Tafila Technical University

Department of Chemistry and Chemistry Technology

Chem101
General Chemistry

Chapter-4
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
(With an emphasis on Concentration Units)
(aqueous = in water)
A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more
substances.

The solute is (are) the substance(s) present in the

smaller amount(s).

The solvent is the substance present in the larger

amount.
Example:
Solution : Aqueous solutions of KMnO4
Solute : KMnO4
Solvent : Water

The one in the right has lower amount of solute

(meaning lower concentration)

Other examples:
Solution Solvent Solute
Soft drink (l) H2O Sugar, CO2
Air (g) N2 O2, Ar, CH4
Soft solder (s) Pb Sn

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An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

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How does a solution conduct electricity?
By motion of ions (cations + anions) towards
oppositely charged electrodes

Anode Cathode

Illustration: http://www.chemistryland.com
(+) charged cations move towards (-) charged cathode

(-) charged anions move towards (+) charged anode

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Ions (cations & anions) are obtained by dissociation
of solute molecules

Strong Electrolyte: 100% dissociation

H 2O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
1.0 mol 1.0 mol 1.0 mol

Weak Electrolyte – not completely dissociated

H 2O
CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)
0.1 mol 0.0013 mol 0.0013 mol

Only 1.13% of 0.1 mol acetic acid dissociates

into CH3COO- and H+ 6
Nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity?

No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution

H 2O
C6H12O6 (s) C6H12O6 (aq)

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 Precipitation Reactions
Precipitate – insoluble solid that separates from solution
precipitate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

molecular equation

Pb2+ + 2NO3- + 2Na+ + 2I- PbI2 (s) + 2Na+ + 2NO3-

ionic equation

Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

PbI2
net ionic equation
Na+ and NO3- are spectator ions
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Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve
in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature.

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Examples of Insoluble Compounds

CdS PbS Ni(OH)2 Al(OH)3

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Acids:
Examples: HCl (aq), H2SO4 (aq) (strong acid)
CH3COOH (acetic acid) (weak acid)
Properties of Acids:
Have a sour taste. Vinegar owes its taste to acetic acid. Citrus
fruits contain citric acid.
Cause color changes in plant dyes.

React with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas.

2HCl (aq) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
See the movie in: https://youtu.be/cpy_Zh-8sKA

React with carbonates and bicarbonates

to produce carbon dioxide gas.
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity. 11
Bases:
Examples: NaOH (Strong base)

NH3 (Weak base)

Properties of Bases
Have a bitter taste.

Feel slippery. Many soaps contain bases.

Cause color changes in plant dyes.

Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.

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 A Brønsted acid is a proton donor
A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor

base acid acid base

A Brønsted acid must contain at least one

ionizable proton!

4.3
15
16
17
18
Monoprotic acids
HCl H+ + Cl- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HNO3 H+ + NO3- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Diprotic acids
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HSO4- H+ + SO42- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Triprotic acids
H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
H2PO4- H+ + HPO42- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
HPO42- H+ + PO43- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
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Strong acids dissociate
completely in water
Ex: HCl (aq) ⟶ H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
(All HCl is converted to H+ and OH-)

Weak acids dissociate partially

in water
Ex:
HNO2 (aq) H+ (aq) + NO2- (aq)

All HNO2 do not dissociate into H+ and NO2-

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 Neutralization Reactions

acid + base salt + water

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O

H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- Na+ + Cl- + H2O
H+ + OH- H2O

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Neutralization Reaction Involving a Weak
Electrolyte

weak acid + base salt + water

HCN (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCN (aq) + H2O

HCN + Na+ + OH- Na+ + CN- + H2O
HCN + OH- CN- + H2O

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Example 4.4

Write molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations for each of the
following acid-base reactions:

(a) hydrobromic acid(aq) + barium hydroxide(aq)

(b) sulfuric acid(aq) + potassium hydroxide(aq)

Example 4.4
Strategy
The first step is to identify the acids and bases as strong or
weak.

We see that HBr is a strong acid and H2SO4 is a strong acid for
the first step ionization and a weak acid for the second step
ionization.

Both Ba(OH)2 and KOH are strong bases.

Example 4.4
Solution
(a) Molecular equation:
2HBr(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) BaBr2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation:

2H+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + 2Br−(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
2H+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) 2H2O(l)
or
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) H2O(l)
Both Ba2+ and Br− are spectator ions.
Example 4.4
(b) Molecular equation:

H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic equation:

Net ionic equation:

Note that because is a weak acid and does not ionize

appreciably in water, the only spectator ion is K+.
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation : charge becomes more (+) by loosing electrons
Ca → Ca2+ + 2e Ca is oxidized to Ca2+
Fe2+ ➝ Fe3+ + 1e Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+

Reduction : charge becomes more (-) by gaining electrons

O + 2e → O2- O is reduced to O2-
Cl + 1e ➝ Cl- Cl is reduced to Cl-

Oxidation and reduction in a reaction are shown by half reactions.

For example, for the reaction:

2Mg + O2 2MgO
Oxidation half-reaction (lose e-) : 2Mg 2Mg2+ + 4e-
Reduction half-reaction (gain e-) : O2 + 4e- 2O2-
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Overall reaction : 2Mg + O2 + 4e- 2Mg2+ + 2O2- + 4e-
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Zn is oxidized

Zn is the reducing agent

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu Cu2+ is reduced

Cu2+ is the oxidizing agent

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 Oxidation number
The charge the atom would have in a molecule (or an
ionic compound) if electrons were completely transferred.

1. Free elements (uncombined state) have an oxidation

number of zero.

Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0

2. In monatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to
the charge on the ion.

Li+, Li = +1; Fe3+, Fe = +3; O2-, O = -2

3. The oxidation number of oxygen is usually –2. In H2O2
and O22- it is –1.
4.4
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when
it is bonded to metals in binary compounds. In these
cases, its oxidation number is –1.
5. Group IA metals are +1, IIA metals are +2 and fluorine is
always –1.
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a
molecule or ion is equal to the charge on the
molecule or ion.
7. Oxidation numbers do not have to be integers.
Oxidation number of oxygen in the superoxide ion,
O2-, is -½. -
HCO3
Oxidation numbers of all O = -2 H = +1
the elements in HCO3- ?
3x(-2) + 1 + ? = -1
C = +4
4.4
The oxidation numbers of elements in their compounds

4.4
 IF7
Oxidation numbers of all
the elements in the F = -1
following ?
7x(-1) + ? = 0
I = +7

K2Cr2O7
NaIO3
Na = +1 O = -2 O = -2 K = +1
3x(-2) + 1 + ? = 0 7x(-2) + 2x(+1) + 2x(?) = 0
I = +5 Cr = +6
4.4
34
Ex:

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36
 Solution Stoichiometry
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
Concentration types:
- Percentage (by mass, by mole, or by volume)

Amount solute
Percentage = X 100
Amount solution

- ppt (parts per thousand)

Amount solute
ppt = X 1000
Amount solution

- ppm (parts per million)

Amount solute 37
ppm = X 1000000
Amount solution
 - Molarity:

most common concentration unit for aqueous solutions

moles of solute
molarity (M) =
liters of solution

n
=
V (L)

For example 0.24 M HCl means: 0.24 mol of HCl in 1 L solution

or 0.12 mol HCL in 0.5 L solution

Symbol M is read as “molar”. (ex: 0.24 M is read as 0.24 molar)

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Exercise 1
Average salinity of coastal waters of Cyprus is 39.1 psu.
Calculate the salinity in:
a) percentage, b) ppt c) ppm
d) molarity (Assume that salinity is due to dissolved NaCl,
and the density of Mediterranean sea is 1.05 g/mL)
(psu: Practical salinity unit, 1 psu = 1g/kg , MNaCl = 58.4 g/mol)

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Ans: a) 0.39%, b) 39.1 ppt, c) 39000 ppm d) 0.704 M
 Preparing a Solution of Known Concentration

Add enough
Add some solvent up
solvent to the marker
250 mL
Shake well
for complete
dissolution

0.64 mol solute (NaCl) 250 mL solution

(37.38 g NaCl) (0.250 L)

n 0.64 mol
molarity = = = 2.56 mol/L = 2.56 M
V (L) 0.250 L
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Example 4.7

How many grams of potassium

dichromate (K2Cr2O7) are
required to prepare a 250-mL
solution whose concentration
is 2.16 M?

A K2Cr2O7 solution.
Example 4.7
Strategy
How many moles of K2Cr2O7 does a 1-L (or 1000 mL) 2.16 M
K2Cr2O7 solution contain?

A 250-mL solution?

How would you convert moles to grams?

Example 4.7
Solution The first step is to determine the number of moles of
K2Cr2O7 in 250 mL or 0.250 L of a 2.16 M solution.
Rearranging Equation (4.1) gives

moles of solute = molarity × L soln

Thus,
Example 4.7
The molar mass of K2Cr2O7 is 294.2 g, so we write

Check As a ball-park estimate, the mass should be given

by [molarity (mol/L) × volume (L) × molar mass (g/mol)] or
[2 mol/L × 0.25 L × 300 g/mol] = 150 g. So the answer is
reasonable.
Example 4.8

In a biochemical assay, a chemist needs to add 3.81 g of

glucose to a reaction mixture. Calculate the volume in milliliters
of a 2.53 M glucose solution she should use for the addition.
Example 4.8
Strategy
We must first determine the number of moles contained in
3.81 g of glucose and then use Equation (4.2) to calculate the
volume.

Solution
From the molar mass of glucose, we write
Example 4.8
Next, we calculate the volume of the solution that contains
2.114 × 10−2 mole of the solute. Rearranging Equation (4.2)
gives

Check One liter of the solution contains 2.53 moles of

C6H12O6. Therefore, the number of moles in 8.36 mL or
8.36 × 10−3 L is (2.53 mol × 8.36 × 10−3) or 2.12 × 10−2 mol.
The small difference is due to the different ways of rounding off.
Exercise 2
What is the molarity of a 85.0-mL ethanol-water (C2H5OH) solution
containing 1.77 g ethanol? M = 46.07 g/mol,
ethanol

48
Ans: 0.452 M
Exercise 3
What volume (in milliliters) of a 0.315 M NaOH solution contains 6.22 g of
NaOH?M =40.0 g/mol,
NaOH

49
Ans: 494 mL
Exercise 4
What is the amount (in milligrams) of caffeine in a 50.0 mL 0.00793 M
espresso coffee? (Caffeine is C8H10N4O2 with a molar mass of 194.2 g/mol)

50
Ans: 77 mg
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution (stock solution).
Example: A 0.01 M HCl solution can be prepared by taking 10 mL of 0.1 M HCl and
adding enough water to make the final volume 100 mL
(in this example HCl is diluted 10 times: from 0.1 M to 0.01 M)

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf 51
Example 4.9

Describe how you would prepare 5.00 × 102 mL of a

1.75 M H2SO4 solution, starting with an 8.61 M stock
solution of H2SO4.
Example 4.9

Strategy
Because the concentration of the final solution is less than that
of the original one, this is a dilution process.

Keep in mind that in dilution, the concentration of the solution

decreases but the number of moles of the solute remains the
same.
Example 4.9
Solution We prepare for the calculation by tabulating our data:

Mi = 8.61 M Mf = 1.75 M
Vi = ? Vf = 5.00 × 102 mL

Substituting in Equation (4.3),

Example 4.9

Thus, we must dilute 102 mL of the 8.61 M H2SO4 solution with

sufficient water to give a final volume of 5.00 × 102 mL in a
500-mL volumetric flask to obtain the desired concentration.

Check The initial volume is less than the final volume, so the
answer is reasonable.
Ans: Dilute 34.2 mL of the 5.07 M KOH solution with sufficient water to give a final volume of 2.00 × 102 mL in a volumetric flask to obtain the desired concentration.
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with a 5.07 M stock solution?
How would you prepare 2.00×102 mL of a 0.866 M KOH solution, starting
Exercise 5
 Titrations
In a titration, a solution of accurately known concentration is
added gradually (drop-by-drop) added to another solution of
unknown concentration until the chemical reaction between the
two solutions is complete.

Equivalence point – the point at which the reaction is complete

Indicator – substance that changes color at (or near) the

equivalence point

Slowly add base

to unknown acid
UNTIL
the indicator
changes color
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Example 4.11

In a titration experiment, a student finds that 23.48 mL of a

NaOH solution are needed to neutralize 0.5468 g of KHP. What
is the concentration (in molarity) of the NaOH solution?
Example 4.11
Strategy We want to determine the molarity of the NaOH
solution. What is the definition of molarity?

need to
find

want to given
calculate

The volume of NaOH solution is given in the problem.

Therefore, we need to find the number of moles of NaOH to
solve for molarity. From the preceding equation for the reaction
between KHP and NaOH shown in the text, we see that 1 mole
of KHP neutralizes 1 mole of NaOH. How many moles of KHP
are contained in 0.5468 g of KHP?
Example 4.11
Solution First we calculate the number of moles of KHP
consumed in the titration:

Because 1 mol KHP ≏ 1 mol NaOH, there must be 2.678 × 10−3

mole of NaOH in 23.48 mL of NaOH solution. Finally, we
calculate the number of moles of NaOH in 1 L of the solution or
the molarity as follows:
Exercise 6
How many grams of HCl are needed to neutralize 18.64 mL of a 0.1004 M
NaOH solution? M = 36.46 g/mol,
HCl

61
Ans: 0.0683 g
Example 4.12

The sodium hydroxide solution standardized in Example 4.11 is

used to titrate 25.00 mL of a sulfuric acid solution. The titration
requires 43.79 mL of the 0.1172 M NaOH solution to completely
neutralize the acid. What is the concentration of the H2SO4
solution?
Example 4.12
Strategy We want to calculate the concentration of the H2SO4
solution. Starting with the volume of NaOH required to
neutralize the acid, we calculate the moles of NaOH.
want to find
mol NaOH
L soln × = mol NaOH
L soln
measured given

From the equation for the neutralization reaction just shown, we

see that 2 moles of NaOH neutralize 1 mole of H2SO4.

How many moles of NaOH are contained in 43.79 mL of a

0.1172 M NaOH solution?

How many moles of H2SO4 would this quantity of NaOH

neutralize?

What would be the concentration of the H2SO4 solution?

Example 4.12
Solution
First, we calculate the number of moles of NaOH contained in
43.79 mL of solution:

1 L soln 0.1172 mol NaOH

43.79 mL × ×
1000 mL soln L soln
= 5.132 × 10-3 mol NaOH

From the stoichiometry we see that 1 mol H2SO4 ≏ 2 mol NaOH.

Therefore, the number of moles of H2SO4 reacted must be

1 mol H2SO4
5.132 × 10-3 mol NaOH × = 2.566 × 10-3 mol H2SO4
2 mol NaOH
Example 4.12

From the definition of molarity [see Equation (4.1)], we have

moles of solute
molarity =
liters of soln

So the molarity of the H2SO4 solution is

2.566 × 10-3 mol H2SO4

= 0.1026 M H2SO4
25 mL × (1 L/1000 mL)
Exercise 7
If 60.2 mL of 0.427 M KOH solution are required to neutralize 10.1 mL of
H2SO4 solution, what is the concentration of the H2SO4 solution in molarity?

66
Ans: 1.272 M
67
 What is pH?
A numeric scale of acidity or basicity of an aqueous
solution.

pH of a solution is in between 0 to 14

A solution is
acidic if pH < 7.0
neutral if pH = 7.0
basic if pH > 7.0
(or alkaline)
Acidity Basicity
http://www.sakasu.com.tr/tr

Acidic Basic (Alkaline)

pH = - log [H+] [H+] is the molarity of H+ ions

pOH = - log [OH-] or pOH = 14.0 - pH
68
Exercise 8
What is the concentration of H+ and OH- ions in a spring water with pH =
8.22? Is it acidic or basic?

69
Ans: [H+] = 6.02x10-9 M, [OH-] = 1.66x10-6 M, Basic
Tafila Technical University
Department of Chemistry and Chemistry Technology

Periodic Table of Elements

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