𝑅𝑛 = 𝐺𝑛0 + 𝑔𝑛′ − 𝑅𝑛0 + 𝑅𝑛′

in ambipolar transport:
Thermal equilibrium electron generation Excess electron generation and
and recombination rates: 𝐺𝑛0 = 𝑅𝑛0 recombination rates.

𝛿𝑛
𝑔−𝑅 = 𝑔𝑛′ − 𝑅𝑛′ = 𝑔𝑛′ − 𝜏𝑛 : excess minority carrier lifetime
𝜏𝑛
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

For holes
in ambipolar transport: 𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝑔𝑝 − 𝑅𝑝 = 𝐺𝑝0 + 𝑔𝑝′ − 𝑅𝑝0 + 𝑅𝑝′

Thermal equilibrium hole generation and Excess hole generation and

recombination rates: 𝐺𝑝0 = 𝑅𝑝0 recombination rates.

𝛿𝑝
𝑔−𝑅 = 𝑔𝑝′ − 𝑅𝑝′ = 𝑔𝑝′ − 𝜏𝑝 : excess minority carrier lifetime
𝜏𝑝

𝑔𝑝′ = 𝑔𝑛′ = 𝑔′ → The term (𝑔 − 𝑅) in the ambipolar transport equation can be written
in terms of minority carrier parameters

p-type n-type
𝐷′ = 𝐷𝑛 𝐷′ = 𝐷𝑝
𝜇′ = 𝜇𝑛 𝜇′ = −𝜇𝑝
 NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
p-type SC: 𝐷𝑛 + 𝜇𝑛 E + 𝑔′ − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛0 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝)
n-type SC: 𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇𝑝 E + 𝑔′ − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑡

Ambipolar transport equation for extrinsic SC under low-injection

→ It describes the drift, diffusion, and recombination of excess minority carriers as a function of spatial coordinates
and as a function of time.

→ we had imposed the condition of charge neutrality; the excess minority carrier concentration is equal to the excess
majority carrier concentration

→ The excess majority carriers, diffuse and drift with the excess minority carriers; thus, the behavior of the excess
majority carrier is determined by the minority carrier parameters.

→ This ambipolar phenomenon is the basis for describing the characteristics and behavior of semiconductor devices.
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

Considering a homogeneous n-type SC with a zero applied electric field.

Nd=1016 cm-3

At t=0: a uniform excess carrier concentration of 𝛿𝑝 0 =1014 cm-3 exists in the SC (𝛿𝑝 0 ≪ 𝑛0 = 𝑁𝑑 )

At t>0: g’=0 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝)

𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇 𝑝 E + 𝑔′ − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝)
𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇𝑝 E − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 𝛿𝑝
Assuming a uniform concentration of excess minority carrier: = =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝛿𝑝) 𝛿𝑝
=− At low-level injection condition → 𝜏𝑝0 is constant: 𝜏𝑝0 =10 ns
𝜕𝑡 𝜏𝑝0

−8
𝛿𝑝 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑝 0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0 =1014 𝑒 −𝑡/10 cm-3 The excess carriers (both minority and majority) recombine
exponentially with time, with a rate determined by the lifetime of
minority charge carriers
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

If at t≥0: a uniform generation rate 𝑔′ ≠ 0 of excess carrier concentration exists in the SC

𝜕(𝛿𝑝) 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝)
𝑔′ − = 𝐷𝑝 − 𝜇 E + 𝑔′ − =
𝜕𝑡 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑝
𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑡

𝛿𝑝 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑔′𝜏𝑝0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0

At 𝑡 → ∞ a steady-state excess carrier concentration exists:

𝜕(𝛿𝑝)
𝛿𝑝 𝑡 → ∞ = 𝑔′ 𝜏𝑝0 =0
𝜕𝑡

𝛿𝑝
𝑔′ = At the stady-state the generation rate is equal to the recombination rate
𝜏𝑝0
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

Consider a homogeneous p-type SC with a zero applied electric field.

Assume that excess carriers are being generated only at x=0 (1D
crystal), these will begin diffusing in both the -x and x directions

𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝜕 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
g’ = 0; E = 0 at x ≠ 0 𝐷𝑛 + 𝜇 𝑛 E + 𝑔′ − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛0 𝜕𝑡

𝜕(𝛿𝑛)
=0 at the steady-state
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛
𝐷𝑛 − =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏𝑛0

𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛
− = − =0 𝐿𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛0 Minority carrier electron diffusion length
𝜕𝑥 2 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛0 𝜕𝑥 2 𝐿2𝑛
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛
− 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝐿𝑛

𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = A𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑛 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝑛

𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = 0 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
𝐴=0 for 𝑥 < 0
𝛿𝑛 𝑥 → ±∞ = 0 ⇒ቊ
𝐵=0 for 𝑥 > 0

𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑛 0 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑛 for 𝑥 ≥ 0

𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑛 0 𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝑛 for 𝑥 ≤ 0

For the charge neutrality: 𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑝 𝑥

Also the majority carrier concentration decay spatially with
the minority carrier diffusion length
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑛 0 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑛 for 𝑥 ≥ 0

𝛿𝑛 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑛 0 𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝑛 for 𝑥 ≤ 0

For low-level injection condition:

𝛿𝑛 0 ≪ 𝑝0 The majority charge concentration

barely change with distance

𝛿𝑛 0 ≫ 𝑛0 Even in low-level injection

condition, the minority charge
concentration change by several
orders of magnitude
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

Consider a n-type SC with a constant applied electric field E0 in the +x direction

At t = 0 and x = 0: a finite excess charge carrier concentration is generated

At t > 0 g’ = 0

𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕(𝛿𝑝)
𝐷𝑝 + 𝜇𝑝 E0 − =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝0 𝜕𝑡

The solutions of this differential equation is:

2
− 𝑥−𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡
1 4𝐷𝑝 𝑡
𝛿𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 1/2
𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0 𝑒
(4𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡)
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

2
− 𝑥−𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡
1 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0 4𝐷𝑝 𝑡
𝛿𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒
(4𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡)1/2

When the applied electric field is zero (E0 = 0):

→ 𝑡 > 0: the excess minority carrier holes diffuse in both the -x

and x directions. The excess majority carrier electrons, which
were generated, diffuse at exactly the same rate as the holes.

→ As time proceeds, the excess holes recombine with the excess

electrons so that:
𝑡=∞ 𝛿𝑝 = 0 (the excess hole concentration is zero.)

→ both diffusion and recombination processes are occurring at

the same time
NONEQUILIBRIUM EXCESS CARRIERS – AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT

2
− 𝑥−𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡
1 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0 4𝐷𝑝 𝑡
𝛿𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒
(4𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡)1/2

If the electric field is not zero:

→ the pulse of excess minority carrier holes is drifting in the +x

direction, i.e. the direction of the electric field.

→ For the charge neutrality condition 𝛿𝑝 𝑡 = 𝛿𝑛 𝑡 the excess

electron pulse is moving in the same direction as the applied
electric field even though the electrons have a negative charge.

→ In the ambipolar transport process, the excess carriers are

characterized by the minority carrier parameters → the excess
carriers behave according to the minority carrier hole parameters

→ The excess majority carrier electrons are being pulled along by

the excess minority carrier holes.
HAYNES-SCHOKLEY EXPERIMENT

It is an hystorical experiment that measured for the first time the excess carrier transport parameters.

➢ The voltage source V1 establishes an applied

electric field E0 in the x direction in the n-
type SC sample.
➢ Excess carriers are effectively injected into
the SC at contact A. (t=0, x=0)
➢ Contact B is a rectifying contact that is under
reverse bias by the voltage source V2. The
contact B will collect a fraction of the excess
carriers as they drift through the SC.
HAYNES-SCHOKLEY EXPERIMENT

Injecting pulse at A (x = 0, t = 0)

For a given electric field E01, the excess carriers will drift along
the SC producing a peak output voltage as a function of time.
The peak of the pulse will arrive at contact B at time t0.

For smaller electric field E02 < E01, the drift velocity of the pulse
of excess carriers is smaller, and so it will take a
longer time (t0’ > t0) for the pulse to reach the contact B.
During this longer time period, there is more diffusion and
more recombination (the peak shape is broader and lower).
HAYNES-SCHOKLEY EXPERIMENT
2
− 𝑥−𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡
1 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0 4𝐷𝑝 𝑡
𝛿𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒
(4𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡)1/2

At t = t0 (pulse at B)

𝑥 − 𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡 = 0 (𝑥 = 𝑑; 𝑡 = 𝑡0 )

𝑑 − 𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡0 = 0

𝑑
𝜇𝑝 =
E0 𝑡0
HAYNES-SCHOKLEY EXPERIMENT
2
− 𝑥−𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡
1 −𝑡/𝜏𝑝0 4𝐷𝑝 𝑡
𝛿𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒
(4𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡)1/2

At t = t1, t2 the magnitude of the excess concentration is e-1

of its peak value

If Δt = t2 – t1 is not too large, the other two terms do not change appreciably during this time
2
𝑑 − 𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡 2
=1 𝑑 − 𝜇𝑝 E0 𝑡 = 4𝐷𝑝 𝑡
4𝐷𝑝 𝑡

(𝜇𝑝 E0 )2 (∆𝑡)2 ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝐷𝑝 =
16𝑡0
HAYNES-SCHOKLEY EXPERIMENT

The area A under the curve is proportional to the number of

excess holes that have not recombined with majority carrier
electrons.
−𝑑
𝜇𝑝 𝐸0 𝜏𝑝0
𝐴 = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡0/𝜏𝑝0 = 𝐾𝑒

A plot of ln(𝐴) as a function of (𝑑/𝜇𝑝 𝐸0 ) (by varying the electric field) will yield a straight line with
slope (1/𝜏𝑝0 ), so the minority carrier lifetime can also be determined from this experiment.

1 𝑑
ln 𝐴 = ln 𝐾 −
𝜏𝑝0 𝜇𝑝 𝐸0
QUASI-FERMI ENERGY LEVELS

RECALL - We saw that in thermal equilibrium:

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐹𝑖 𝐸𝐹𝑖 −𝐸𝐹

𝑛0 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

n-type SC: p-type SC:

𝑛0 > 𝑛𝑖 ; 𝑝0 < 𝑛𝑖 ; 𝐸𝐹 > 𝐸𝐹𝑖 𝑝0 > 𝑛𝑖 ; 𝑛0 < 𝑛𝑖 ; 𝐸𝐹 < 𝐸𝐹𝑖
QUASI-FERMI ENERGY LEVELS

When excess carriers are created in the SC, thermal equilibrium is broken and we may define
a QUASI-FERMI ENERGY for electrons and holes in nonequilibrium
𝐸𝐹𝑛 −𝐸𝐹𝑖 𝐸𝐹𝑖 −𝐸𝐹𝑝
𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

𝐸𝐹𝑛 : quasi-Fermi energy for electrons

𝐸𝐹𝑝 : quasi-Fermi energy for holes

Thermal-equilibrium:
Nd = 1015 cm-3; ni = 1010 cm-3 • Since the electron
concentration has increased,
if 1013 cm-3 excess the quasi- Fermi level for
carriers are present electrons has moved slightly
closer to the conduction band.
• The hole concentration has
increased significantly so that
the quasi-Fermi level for holes
has moved much closer to the
valence band.
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

So far we have considered an ideal semiconductor in which electronic energy states do not exist within the
forbidden-energy bandgap (perfect single-crystal semiconductor)

In a real semiconductor defects occur within the crystal:

a) No defects
b) surface substitutional impurity atom (dopant)
c) surface vacancy
d) interstitial impurity atom
e) substitutional impurity atom (dopant)
f) Vacancy
g) self-interstitial atom
h) precipitation of impurity atoms (cluster)
i) vacancy cluster
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

So far we have considered an ideal semiconductor in which electronic energy states do not exist within the
forbidden-energy bandgap (perfect single-crystal semiconductor)

In a real semiconductor defects occur within the crystal → creation of discrete electronic energy states within the
forbidden-energy band.

TRAPS: Recombination centers, capturing both electrons and holes with almost equal
probability, i.e. electrons and holes are approximately equal

In SRH theory we assume a single trap within the energy gap in the SC with energy Et

Hp: acceptor-type trap → neutral if it does not contain an electron

→ negatively charged when it contains an electron
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

Four basic trapping and emission processes

for the case of an acceptor-type trap.
Process 1: The capture of an electron from
the conduction band by an initially neutral
empty trap.

Process 2: The inverse of process 1—the

emission of an electron that is initially
occupying a trap level back into the
conduction band.

Process 3: The capture of a hole from the

valence band by a trap containing an
electron. (Or the emission of an electron
from the trap into the valence band.)

Process 4: The inverse of process 3—the

emission of a hole from a neutral trap into
the valence band. (Or the capture of an
electron from the valence band.)
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

𝑅𝑐𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 𝑛 electron capture rate (# cm-3 s-1)

𝐶𝑛 : constant proportional to electron-capture cross section

𝑁𝑡 : total concentration of trapping centers
𝑛: electron concentration in the conduction band
𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 : Fermi function at the trap energy

1
𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑡 −𝐸𝐹 probability that a trap will contain an electron
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 probability that a trap is empty

SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

𝑅𝑒𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 𝑁𝑡 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 Electron emission rate (# cm-3 s-1)

𝐸𝑛 : constant

In thermal equilibrium: 𝑅𝑐𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 1 − 𝑓𝐹0 𝐸𝑡 𝑛0 = 𝐸𝑛 𝑁𝑡 𝑓𝐹0 𝐸𝑡

−(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑡 )
Unsing Boltzman approximation: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛′𝐶𝑛 𝑛′ = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 Electron concentration that would
exist in the CB if trap energy
coincided with Fermi energy
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

In nonequilibrium excess electrons exist:

𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑐𝑛 − 𝑅𝑒𝑛 Net electron capture rate

𝑅𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛 𝑁𝑡 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 𝑛 = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛
1
𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑡 −𝐸𝐹𝑛 Quasi-fermi energy
𝑅𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 𝑛 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 − 𝑛′𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Analougsly for processes 3 and 4: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛′𝐶𝑛

−(𝐸𝑡 −𝐸𝑣 )
𝑅𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝑝𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 − 𝑝′ 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 𝑝′ = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

If the trap density is not too large: 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑝

SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

If the trap density is not too large: 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑝

𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 𝑛 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 − 𝑛′𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝑝𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 − 𝑝′ 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡

𝐶𝑛 𝑛 + 𝐶𝑝 𝑝′ 𝑅𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 𝑛 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 − 𝑛′𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡
𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 =
𝐶𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑛′ + 𝐶𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑝′

𝑅𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝑝𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡 − 𝑝′ 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸𝑡
𝑛′ 𝑝′ = 𝑛𝑖2

𝐶𝑛 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑖2 Recombination rate of electrons and holes

𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑝 = ≡𝑅
𝐶𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑛′ + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑝 + 𝑝′ ) due to the recombination center at E=Et
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

Consider an extrinsic n-type semiconductor under low-level injection condition:

𝑛0 ≫ 𝑝0 ; 𝑛0 ≫ 𝛿𝑛; 𝑛0 ≫ 𝑛′ ; 𝑛0 ≫ 𝑝′ (the trap level energy is near midgap so that n’ and p’
are not too different from the intrinsic carrier concentration)

𝐶𝑛 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑖2
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝛿𝑝 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑝 = ≡𝑅
𝐶𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑛′ + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑝 + 𝑝′ )
𝑛 = 𝑛0 + 𝛿𝑛
𝐶𝑝 is related to the minority carrier hole capture cross section 𝑛′ 𝑝′ = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝛿𝑛
→The recombination rate is a function of the minority carrier
parameter in the same way that the ambipolar transport
parameters reduced to their minority carrier values.

𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑝 1 excess minority carrier hole lifetime in a n-type SC

𝑅= = 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 𝛿𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝0 =
𝜏𝑝 𝜏𝑝0 𝐶𝑝 𝑁𝑡 → If the trap concentration increases, the probability of excess
carrier recombination increases; thus, the excess minority
carrier lifetime decreases.
→ function of Cp, which is related to the capture rate of the
minority carrier hole
SHOCKLEY-READ-HALL (SRH) THEORY OF RECOMBINATION

Consider an extrinsic p-type semiconductor under low-level injection condition:

𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0 ; 𝑝0 ≫ 𝛿𝑛; 𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛′ ; 𝑝0 ≫ 𝑝′ (the trap level energy is near midgap so that n’ and p’
are not too different from the intrinsic carrier concentration)

excess minority carrier electron lifetime in a p-type SC

1
𝜏𝑛0 = → If the trap concentration increases, the probability of excess carrier
𝐶𝑛 𝑁𝑡 recombination increases; thus, the excess minority carrier lifetime
decreases.
→ function of Cn, which is related to the capture rate of the minority
carrier electron
RECOMBINATION AT SURFACE STATES

So far we assumed that the semiconductor is infinitely extended in space

In real SC → SURFACE exist between the semiconductor and an adjacent medium

→ The periodicity of the lattice is abruptly interrupted at the surface
→ distribution of allowed energy states within the bandgap

From the SRH theory: the excess lifetime is inversely

proportional to the concentration of traps

𝜏𝑝0𝑠 < 𝜏𝑝0 (n-type)

the excess minority carrier lifetime at the surface will be

smaller than the corresponding lifetime in the bulk material
RECOMBINATION AT SURFACE STATES

Assume that excess carriers are being generated at a constant

𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝛿𝑝𝑠
𝑅= = 𝑅𝑠 = rate throughout the entire semiconductor material
𝜏𝑝0 𝜏𝑝0 𝜏𝑝0𝑠 Since generation and recombination rates must be equal for a
homogeneous, infinite semiconductor:

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑠 → 𝛿𝑝𝑠 < 𝛿𝑝 (𝜏𝑝0𝑠 < 𝜏𝑝0 )

RECOMBINATION AT SURFACE STATES
It can be demonstrated that:
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑠 → 𝛿𝑝𝑠 < 𝛿𝑝 (𝜏𝑝0𝑠 < 𝜏𝑝0 )
𝑠𝐿𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑔′𝜏𝑝0 1−
𝐷𝑝 + 𝑠𝐿𝑝

𝐿𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝0 Minority carrier hole diffusion length

𝑠>0 surface recombination velocity
RECOMBINATION AT SURFACE STATES – QUANTITATIVE EXAMPLE

n-type semiconductor
𝛿𝑝𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 =1014 cm-3
𝜏𝑝0 = 10-6 s in the bulk
𝜏𝑝0𝑠 = 10-7 s at the surface
𝐷𝑝 = 10 cm2/s 𝛿𝑝𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝛿𝑝𝑠
Assume zero applied electric field =
𝜏𝑝0 𝜏𝑝0𝑠

𝛿𝑝𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 1014
𝛿𝑝𝑠 = 𝜏𝑝0𝑠 = 10−6 = 1013 cm−3 𝑠𝐿𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝜏𝑝0 10−7 𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑔′𝜏𝑝0 1−
𝐷𝑝 + 𝑠𝐿𝑝

𝐿𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝0 = 10 (10−6 ) = 31.6 μm 𝛿𝑝𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘

In the bulk, at the steady state: 𝑔′ =
𝜏𝑝0
𝑠
𝛿𝑝 0 = 𝑔′𝜏𝑝0 1− 𝑔′ 𝜏𝑝0 = 𝛿𝑝𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
𝐷𝑝 + 𝑠𝐿𝑝

s = 2.85 × 104 cm/s A surface recombination velocity of approximately of this value could
seriously degrade the performance of semiconductor devices, such as
𝛿𝑝 0 = 1013 cm-3 solar cells, since these devices tend to be fabricated close to a surface.