Problem-6:

A power station has a maximum demand of 15 MW. The annual load factor is 50 %, and
the plant capacity factor is 40%.

 Determine the capacity of the plant.

 Determine the reserve capacity of the plant.

Ans: Plant capacity= 18.75 MW

Plant Reserve capacity=3.75 MW

51
Problem-7:

A power system has the following different types of loads

Diversity of the
Load Types Max Demand Demand Factor
Group
Domestic Load 1,500 kW 1.2 0.8
Commercial Load 2,000 kW 1.1 0.9
Industrial Load 10,000 kW 1.25 1.0

The overall system diversity factor is 1.35. Then determine

 The maximum load demand on the power system.

 Connected load of each type.

Ans: Maximum Load Demand= 10,000 kW

Connected Load=2250 kW, 2444 kW, 12,500

kW
52
Problem-8:

A certain feeder supplies three distribution transformers. Each of the transformers

supplies a group of customers whose connected loads are as below

Diversity of the
Transformer Load Demand Factor
Group
Transformer-1 10 kW 1.5 0.65
Transformer-2 12 kW 3.5 0.60
Transformer-3 15 kW 1.5 0.70

The diversity factor among the transformers is 1.3.

 Determine the maximum load on the feeder.

Ans: Maximum Load = 10.2976 kW

53
Problem-9:

A generating station has the following daily load cycle

Duration Load (MW) Duration Load (MW)

12 AM-6 AM 40 12 PM-4 PM 50
6 AM-10 AM 50 4 PM-8 PM 70
10 AM-12 PM 60 8 PM-12 AM 40

 Draw the load curve and the Load Duration Curve.

 Determine the Maximum load and Average load.

 Determine the Daily Load Factor. Ans: Maximum Load = 70 MW

 Determine the units generated per day. Average Load=50 MW

Units generated per day=𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓

Load Factor=71.428 % 54
Problem-10:
The daily load demand data for three houses are as follows

Duration House-1 House-2 House-3

12 AM-8 AM No load 200 W No load

8 AM-2 PM 600 W No load 200 W
2 PM-4 PM 200 W 1000 W 1200 W
4 PM-10 PM 800 W No load No load
10 PM-12 PM No load 200 W 200 W

 Draw the load curve and load duration curve for the individual house.

 Determine the maximum demand for individual houses.

 Determine the load factor of individual houses.

 Diversity factor.

 Load factor of the station.

55
Important Points Regarding the Selection of the Units

 The number and sizes of the units should be so selected that they approximately fit
the annual load curve of the station.

 The units should be preferably of different capacities to meet the load requirements.
Although use of identical units (i.e., having same capacity) ensures saving in cost,
they often do not meet the load requirement.

 The capacity of the plant should be made 15% to 20% more than the maximum
demand to meet the future load requirements.

 There should be a spare generating unit so that repairs and overhauling of the
working units can be carried out.

56
Base and Peak Load

 The changing load on the power station makes its load curve of a variable nature.

 It is clear that the load on the power station varies from time to time. However, a
close look at the load curve reveals that the load on the power station can be
considered in two parts.

 The unvarying load that occurs almost the whole day on the station is known as the
base load.

 As the base load on the station is almost of a constant nature, it can be suitably
supplied without facing the problems of variable load.

 The various peak demands of load over and above the base load of the station is
known as peak load.

 These peak demands of the station generally form a small part of the total load and
may occur throughout the day.

Examples with Load curve and Load duration curve.

57
Meeting the Load

58
Problem-11:

A common load is shared by the combination of the base load station and standby
station. The capacity of the base load station is 18 MW, and that of the standby station
is 20 MW. Consider the following data:

o Annual standby station output: 7.35 × 10 kWh

o Annual base load station output: 101.35 × 10 kWh

o Peak load on standby station: 12 MW

o Hours of use by standby station per year: 2190 Hours

Determine

 Annual Load Factor and Plant Capacity Factor for base load station.

 Annual Load Factor and Plant Capacity Factor for standby station.

59
Problem-12:

The annual load duration curve of a typical load is approximated as a straight line.
The load is served by a steam power plant (A), a run-of-river power station (B), and a
reservoir hydro power station (C).
The ratio of the number of units supplied by these stations is

𝐴: 𝐵: 𝐶 = 7: 4: 1
The run-of-river station is capable of generating power continuously and thus works
as the base load station. Determine

 The maximum demand of each station.

Ans: Maximum Demand:
 Load Factor of each station.
A=160 MW
B=80 MW
C=80 MW

Annual Load Factor:

A=87.50 %
B=100%
C=25%
60
Problem-12:

61
Problem-13:

The load duration curve for a typical load is assumed to be a straight line. The load is
dispatched by the combination of hydro and the steam plant. The hydropower
available at the time of a minimum regulated flow is just enough to take a peak load
of 50,000 kWh per day.

It is also observed that it will be economical to pump water from the tail race of the
river to the reservoir by utilizing the steam power plant during off-peak periods to run
the thermal plant at 100% of the daily load factor.

The conversion efficiency of the steam plant-operated hydro plant is 60%.

Determine the maximum capacity of each of the plant.

Ans: Maximum Capacity of Steam Plant=39896 kW

Maximum Capacity of Hydro Plant=20104 kW

62
Problem-13:

63
Economics of Power Generation

 The art of determining the per unit (i.e., one kWh) cost of production of electrical
energy is known as the economics of power generation.

 The cost of use of money is known as interest.

 The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to
constant use is known as depreciation.

 Every power station has a useful life ranging from fifty to sixty years.

 From the time the power station is installed, its equipment steadily deteriorates due
to wear and tear, so there is a gradual reduction in the value of the plant. This
reduction in the value of the plant every year is known as annual depreciation.

64
Cost of Electrical Engineering

COEE

FIXED COST RUNNING COST

SEMI-FIXED COST

 Fixed cost is the cost that is independent of maximum demand and units
generated.

 The fixed cost is due to the annual cost of the central organization, interest on the
capital cost of land, and salaries of high officials.

 Semi-Fixed cost the cost that depends upon maximum demand but is independent
of units generated.

 The maximum demand for the power station determines its size and cost of
installation. The greater the maximum demand for a power station, the greater its
size and cost of installation.
65
Cost of Electrical Engineering

 Running cost is the cost that depends only upon the number of units generated.

 The running cost is on account of the annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil,
maintenance, repairs, and salaries of operating staff.

 Since these charges depend upon the energy output, the running cost is directly
proportional to the number of units generated by the station.

 In other words, if the power station generates more units, it will have higher running
costs and vice-versa.

66
Cost of Electrical Engineering

 The overall annual cost of electrical energy generated by a power station can be
expressed in two forms which are three-part form and two-part form.

 Three-Part form:

 The overall annual cost of electrical energy generated is divided into three parts viz
fixed cost, semi-fixed cost, and running cost.

Total Annual Cost of Eneregy = Fixed Cost + Semi Fixed Cost + Running Cost
= Constant + Proportional to Maximum Demand +
Proportional to kWh generated
= 𝐑𝐬 (𝐀 + 𝐁 × 𝐤𝐖 + 𝐂 × 𝐤𝐖𝐡)

 Two-Part form:

 In this case, the annual cost of energy is divided into two parts viz., a fixed sum per
kW of maximum demand plus a running charge per unit of energy.
Total Annual Cost of Eneregy = 𝐑𝐬 (𝐃 × 𝐤𝐖 + 𝐄 × 𝐤𝐖𝐡)

67
Problem-14:

Consider a plant for which the different costs are given below

Capital Cost: 1.2 crores

Annual cost of wages and taxation: 40 lakhs

Cost of fuel, lubrication, and maintenance=Rs 1.5/kWh generated

Consider the interest and depreciation as 5% and 6%, respectively, per annum of
initial value.

The plant capacity and the maximum demand are the same which is 50 MW.

The annual load factor of the plant is 0.4.

Estimate the per unit generation cost of the plant in Rs.

Ans: Per-unit generation cost is Rs

1.53 per unit
68
Problem-15:
Consider a generating station which has the following data:

The annual cost of fuel, oil, etc.: Rs 9 × 10

Capital cost: Rs 1 × 10

Annual Interest and Depreciation in total: 10% per annum on the initial value

Installed Capacity: 30 MW

Capacity Factor: 50%

Annual Load Factor: 60%

Determine

 The minimum reserve capacity of the plant. Ans: Reserve Capacity: 5 MW

 The cost of electricity generated in Rs/kWh Cost of electricity: Rs 1.45 /kWh

69
Problem-16:
A particular residential area can be supplied either by a hydel power plant or a steam
power plant. For both of the plants, the following data are available:

Hydel Power Plant Steam Power Plant

Capital Cost/kW Rs. 2100.00 Rs 1200.00
Running Cost/kWh 3.2 paise 5 paisa
Interest & Depreciation 7.5 % 9%
Reserve Capacity 33 % 25 %

 At what load factor the overall cost per kwh will be the same for both of the plants?

 What would be the cost of generating 40 × 10 units at the load factor determined
in the previous subpart?

 Determine the corresponding maximum demand.

Ans: Load Factor: 47.23%

Maximum Load Demand: 9.668 MW

Cost of electricity: 𝟑. 𝟑𝟎𝟓𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔70Rs.

Problem-17:
The load duration curve of a system for the whole year is approximated as the straight
line with the highest load and lowest load are 50 MW and 0 MW, respectively. The
system is supplied by two power plants-A and B, for which the annual costs are
expressed as below:

𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐀: Rs 75,000 + 80 × kW + 0.02 × kWh

𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐁: Rs (50,000 + 50 × kW + 0.03 × kWh)

Determine:

 The installed capacity required for each station.

 For how many hours per year peak load station should be operated to give the
minimum cost per unit generated.

[Consider the plant with less per unit operating cost as the base load]

Ans: Load Factor: 47.46%

Cost of electricity:
71
Tariff
 The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.

 Objectives of Tariff:

 electrical energy is also sold at such a rate so that it not only returns the cost but
also earns a reasonable profit.

 Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.

 Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution

systems.

 Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g.,

metering equipment, billing etc.

 A suitable profit on the capital investment.

72
Characteristics of Tariff

 The total receipts from the consumers must be equal to the cost of producing and
supplying electrical energy plus reasonable profit. Which means the tariff should
provide the proper return.

 The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are satisfied with the
rate of charge of electrical energy. A big consumer should be charged at a lower rate
than a small consumer.

 A consumer whose load conditions do not deviate much from the ideal should be
charged at a lower rate than the one whose load conditions change appreciably
from the ideal.

 The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand it.

 The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are encouraged
to use electrical energy.

 The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are encouraged
to use electrical energy.
73
Types of Tariff
 When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a simple tariff
or uniform rate tariff.

 In this type of tariff, it does not vary with the increase or decrease in the number of
units consumed. This is the simplest of all tariffs and is readily understood by the
consumers.

 There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every

consumer has to pay equitably for the fixed charges.

 Uniform rate tariff does not encourage the use of electricity.

 When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates,
it is called a flat rate tariff.

 The advantage of such a tariff is that it is more fair to different types of consumers
and is quite simple in calculations.

 A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the

magnitude of energy consumed which is one of the disadvantages. However, a big
consumer should be charged at a lower rate. 74
Types of Tariff contd.
 For flat rate tariff separate meters are required which makes the application of
such a tariff expensive and complicated.

 When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding
blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, it is called a block rate
tariff.

 In block rate tariff, the energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per
unit is fixed in each block. The price per unit in the first block is the highest and it
is progressively reduced for the succeeding blocks of energy.

 The advantage of such a tariff is that the consumer gets an incentive to consume
more electrical energy.

 This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation is
reduced.

 This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and small commercial
consumers.

75
Three & Two Part Tariff

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 = 𝐑𝐬 (𝐚 + 𝐛 × 𝐤𝐖 + 𝐜 × 𝐤𝐖𝐡)

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 = 𝐑𝐬 (𝐛 × 𝐤𝐖 + 𝐜 × 𝐤𝐖𝐡)

 a=fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes interest and
depreciation on the cost of secondary distribution and the labor cost of collecting
revenues

 b=charge per kW of maximum demand

 c=charge per kWh of energy consumed

76
Other Tariffs

 The tariff in which the power factor of the consumer’s load is taken into
consideration is known as the power factor tariff.

 A low power factor increases the rating of station equipment and line losses.
Therefore, a consumer having a low power factor must be penalized.

 Sliding scale tariff is also known as average power factor tariff. In this case, an
average power factor, say 0·8 lagging, is taken as the reference.

 If the power factor of the consumer falls below this factor, suitable additional
charges are made. On the other hand, if the power factor is above the reference, a
discount is allowed to the consumer.

 Both active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) supplied should be charged
separately. A consumer with a low power factor will draw more reactive power, and
hence, the consumer should have to pay more charges.

77
Problem-18:
Consider the following two tariffs

(a) Rs 100 plus 15 paise per unit

(b) A flat rate of 30 paise per unit

At what minimum consumption the first tariff is economical?

Ans: Consumption: 666.67 units

78
Problem-19:
The maximum demand of a consumer is 20 A at 220 V and his total energy
consumption is 8760 kWh. If the energy is charged at the rate of 2 Rs per unit for 500
hours use of the maximum demand per annum plus 1 Rs per unit for additional units,
then calculate the following:

(a) The annual bill of the consumer.

(b) The equivalent flat rate.

[Consider the operating power factor of the consumer as unity]

Ans: Annual Bill-10,960 Rs

Equivalent Flat Rate=Rs 1.25/Unit

79
Problem-20:
The tariff for a consumer is Rs 7500 per kVA of maximum demand and 2 Rs per unit
consumed. The load factor is 30%.

Determine

(a) The overall cost per unit when the power factor is unity.

(b) The overall cost per unit when the power factor is 0.7 (lag).

Ans: (a) 4.8538 Rs/Unit

(b) 6.0769 Rs/Unit

80
Problem-21:
The monthly readings of a consumer’s meter are as follows :

Maximum demand = 50 kW

Energy consumed = 36,000 kWh

Reactive energy = 23,400 kVARh

If the tariff is Rs 400 per kW of maximum demand plus Rs 4 per unit plus Rs 1 per
unit for each 1% of power factor below 86%, calculate the monthly bill of the
consumer.

Also, determine the equivalent flat rate.

Ans: 2,41,605.2 Rs

Flat rate: 6.7112 Rs/Unit

81
Problem-21:
Determine the load factor at which the cost of supplying a unit of electricity from
a Diesel and from a steam station is the same if the annual fixed and running charges
are as follows :

Station Fixed Charge Running Charge

Diesel Rs 300/kW Rs 0.25/kWh

Steam Rs 1200/kW Rs 0.0625/kWh

Ans: Load Factor=54.79%

82
THANK YOU

83