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Computer System  
I.C.T.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 1
 
 
 
 
 
Computer System
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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A computer is a device that receives input, does processing on that input and then
produces the output. Computer consists of two main components: hardware and
software.
 
 
  Input   Processing   Output  
 
 

1.1 Hardware and Software

Hardware  
It is a general term for the physical components that make up a computer system.
Hardware can be either External or Internal.

External  Computer  Hardware  

External hardware devices are the ones that are
external and can be seen by the user. For
example: mouse, keyboard, monitor, printer,
scanner, etc. Essentially, input devices, output
devices and external storage devices are
external hardware.

Internal  Computer  Hardware  

Internal hardware devices are the devices that are internal inside the computer itself
and are not normally visible by the user.
Examples of internal hardware are:
• Motherboard
o It allows the processor and other
computer hardware to function and
communicate with each other. It acts
as a kind of hub that other computer
devices connect to.
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read-Only-Memory (ROM)
• Video Card
o Allows the computer to send graphical information to a video display
device such as a monitor, television or projector.
o Usually connects to motherboard.

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• Sound Card
o Provides the computer with the ability to produce sounds, which can be
heard by the user through speakers or headphones.

• Internal hard disk drive/solid state drive (HDD/SDD)

o Hard disk drives (HDD) are magnetic in nature and are one of the main
methods of storing data, files and most of the application and system
software.
o More modern computers use newer storage systems that make use of
solid state drive (SSD) technology and are replacing HDD in many
cases. Their function is the same as HDD.

Software  
It is a general term for programs that control the computer system. There are two
types of software: Application and System.

Application  Software  
They are programs that allow the user to do specific tasks.

Examples of application software are:

• Word processor
o This software is used to manipulate text documents. Text
is entered using a keyboard and the software provides
tools for copying, deleting and various types of
formatting.
o Other of the functions include:
§ Creating, editing, saving and manipulating text.
§ Copy and past functions.
§ Spell checking.
§ Importing images.
§ Translation into other languages.
• Spreadsheet (Excel)
o It is used to organize and manipulate numerical data.
o Numbers are organized on a grid of lettered columns and
numbered rows. The grid itself is made of cells.
o Some of the functions include:
§ Use of formulas to carry out calculations
§ Ability to produce graphs
§ Ability to do modeling and ‘what if’ calculations.

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• Database
o It is used to organize, manipulate and analyze data.
o Some functions of database include:
§ Ability to carry out queries on database data and produce a
report.
§ Add, delete and modify data in a table.
• Control and measuring software
o It is designed to allow a computer or microprocessor to interface with
sensors so that it is possible to:
§ Measure physical quantities in the real world (such as
temperature).
§ Control applications by comparing sensor data with stored data
and sending out signals to control devices to do some action.
• Apps/ Applets
o Normally refers to the type of software that runs on mobile phones or
tablets.
o They are usually downloaded from and ‘App Store’ and range from
games to sophisticated software such as phone banking.
o Example of apps:
§ Video and music streaming.
§ GPS.
§ Camera facilities.
• Photo editing software
o It allows a user to manipulate images stored on a
computer.
o Examples of such manipulations are:
§ Changing brightness.
§ Changing contrast.
§ Altering color saturation.
§ Removing ‘red eye’.
• Video editing software
o It allows a user to manipulate videos to produce and edited video.
o It enables the addition of titles, colour correction, altering/adding sound
to the original video and other things.
• Graphics manipulation software
o It allows for manipulation of lines, curves and text in order to alter an
image as required.

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System  Software  
They are programs that allow the hardware to run properly and allow the user to
communicate with the computer.
Examples of system software are:
• Compiler
o It is a computer program hat translates a program written in a high level
programing language into machine code (code understood by the
computer) so that it can be interpreted by the computer to do specific
task.
o Examples of high-level languages include: C++, Java and Python.
• Linker
o It is a computer program that takes one or more files produced by a
compiler and combines them into a single program that can be run on a
computer.
o Many programming languages allow programmers to separate their
code and write them in different modules. This simplifies the
programming task since it allows the program to be broken up into
small sub tasks. However, at some point, it will be necessary to put all
the modules together to form the final program. This is the linker’s job.
• Device driver
o It the name given to software that enables one or more hardware
devices to communication with the computer’s operating system.
o Without drivers, a hardware device (for example, a printer) would be
unable to work with the computer.
o All hardware devices connected to a computer have associated drivers.
As soon as a device is plugged into the USB port of a computer, the
operating system looks for the appropriate driver.
• Operating System (OS)
o It is software running in the background of a
computer system and manages many of the
basic functions.
o Without the OS, most computers would be very
user-unfriendly and the majority of the users
would find it almost impossible to work with
computers.
o Examples: Windows, Linux, Android, etc.

• Utilities
o Utility programs are programs that help to manage, maintain and
control computer resources.

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Computer System  
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o Examples of utility programs include:
§ Antivirus.
§ Anti-spyware.
§ Backup of files.
§ Disk repair.
§ File management.
§ Security.
§ Screensavers.

1.2 Computer main components

Main  /  Internal  
Memory    

Input  Devices     Central  Processing   Output  Devices  

Unit  (CPU)  

Secondary  /Backing  
storage  

Central  Processing  Unit  (CPU)  

The CPU is the part o the computer that interprets and executes the commands from
the computer hardware and software. It is normally part of the computer
motherboard. It controls all parts of the computer and tells the computer how to
perform a specific task. As a result, the CPU is considered the 'brain' of the
computer.
Main/Internal  memory  
Any data or instructions that are to be processed by the CPU must be placed into
main memory (sometimes known as primary storage). It is made of RAM and ROM.

Random  Access  Memory  (RAM)  

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the part of the computer that
temporarily stores the instructions that the computer is running,
and the data it is processing.
RAM is a volatile storage device. This means that if the
computer's power is turned off the contents of RAM disappear
and are lost.
When a computer is running, its RAM will contain:
• The operating system software

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• The application software currently being used
• Any data that is being processed

Read-­‐Only  Memory  (ROM)  

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a memory used to store information that needs to be
permanent. It is used to contain, for example, configuration data for a computer
system. It also holds a special piece of software called ‘BIOS’, which is responsible
for locating and loading the operating system.
ROM is non-volatile storage. This means that the data it contains is never lost, even
if the power is switched off.
 
Input  devices  
These are devices that are used to input data into the computer. A keyboard, a
mouse and a webcam are all examples of input devices.

Output  devices  
These are devices that are used to obtain output from the computer.
A monitor, a printer and a loudspeaker are all examples of output devices.

Secondary/backing  storage  
These are devices that store data when the computer is switched off. Secondary
storage is non-volatile, so data that is stored on these devices remains there safely.
A hard drive, a CD-ROM, a floppy disc and a USB memory stick are all examples of
secondary storage devices.

1.3 Operating systems

An operating system is a special piece of software that manages the general
operations of a computer system:
ü It provides a user interface so that the user can
interact with the computer
ü It manages applications that are running on the
computer, starting them when the user
requests, and stopping them when they are no
longer needed
ü It manages files, helping the user save their
work, organize their files, find files and load files
ü It manages the computer memory, deciding what should be loaded into
memory and what should be removed

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ü It manages computer security, preventing unauthorized access to the system
ü It manages the computer's input and output hardware such as printers, etc.
 
User  Interface  
There are two types of user interfaces:
• Graphical User Interface (GUI)
• Command-Line Interface (CLI)

Graphic  User  Interface  (GUI)  

A GUI is an interface built around visual
(graphical) things:
§ Windows are regions of the screen used to
display information
§ Icons are small pictures that are used to
represent folders, software, etc.
§ Menus are lists of options the user can select from
§ A pointer is an arrow that can be moved around the screen and is used to
select things
Windows XP is an example of an operating system with a GUI.
GUIs are quite easy to use due to the visual nature of the interface - the user has lots
of visual clues as to what things do.
However, to display all of the nice graphics required by a GUI takes a lot of
computing power so quite a powerful computer is needed.
GUI is intended for the end-user who doesn’t have (or doesn’t need) any great
knowledge of how the computer works.

Advantages of using GUI

• The user doesn’t have to learn any commands.
• Easier to change/edit actions.
• It is more user-friendly (for example: icons are used to represent applications).
• A pointing device (such as a mouse) is used to click on an icon to launch an
application, which is simpler than typing in commands.
Disadvantages of using GUI
• It uses up considerably more computer memory than CLI.
• The user is limited to the icons provided on the screen.
• It needs an operating system, such as Windows, to operate, which uses up
considerable memory.

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Command  Line  Interface  (CLI)  

The user would have to learn all the
commands to make use of the computer
system.
This kind of interface is quite difficult to use,
so it is only suitable for expert users.

Advantages of using CLI

• The user is in direct communication with the computer.
• The user is not restricted to a number of predetermined options.
• It is possible to alter computer configuration settings.
Disadvantages of using CLI
• The user needs to learn a number of commands, to carry out basic
operations.
• All commands need to be typed in, which takes time and can be error-prone.
• Each command must be typed in using the correct format, spelling, and so on.
• It is more difficult to edit once commands are entered.

1.4 Types of computer

1.  PC/Desktop  computers  
PC/Desktop usually refers to a general-purpose computer
that is made up of a separate monitor, keyboard and
processor unit.

Advantages of desktop computers over laptop computers

• Spare parts and connections tend to be standardized, which usually results in
lower costs.
• Power consumption is not critical since they usually plug straight into a wall
socket.
• Because they are usually fixed in one location, there is less chance for them
to be damaged.
• Internet access is also more stable since they are not moved around (the user
will always have the same data transfer rate).

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Disadvantages of desktop computers compared to laptop computers
• Not portable.
• Because it is not portable, it is necessary to copy files when you want to do
work elsewhere – with a laptop you simply take the whole computer with you.
• Tend to be more complicated since all the components need to be carried
around with you and then connected to the computer by wires or wireless
connections, which also consumes space.

2.  Laptop  computers  
Laptop refers to a type of computer where the monitor,
keyboard, touchpad and processor are all together in one
single unit. This makes them extremely portable.

Key features in a laptop

• Lightweight (to aid portability).
• Low power consumption.
• Processor shouldn’t generate too much heat (cooling is important for the
laptop to survive).

Advantages of laptop computers over desktop computers

• Portability.
• No trailing wires as everything is in one single unit.
• They can take full advantage of Wi-Fi.
• They can link into any multimedia system.
 
Disadvantages of laptop computers compared to desktop computers
• As they are easily portable, they are also easier to steal.
• They have limited battery life, so the user may need to carry a heavy adaptor.
• Keyboards and touchpad can sometimes be hard to use.

3.  Smartphones  
Smartphones allow normal phone calls to be made
but also have an operating system (such as iOS,
Android or Windows), allowing them to run a number
of computer applications.
They allow users to send/receive emails and
messages, use a number of Apps, use camera feature, MP3 and MP4 players (for
music and videos), and so on.
Smartphones communicate with the Internet either by using Wi-Fi hotspots or by
using 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks.

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Advantages of smartphones
• They are very small in size and lightweight – therefore very easy to carry (this
is more difficult with laptops as they are much bulkier and heavier).
• Can make phone calls as well as connect to the Internet while on the move.
• Because they can use Wi-Fi and mobile phone networks, they can be used
almost anywhere (this is not the case with laptops or PCs).
• They have hundreds of Apps (similar to tablets, but it is an advantage
compared to laptops)
• They have a reasonable battery life compared to laptops.

Disadvantages of smartphones
• The small screens make page difficult to read and small keyboards make
typing things in more difficult and slower (laptops and PCs have much bigger
screens and keyboards).
• Web browsing and photography can drain the battery quickly.
• Memory size in most phones isn’t very large when compared to laptops and
PCs – although it is comparable with tablets.
• Not all website features are compatible with smartphone operating systems.
• Because of their small size, it is much easier to lose a smartphone than
laptops or PCs.

4.  Tablets  
Tablets are relatively new internet-enabled portable
computer. They work in a similar way to a smartphone.
Tablets use touch screen technology and don’t usually
have a conventional keyboard. Internet access is usually
through Wi-Fi or through 3G/4G/5G (mobile phone)
connectivity.

Key features in tablets

• High-definition, anti-glare displays.
• Front-facing and back-facing cameras.
• Lower weight and longer battery life than laptops.
• Bluetooth connection to printers and other devices.
• Flash memory cards and cloud storage facilities to back up and sync data
sources.
• Can include speech-recognition systems (such as Siri) to enable verbal
instructions to be understood by the tablet.

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Advantages of tablets over laptop computers
• Very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the operating system to load
up).
• Fully portable.
• Touch screen technology means they are simple to use and doesn’t need any
other input devices.
• Can use several Apps.
• Don’t generate any heat as they use solid-state technology.
• Battery life of a tablet is a lot longer.
• When the power button is pressed it goes into standby but remains connected
to the internet, so the user still hears alerts when emails of other notifications
are received.

Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptop computers

• They often have limited memory or storage compared to a laptop.
• They can be expensive to run if the internet is being accessed frequently via
3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks.
• Typing on a touch screen can be slow and error-prone compared to a
standard keyboard.
• Transferring of files often has to be done through an ‘App Store’.
• Laptops tend to support more types of file format than tablets, and are also
better equipped to run different types of software.

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Input Devices  
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Chapter 2
Input Devices

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Input Devices  
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As the name suggests, input devices are hardware devices that allow data to be
input into a computer. Many such devices exist, ranging from the more common
ones, such as the keyboard, through to the more specialist devices, such as sensors
and barcode readers.

2.1 Pointing devices

They are used to move and control an on-screen pointer or cursor. They are
commonly used with graphical user interfaces (GUIs).

Mouse  
The mouse is an example of a pointing device. The user controls the position of a
pointer on the screen by moving the mouse around.
Uses
• Move a pointer on the screen to select items and
options from drop-down menus.
• Draw objects on the screen.

Advantages
• Faster entry of chosen options.
• Faster navigation.
• Smaller than keyboard.

Disadvantages
• Difficult to use for people with disabilities.
• Not suitable to enter text or numeric data.

Touchpad  
A pointing device found on most laptops. Used
instead of a mouse since it takes up less
space.

Use
• Used with laptop computers instead of a
mouse.

Advantages
• Integrated within the laptop computer.
• Takes less space

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Disadvantage
• More difficult to control compared to a mouse.

Tracker  ball  
This pointing device has a large ball that the user spins.

Uses
• For use by people with limited motor skills, e.g.
young children or people with disabilities.
• Used by people with disabilities or RSI.

Advantage
• Easier to use than a mouse.

Disadvantage
• Slower to use compared to a mouse.

2.2 Other input devices

Keyboard  
Allows text (abc...), numbers (123...) and symbols (%$@...) to be entered into a
computer

Uses
• Entering text for word processing.
• Applications where text has to be created rather
than copied.

Advantages
• Allows accurate entry of data.
• Quick entry of original text.

Disadvantages
• Constant use can lead to Repetitive Strain Injury.
• Must learn how to type to achieve high input speed.

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Input Devices  
I.C.T.
 

 
Numeric  keypad  
A small keyboard that only has numbers.

Uses
• Applications where only numeric data is to be
entered.
• Inserting pin numbers for chip and pin
credit/debit cards.
• When using an ATM machine.

Advantages
• Small, compact and easy to carry.
• Easy to cover up when entering a PIN.

Disadvantage
• It is impossible to enter text.

Remote  control  
Used to control devices remotely by emitting an infrared signal
to the external device.

Use
• To operate TVs, video players/recorders, DVD
players/recorders, satellite receivers, HiFi music
systems, data or multimedia projectors.

Advantages
• Operate devices from a distance.
• Useful for people with walking difficulties.

Disadvantage
• Not useful for people with disabilities or RSI.
• Objects between the device and the remote control can prevent its operation.

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Input Devices  
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Joystick  
Uses
• Used in video/computer games.
• Used in simulators (for example, flight simulators).

Advantages
• Easier than a keyboard to navigate the screen.
• Control is more realistic than using a mouse, for example.

Disadvantage
• More difficult to control a pointer than other pointing devices.

Driving  wheel  
A driving (steering) wheel is an example of an input
device that is similar to a joystick in many ways. It
connects to a computer (or games machine) usually
through a USB port. The wheel allows you to
simulate the turning of a steering wheel, and there
are associated devices (such as buttons or pedals),
which allow you to accelerate and brake. Sensors
are used to pick up left/right movement so that the user gets the sensation of
steering a car on the road.

Uses
• Used in video/computer games.
• Used in simulators (for example, flight simulators).

Advantages
• Easier than a keyboard or joystick to control steering movements as it is more
natural.
• The ‘driving experience’ is nearer to how an actual steering wheel and other
controls operate in real life.

Disadvantages
• It can be rather expensive input device compared to mouse or joystick.
• Movements in the steering can be too sensitive, giving an unrealistic ‘feel’.

 
 

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Input Devices  
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Touch  screen  
Selecting from a limited list of options e.g. certain POS
uses such as cafes, tourist information kiosks, and public
transport enquiries.

Uses
• ATMs by bank customers.
• EPOS terminals in cafes and shops
• Tourist information and public-transport information.

Advantages
• Easier to select options than by using a mouse.
• Easier to use for people with disabilities.

Disadvantage
• RSI could result from continual use of a finger to select options.

Microphone  
Microphones are devices that input sound to a computer.
Uses
• To input speech/sound to be used in various
applications (for example, in presentations).
• Input in voice-recognition software:
o The software converts the speech into text that
can be used in, for example, a word processor
or to input commands into a computer.
o To recognize commands. For example, some cars now have voice-
activated systems to switch on the lights, turn the radio volume up, etc.
• Microphones can also be used as a sensor to pick up sound.
• Used in video conferencing or Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
applications.

Advantages
• Faster to read text than to type it in using a keyboard.
• It is possible to manipulate sound in real time using special software rather
than work on a recording done at some earlier stage.
• If used in a voice-activation system, it has the advantage of improving safety
(since the car driver, for example, doesn’t need to take their hands off the
wheel to operate a switch or alter the radio station, etc.).

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Input Devices  
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Disadvantages
• Voice recognition is not as accurate as using a keyboard.
• Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.

Graphics  tablet  
A graphics tablet is used with a stylus to produce
freehand drawings. The images produced can then be
stored in a file on a computer.

Uses
• Used to produce drawings, computer graphics,
etc.
• Used in computer-aided design (CAD) work.
• In countries where the written language uses
complex characters (for example, China and Japan), graphics tablets are
used as a form of input as it is faster than typing in the characters with a
keyboard.

Advantages
• More accurate in drawing than using a mouse.
• It is possible to modify drawings before they are input.
• They can record levels of pressure, unlike other point-and-click devices.

Disadvantages
• More expensive than other pointing devices.
• Menus are often not very user-friendly.
• Larger drawings (such as A4) are expensive to produce.
• The touch screens are damaged easily.
• It takes longer to produce a drawing using this equipment than doing it with
pen and paper.

Light  pen  
A light pen is a device used as a pointing device or to
'write' on a CRT monitor.

Uses
• Selecting objects on CRT screens.
• Drawing on screen (for example, with CAD
packages).

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Advantages
• Greater accuracy than touch screens.
• Small, thus it can be used where space is an issue.
• Easy-to-use technology.

Disadvantages
• Problems with lag when drawing on screen.
• Only works with CRT monitors.
• Considered an old technology.

Digital  camera  
Digital cameras have largely replaced traditional film-based cameras. The images
are uploaded from the camera and stored in a file on the computer.

Advantages
• Better quality photographs than traditional
cameras.
• Memory cards can hold several hundred
photographs.
• Easier and faster to upload photographs to
computer rather than having to scan in hard
copies when using traditional methods.
• No need to develop film and print out photographs anymore, which saves
money.

Disadvantages
• More expensive than traditional cameras.
• Need to be computer literate in using the cameras properly. Also, the
transferring, storing and manipulating of the images via a computer requires
some understanding of how computer works.
• The resolution still isn’t as good as many expensive traditional cameras.
• Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used.

Video  camera  
Video cameras are used to input moving pictures, often pre-
recorded, into a computer. Video cameras are used widely for
security purposes.

Advantages
• Very high quality video output.

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Disadvantages
• Expensive in terms of initial cost and the cost of memory cards.
• The produced video files consume large storage space.

Webcam  
Webcams are similar to video cameras but connected directly
to the computer (through a USB port or built in) and they
don’t have memory. Whatever information the webcam picks
up is transmitted directly to the computer. Many computer
systems now have webcams built in to their monitors as
standard.

Uses
• Many people use webcams as a more personal way of having a conversation
while chatting online.
• They are used to enable video conferencing to take place.

Advantages
• Elderly or disable people can stay in touch visually with relatives without
leaving their home.
• They can be online constantly.

Disadvantages
• Limited in their features (no zoom facility, for example).
• Poor quality.
• They need to be connected to the computer.

Scanners  
Scanners are mainly used to input hard copy images into a computer.

Uses
• Scan in documents and convert into a format
for use in various software packages.
• Scan in photographs.

Advantages
• Allows images to be stored for further editing.
• Much faster and more accurate than typing in documents again.

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Disadvantage
• Quality can be limited depending on how good a resolution the scanner is
capable of.
• They can be fairly slow.

2.3 Direct Data Entry (DDE) devices

Optical  Character  Reader/Recognition  (OCR)  

OCR is the name given to the device/software
than takes scanned text and converts it into a
computer-readable form.

Uses
• Inputting text to computer from a hard copy
paper.
• One of the most recent uses is the processing of passports and identity cards.

Advantages
• It is much faster data-entry system than manually keying in data.
• Since no manual data entry, errors are reduced.

Disadvantage
• Not a very accurate technique especially when it comes to reading
handwriting.

Optical  Mark  Reader/Recognition  (OMR)  

OMR is a device that can read the position of
marks (called lozenges) written in a pen or pencil.
These positions are stored in the computer’s
memory after being read by the OMR device.

Uses
• OMR is mainly used to read questionnaires, multiple choice examination
papers and other types of form where responses are registered in the for of
shaded areas.

Advantages
• Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, multiple choice examination
paper, etc.

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• Since there is no typing, there are more accurate than keying in the data.
• They are more accurate than OCR methods.

Disadvantages
• The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure that the marks/shading
are correctly positioned to gather accurate information.
• There can be problems if the forms haven’t been filled in correctly; sometimes
they have to be checked manually before being read, which is both time
consuming and expensive.

Magnetic  Ink  Character  Reader/Recognition  (MICR)  

MICR is a system that can read characters printed in special ink (magnetic ink
characters).
The system is used primarily to process cheques in
banking operations. This is done by reading the
characters at the bottom of a bank cheque (the code of the
cheque) and converting these characters into a form that
the computer can understand and store.

Advantages of using MICR

• Offers greater security than OCR since the printed
characters cannot be altered.
• There is no manual input, so errors are reduced.
• The magnetic ink characters on bank cheques can still be read even if
somebody writes over them (for example, a signature).

Disadvantages of using MICR

• Only certain characters can be read and the number of different characters is
very limited.
• Expensive.

Barcode  reader  
Barcode readers are used to read information in the
form of a barcode. The readers are usually in the form
of barcode scanner and are often built into POS
terminals in supermarkets.

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Uses
• Used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods are marked with a
barcode.
• Used in libraries to keep track of books on loan.

Advantages
• Much faster than keying in data manually and fewer mistakes will be made.
• If used as a way of recording data, they can improve safety.
• They allow automatic stock control.
• They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantage
• Relatively expensive system to administer.
• Not foolproof (barcodes can be swapped around on items).
• Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or magnetic strips.
 

Radio  Frequency  Identification  (RFID)  Reader    

RFID readers use radio waves to read and capture
information stored on RFID tag. This tag can be read
from a distance of several meters. The RFID tag is
composed of two components:
1. Microchip to store and process data/information
2. Antenna to receive and transmit data/information
RFID tag can be passive or battery powered. Passive tag
uses the RFID reader’s radio wave energy to send data. Battery powered tag uses a
small battery to power the RFID and send radio waves to be captured by the RFID
reader.

Uses
• Livestock tracking (so that the whereabouts of each
animal on a farm is known; it also identifies which
farm owns the animal).
• Retail.
o Similar to barcodes but no scanning is
needed, as all information can be stored on
the tag.
o Several tags can be read at the same time,
thus speeding up the checkout process.
• Admission passes.

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o For example in theme parks RFID cards eliminate the need to scan or
swipe people before ‘rides’, reducing the waiting time. It also allows the
tracking of people in the theme park and certain information, such as
height or age, can be stored to prevent entry to certain rides as a
safety measure.
• Passports.
• Libraries.
o Books can be tracked in and out automatically by RFID readers at the
library entrance. Which means that no need to scan barcodes or
magnetic stripe cards, making the process faster and more accurate.

Advantages
• No line-of-sight contact is necessary as the tags can be read from a distance
of several meters. This is one advantage over the barcode system.
• Robust and reliable technology.
• Very fast read rate (takes less than 100 milliseconds to respond).
• Allows read and write operations to occur (Bidirectional data transfer).
• Several RFID tags can be detected at the same time.

Disadvantages
• Tag collision may occur. This can happen when the signals from two or more
RFID tags overlap or interfere with each other.
• Easy to interrupt or jam as RFID technology uses radio waves.
• Easy to hack into the data/signal transmitted by the tag.
• RFID is more expensive than the barcode system.

Magnetic  Stripe  Reader  

These are used to read information on the magnetic
stripe found on, for example, the back of a credit/debit
card.
The stripe contains useful information, for example:
account number, expiry date and start date.

Uses
• On credit/debit cards for use at ATMs or
EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of
Sale) terminals.
• Security devices to allow entry to buildings, hotel rooms, etc.

Advantages
• Fast data entry compared with keying in with a keyboard or keypad.

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• Error free since no typing is involved.
• Secure, as the information is not typed.
• Prevents access to restricted/secure areas.
• Not affected by oil, water, moisture, etc.

Disadvantages
• If the magnetic stripe gets damaged, the data will be lost.
• Doesn’t work at a distance. The card needs to be in close contact with the
reader.
• Since the information is not human readable, this can be a disadvantage in
some applications.
 
Chip  and  PIN  Reader  
Chip and PIN readers are used at EFTPOS
terminals. The device has a slot into which the
card is placed and the chip is read; the PIN is
entered using the keypad. The reader also has a
small screen which gives instructions to the
operator.

Uses
• Where payments are made using cards (restaurants, supermarkets, travel
agents, etc.).

Advantages
• More secure system (PIN typed in must match up with PIN stored on chip).
• More robust system than magnetic stripe cards.
Disadvantages
• Subject to fraud – need to be careful to ensure PIN isnt read by somebody
else while typing it in.

2.4 Sensors
A sensor is a device that measures and inputs physical quantities that is
continuously changing to a computer. Sensors are used in both monitoring and
control applications.

Type of sensor Applications

Used in automatic washing machines, central heating
Temperature
systems, automatic glasshouses, ovens

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Used in burglar alarm systems, washing machines, robotics,

Pressure
environmental monitoring
Used in automatic glasshouses, automatic doors, burglar
Light
alarm systems, street lighting control

Advantages
• More accurate readings taken when compared to human operators.
• Readings are continuous – no break in the monitoring.
• Because it is continuous process, any necessary action (control system) or
warning (measurement system) will be initiated immediately.
• Systems can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention.
Disadvantages
• Faulty sensors can give false results.

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Chapter 3
Output Devices

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As the name suggests, these are hardware devices that allow data to be output from
a computer.

3.1 Monitors

CRT  monitor  
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors are the least expensive type of monitor. They are
becoming extremely rare as TFT monitors are now taking over.

Uses
• They were used as the primary output device for
computers.
• They are used with light pens to allow designs to
be created easily on screen.
• Used in applications where more than one user
may need to view screen simultaneously such as in
design use, e.g. when several designers may need
to offer suggestions on a prototype.

Advantages
• Cheaper than TFT monitors.
• The angle of viewing is wider than most TFT monitors.
• They work with light pens in CAD applications

Disadvantages
• They tend to be rather heaving and present a safety hazard if not supported
properly.
• They produce more glare and more harmful radiations than other types of
monitors.
• They run very hot and cause fire if left unattended (especially as they get
older).

TFT  monitor  
Thin Film Transistor (TFT) monitors are taking over from CRT
monitors as the main output device. One of the reasons for the
rapid development of laptop computers can be attributed to the
advancements made in TFT technology.

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Uses
• They are used as the primary output device for computers.
• They are an integral part of laptop computers.

Advantages
• They are lightweight and don’t pose the same risks as CRT monitors
• They produce less glare than CRT monitors and also emit less radiations.
• They consume much less power and don’t generate as much heat as a CRT
monitor.

Disadvantages
• The angle of viewing for TFT is fairly critical. If several people are looking at
the screen at the same time, the image will not be clear to most of these
people.
• More expensive than CRT monitor.

LCD  monitor  
The days of CRT monitors are almost gone. These days, most monitors and
television sets are made using Liquid Crystal Display/Diode (LCD) and Light Emitting
Diode (LED) technologies. These are simply a development of the TFT monitors.
LCD monitors have two main components, which are the front pixels and a
backlight.
The pixels are made of liquid crystal diodes, which are grouped together in threes
(one for red, one for green and one for blue). Because LCD doesn’t emit light, some
form of backlit technology needs to be used.
Traditional LCD monitors used cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL) as the
backlighting method.

LED  monitor  
The LED monitor uses the same technology as LCD but it is not backlit using CCFL,
instead, it uses light emitting diodes (LEDs) as backlight, which gives better contrast
and brightness. LED monitors have become increasingly more popular than the
traditional LCD monitor due to a number of advantages over older CCFL technology.

Advantages of LED monitors over LCD monitors

• Light emitting diodes (LEDs) reach their maximum brightness almost
immediately (there is no need to ‘warm up’ before reaching full efficiency).
• LEDs give a whiter light, which sharpens the image and makes the colours
appear more vivid. CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint.

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• LEDs produce a brighter light, which improves the colour definition.
• Monitors using LED technology (LED monitors) are much thinner than
monitors using CCFL technology (traditional LCD monitors).
• LEDs last almost indefinitely. This makes the technology more reliable and
makes for a more consistent product.
• LEDs consume very little power, which means they produce less heat as well
as using less energy.

3.2 Printers

Laser  printer  
Laser printers produce very high-quality hard-copy output. The print rate per page is
very quick if a large number of pages are being printed. They rely on large buffer
memories where the data for the whole document is stored before the pages can be
printed out.

Uses
• They are used where low noise is required (for
example, in an office).
• They are used where rapid, high quality and high
volumes of output are required (for example, most
offices and schools).

Advantages
• Printing is fast.
• High quality.
• Running cost for black and white printouts is cheaper than inkjet printers as
toner cartridges last for a long time.

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• They can handle very large print jobs.
• Produces low noise.
Disadvantages
• Only really fast if several copies are being made.
• High initial cost.
• Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run.
• They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their method
of printing and type of ink used (these have been linked to health hazards in
the office).

Inkjet  printer  
Inkjet printers are used to produce good quality hard
copies. Unlike laser printers, inkjet printers don’t have
large buffers, therefore printing is done a bit at a time.
This is why printing is sometimes paused since the
whole page can’t be stored in the buffer and it has to
wait for the computer to send more data.

Uses
• Used where low output volumes are required.
• If high-quality printing is required for single
pages (or only a small print job) then these printers are ideal (for example,
when producing photo-quality printouts)

Advantages
• High quality output.
• Cheaper to buy than laser printers (lower initial cost).
• Very lightweight and have a small footprint.
• Don’t produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.

Disadvantages
• Slow output (little buffer capacity to store the pages).
• Can’t do large print jobs (ink cartridges run out too quickly).
• High running cost, as the original ink cartridges are expensive to buy and run
out too quickly.

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Dot  matrix  printer  

Dot matrix printers have different sizes. They tend to be slow, noisy and the output is
not very good. However, they are still useful where multi-part or continuous
stationery is being used.

Uses
• They can be used in noisy environment (for
example, garage workshops) and in
applications where print quality is not that
important.
• They are used in applications where multi-part
stationery is used (for example, producing wage slips).

Advantages
• They can be used in environments that would be a problem to laser or inkjet
printers (for example, dusty/dirty or moist atmospheres).
• Carbon copies or multi-part outputs are produced.
• Low running cost.
• Easy to use if continuous stationery is required (for example, long print jobs
such as wages slips).

Disadvantages
• Very noisy – not good in an office environment.
• Higher initial cost than inkjet printer.
• Very slow.
• Low quality printing.

3-­‐D  printer  
3-D printers are primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD)
application. They are used to produce solid objects that
actually work. The following information describes some of the
features of 3-D printing:
• The solid object is built up using materials such as
powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic.
• 3-D printers use additive manufacturing. This means
that the object is built up layer by layer instead of the more traditional method
of subtractive manufacturing.
• Various types of 3-D printers exist. They range from the size of a microwave
oven up to the size of a small car.

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Advantages
• Manufacturing of items (especially customized items) has become much
easier than ever before. It is now theoretically possible to manufacture any
product a user wants using only a 3-D printer.
• It allows for a rapid prototyping as it can manufacture items relatively quickly.
• Cost of 3-D printing is less than costs involved in manufacturing a product in
the more conventional way.
• Medical benefits are emerging, such as producing artificial organs, prosthetics
and precision-made items for reconstructive surgery.
• Parts for machinery that are no longer made could now be manufactured
using 3-D printers.

Disadvantages
• The possibility of producing items that infringe others’ copyright.
• 3-D printing can lead to dangerous or illegal activities if it falls in the hands of
the wrong people. This technology can be used to produce dangerous items
(such as, weapons).
• Potential for job losses if this technology takes over from some types of
manufacturing.

3.3 Other output devices

Graph  plotter/Wide  format  printer  

Graph plotter is printing device that can produce large highly-detailed printouts (for
example, the world map). It is very expensive and slow.

Uses
• CAD applications where large printouts are
required such as A0
• To produce large printout of graphs.
Advantages
• Extremely large output can be produced.
• Very high quality output.
Disadvantage
• Very expensive.
• Slow in printing.

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Multimedia  projector  
Multimedia projector is a device that receives signals from a computer, television or
DVD player then magnifies and projects the source image on to a large screen. The
device usually works with remote control. but also use virtual mouse technology,
which actually becomes a cordless PC mouse with the same features as a mouse.
Most multimedia projectors take input from various types of video format.

Uses
• Training presentations.
• Advertising presentations.
• Home cinema systems (projecting the images
from a DVD or television).
Advantages
• Enables many people to see a presentation rather than crowding around a
small computer screen.
• Avoids the need for several networked computers (for example, when looking
at a video clip on an internet site – everybody can see the video on the large
screen rather than logging on to a number of computers).
Disadvantages
• Images can sometimes be fuzzy.
• Expensive to buy.
• Setting up projectors can be a little difficult.

Speakers  
Speakers can be connected directly to a computer or are built into
the monitor or casing (as in a laptop computer). Digital data from
the computer is converted into analogue form (using a digital to
analogue converter – DAC) and the signal is amplified through the
speakers. A sound card interface is needed in the computer to
‘drive’ the speakers.

Uses
• Output sound from multimedia presentations.
• Play downloaded sound files.
• Audio output of text on the screen helps users with disabilities.
 
 
 

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3.4 Actuators/Control devices

Actuators (also called Control Devices) are used to take signals from a computer and
convert them into some form of action, for example operating motors, pumps and
valves. In this section, we will discuss some control devices: Motors, Buzzers, Lights
and Heaters.

Motors  
Motors provide movement.

Uses
• Used in automatic washing machines, cookers, water
pumps in central heating systems, and in automatic
glasshouses to open windows and switch on fans.
• Control of robot arms in industry.
• In computers to control fans, disk drives and DVD drives.

Buzzers  
Buzzers provide noise/sound.

Uses
• Used in cookers and microwave ovens to the
operator when the cooking process is complete.
• Used in burglar alarm systems to warn of intruders.

 
Lights  
Light bulbs are used to provide light, or to indicate
something.
 
Uses
• Security lights.
• In glasshouses to control the lighting conditions.

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Heaters  
They provide heat.
Uses
• Automatic washing machines to heat up the water if
necessary.
• Automatically control the temperature in an oven or
hot plate.
• Control the heating in a central heating system.
• Temperature control in an automatic glasshouse.

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Chapter 4
Storage Devices

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4.1 Backing up of data

Backing up refers to the making one or more spare copies of
data. Backing up files and data on a regular basis is seen as
good computing practice and many computer systems can be
set to back up files automatically on a regular basis. The
backups are often stored in a different place to the main
memory. This is in case of fire or some other situation that
could lead to irretrievable loss of important data/files.

Why back up data?

• To safeguard against loss of data due to failure of the original secondary
storage device. This could be due to hardware failure.
• To safeguard against problems caused by files being overwritten accidently.
• To safeguard against possible corruption of files (for example, caused by
power surges).
• To safeguard against damage caused by hackers. Hackers can cause
problems such as data corruption or data loss.
• Backups are also made in case the files need to be used elsewhere. This
protects the original files against possible corruption and loss.
 

4.2 Access types

A number of secondary storage devices are discussed in Section 4.3. As a matter of
fact the way data is stored and read by each of these devices is very different. This
section briefly discusses the two main methods of accessing data.

Serial  /  Sequential  Access  

A serial (or sequential) access storage device is one that stores files one-by-one in a
sequence. When a file is searched, it is necessary to start by the first file on the
storage device and then continue searching one by one until the needed file is found.
Serial access is primarily used on magnetic tape systems and is essentially a very
slow form of data access. It is used in applications where speed of access, or where
the order in which the data is accessed, isn’t important (for example in utility billing,
clearing bank cheques or producing pay slips).

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Direct  /  Random  Access  

A direct (or 'random') access storage device is one that stores files so that they can
be instantly accessed. When searching a file, there is no need to pass through other
files to get to the one you want. Consequently, it is much faster than serial access. It
is used in applications where data access speed is vital (for example, in online
systems such as booking air tickets or automatic stock control). Direct access is
used with magnetic disks, optical media and solid-state media.

4.3 Secondary storage media

Dating right back to the dawn of the personal computer, all systems have come
equipped with some form of secondary storage. When a user loads data into a
computer, the information is stored temporarily in the RAM. However, if the computer
turns off, the data will be lost. Secondary storage devices ensure that data is stored
permanently so that it can be used again later.
Secondary storage has another name, which is Backing storage. The latter name
was given due to the fact that these devices, which are discussed in this section, are
also used to store the backup data.
Devices fall into three different types of storage media:
• Magnetic
• Optical
• Solid-state.

4.3.1 Magnetic  storage  media  

Magnetic storage media depend on the magnetic properties of certain materials.

Fixed/Internal  hard  disk  drive  (HDD)  

Fixed hard disk drives are available on all computers and are the main method used
for data storage. On a PC this is usually a fixed hard disk
with read/write heads allowing data to be written to or
read from the disk surface.

Uses
• To store the operating system, systems software
and working data/files.
• Storing applications software that needs fast
retrieval and storage of data.
• Used in real-time systems (for example, robots)

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• Used in online systems (for example, booking airline tickets online).
• Used in file servers for computer networks.
Advantages
• They have very large memory capacities.
• They have a very fast data transfer rate.
• They have fast access times to data.

Disadvantages
• Can be easily damages if the correct shut down procedure is not carried out
or if it is hit.
• They have many moving parts when compared to Solid State Drives (SSDs).
• Their read/write operation can be quite noisy compared to SSDs.

Portable  hard  disk  drives  

These devices work the same way as fixed hard disk
drives but are usually connected to the computer via the
USB (Universal Serial Bus) port and can be
disconnected and used on different computers
(portable).

Uses
• They can be used as backup systems to prevent
loss of data.
• They can be used to transfer data/files/software between computers.

Advantages
• They have a large memory capacity.
• Data transfer rate is very fast.
• Data access time is very fast.
• They can be used as a method of transferring information between
computers.

Disadvantages
• They can be easily damaged if dropped or subjected to a strong magnetic
field.
• An incorrect shutdown procedure could lead to loss of data.

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Magnetic  tapes  
A magnetic tape is a very thin strip of plastic that has
been coated in a magnetic layer. Data is read from the
tape using serial access. This type of storage is useless
in real-time or online applications (due to the very slow
data access speeds) and is best suited for offline or
batch processing.

Uses
• Used for backups of file servers for computer networks.
• Used in long-term archiving of data. Magnetic tapes have huge data
storage capacities and are know to be very stable,
which make them ideal for long-term storage.
• Used as a backup media since all the data needs
to be stored.
• Uses in applications where batch processing is
used, for example, clearing of bank cheques, utility
billing and producing pay slips. In these
applications there is no need for any specific processing order and speed of
data access is not essential.

Advantages
• They are less expensive than the equivalent hard disk.
• It is a very robust technology (they don’t deteriorate very much over time).
• They have a huge data storage capacity.
• The data transfer rate is fast (this should not be confused with data access
time, which is very slow for magnetic tape).

Disadvantages
• Very slow data access times (need to real all the earlier records on the tape
until the required record is found).
• They are affected by magnetic fields. A strong magnet can corrupt data stored
on the tape.

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4.3.2 Optical  storage  media  

CD/DVD  disks  
CDs and DVDs are described as optical storage devices. Laser light is used to read
data and to write data on the surface of the disk. CDs and DVDs can be categorized
as follows:
• R – write only once.
• ROM – can only be read.
• RW – can be written to or read from many
times.
 
CDs tend to be used for files smaller than 1Gb, which are too big for a floppy disc to
hold, for example music and general animation. DVDs are used to hold larger files
than CDs (several Gb) such as movie films. Both CDs and DVDs are portable i.e.
they can be transported from one computer to another.

CD-­‐ROM  and  DVD-­‐ROM  

These optical disks are read-only memory (ROM), which means that they cannot be
written over and can only be read.

Uses
• CD-ROMs are used to store music files, software, computer games and
reference software (such as an encyclopedia).
• DVD-ROMs have much larger storage and are used to store films, computer
data and ever-more sophisticated computer games.
• CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are used in applications where there is a real
need to prevent the deletion or overwriting of important data.

Advantages
• They hold far more data than floppy disks (one CD/DVD could replace several
floppy disks in some applications).
• They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems.

Disadvantages
• Data transfer rate is slower than for hard disks.
• Data access time is slower than for hard disks.
 

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CD-­‐R  and  DVD-­‐R  

The letter R here means the disk is recordable only once;
it becomes a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM once it has been
finalized (this means that the CD/DVD cannot have any
additional data written to it).
 
Uses
• Home recordings of music (CD-R) and films (DVD-
R).
• Used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to another
computer.
Advantages
• Cheaper than RW disks.
• Once burned (and finalized) they are a ROM.

Disadvantages
• If the CD-R/DVD-R is finalized and an error in the
data has occurred, then the disk has to be
discarded since it can be no longer be written to.
• Space can be wasted if the CD-R/DVD-R was not
fully consumed before burning and finalizing it.
• Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.

CD-­‐RW  and  DVD-­‐RW  

The RW means that these disks are a rewritable media
and can be written over several times. Unlike CD-R/DVD-
R, they don’t become ROMs.

Uses
• Used to record television programs (like video
recorder), which can be recorded over and over again.
• Used in CCTV systems.

Advantages
• Can be written over many times.
• Can use different file formats each time it is used.

Disadvantages
• Relatively expensive.

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• It is possible to accidentally overwrite data.
 

DVD-­‐RAM  
DVD-RAM uses a very different technology to CDs
and DVDs. They have the following features:
• DVD-RAMs allow for simultaneous read and
write operations to take place.
• They allow numerous read and write
operations (up to 100 000 times) and have
great longevity (over 30 years), which makes
them ideal for archiving.

Uses
• In recording devices such as satellite
receivers to allow simultaneous recording and playback.
• Used in camcorders to store movies.

Advantages
• They have a long life.
• Very fast access if the files are fairly small.
• Very large capacity (about 10 GB).
• They offer the ability to read data at the same time as data is being written.
• It is possible to do a rewrite operation over 100,000 times (compare this to the
RW format, which only allows for about 1,000 rewrites).
• Writing on DVD-RAMs is very reliable – they have built in verification software,
so the accuracy of the data is ensured.
• No need to finalize the disk.
 

Blu-­‐ray  discs  
Blu-ray discs are another example of optical storage
media. However, they are fundamentally different to
DVDs and CDs in their construction and in the way
they carry out read-write operations.

Uses
• Home vide consoles.
• Storing and playing back movies (one high-definition movie of two hours
duration uses up 25 GB of memory).

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• PCs can use this technology for data storage or backing up hard drives.
• Camcorders can used this media to store movie footage.

Advantages
• Very large storage capacity, therefore ideal for storing high-definition movies.
• Very fast data transfer rate.
• The data access speed is greater than with other optical media.
• Blu-rays discs automatically come with a secure encryption system, which
helps to prevent piracy and copyright infringement.

Disadvantages
• Relatively expensive.
• Encryption problems (which are used to stop piracy) when used to store
video.

All these optical storage media are used as backup systems (for photos, music and
multimedia files). This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used to transfer files
between computers. Manufacturers often supply their software using CDs and DVDs.
When the software is supplied in this way, the disk is usually in a read-only format.
The most common use of DVD and Blu-ray is the supply of movies or games. The
memory capacity of CDs isn’t big enough to store most movies.

4.3.3 Solid  state  storage  media  

Solid  State  Drives  (SSDs)  

Solid State Drives (SSDs) are rapidly taking
over from HDDs.
The main advantages of SSDs over
HDDs are:
• They have no moving parts thus
more reliable.
• Because there are no moving parts, they are very thin.
• They are considerably lighter (making them suitable for laptops).
• They don’t have to get ‘up to speed’ before they work properly.
• They have lower power consumption (making them suitable for laptops).
• They run much cooler than HDDs (making them suitable for laptops).
• Data access speed is considerably faster than HDD.

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The main drawback of SDD is the questionable durability of the technology. Most
solid-state storage devices are conservatively rated at only 20 GB write operations
per day over a three-year period (this is known as SSD endurance). For this reason,
SSD technology is not used in internet servers, where a huge number of write
operations take place every day.

However, this issue is being addressed by a number of manufacturers to improve the

durability of these solid-state systems.

Memory  sticks/Pen  drives  

Memory sticks/pen drives can store several gigabytes of data. They are usually
connected to a computer through the USB port and power to operate them is drawn
from the host computer. They are extremely small and very portable. Most operating
systems recognize these storage media, which means no additional software is
needed to operate them.

Uses
• Transporting files between computers or
used as a backup store.
• Used as a security device to prevent
software piracy (known as a dongle).

Advantages
• Very compact and portable media.
• Very robust.
• Doesn’t need additional software to work on most computers.
• They are not affected by magnetic fields.

Disadvantages
• Can’t write-protect the data/files.
• Easy to lose (due to their small physical size).
• The user needs to be very careful when removing a memory stick from a
computer – incorrect removal (for example, when it is still doing a read/write
operation) will corrupt the data on the memory stick.
• Lower storage capacity compared to hard disk drives.

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Flash  memory  cards  

 
Uses
• Storing photos on digital cameras.
• Used as mobile phone memory cards.
• Used in MP3 players to store music files.
• Used as a backup store in hand-held computer
devices.

Advantages
• Very compact and can be easily removed and used in another device or for
transferring photos directly to a computer or printer.
• Very robust.

Disadvantages
• Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to hard disk drives.
• Have a finite life regarding the number of times they can be read from or
written to.
• Have a lower storage capacity than hard disks.

4.4 Cloud storage

Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on offsite servers,
which are owned and managed by a hosting company. The same data is stored on
more than one server (data redundancy) in case of maintenance or repair, allowing
clients to access data at any time.
Instead of saving data on a local hard
disk or other storage device, a user can
save their data ‘in the cloud’. Users
purchase cloud storage and can then
access all their files (for example,
photos, videos, music or e-books) from
any device anywhere in the world.
There are three common cloud storage
systems:
• Public cloud
o This is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
storage provider are different companies.

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• Private cloud
o This is a storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
company firewall. The customer/client and cloud storage provider are
integrated and operate as a single entity.
• Hybrid cloud
o This is a combination of the previous two environments. Some data
resides in the private cloud while less-sensitive data can be accessed
from a public cloud storage provider.

Advantages
• Customer/client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from
any device, anywhere in the world (provided internet access is available).
• There is no need for a customer/client to
carry an external storage device with them, or
even to use the same computer, to store and
retrieve data.
• The cloud provides the user with remote
backup of data with obvious advantages to
lower the risk of data loss problem.
• If a customer/client has a failure of their hard disk or backup device, cloud
storage will allow recovery of their data.
• The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity.

Disadvantages
• Security aspects of cloud storage (data security and data loss).
• If the customer/client has a slow or unstable Internet connection, they could
have problems accessing or downloading their data/files from the cloud.
• Costs can be high if a large storage capacity is required. It can also be
expensive to pay for high download/upload data transfer limits with the
Internet service provider (ISP).
• The potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible – this
poses a risk of loss of all backup data.

4.5 Cloud security

Using cloud storage has many obvious advantages.
However, there are still security worries about using
cloud storage. The main fears are data security and
data loss.
 

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Data  security
Companies that transfer large amounts of confidential and sensitive data from their
own systems to a cloud service provider are effectively relinquishing/surrendering
control of their own data security. This raises a number of questions:
• What physical security exists regarding the building where the data is
housed?
• How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or
power cuts?
• What safeguards exists regarding personnel who work for the cloud service
company? Can they use their authorization codes to access confidential data
for monetary purposes?
In other words, data security issue is concerned with physical security of the cloud
storage.

Data  loss  
There is a risk that important and irreplaceable data could be lost from the cloud
storage facilities. Actions from hackers could lead to loss or corruption of data. Users
need to be certain that sufficient safeguards exist to overcome these potentially very
harmful risks.

All the above reasons have made individuals and companies nervous about using
cloud storage service providers. A ‘game’ between hackers and owners of online
service companies continues to simmer.

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Introduction to databases  
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Chapter 5
Introduction to databases

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5.1 Data types

Before we enter data into a computer system, we usually need to tell the computer
what type of data it is. This is because the computer stores and processes different
types of data in different ways.

1.  Numeric  Data    
Numeric data simply means numbers. However, numbers come in a variety of
different types.
• Integers
An integer is a whole number - it has no decimal or fractional parts. Integers can be
either positive or negative.
Examples: 12, 45, 1274, 1000000, -3, -5735.

• Real Numbers
Real numbers include whole numbers (integers) and numbers with decimal/fractional
parts. Real numbers can be positive or negative.
Examples: 1, 1.4534, 946.5, -0.0003, 3.142.

• Currency
Currency refers to real numbers that are preceded by a currency symbol.
Examples: £12.45, -£0.01, €999.00, $5500.

• Percentage
Percentage refers to fractional real numbers that are followed by a percent symbol.
So, the real value 0.5 would be shown as 50%, the value 0.01 would be shown as
1% and the number 1.25 would be shown as 125%. Inside the computer the 50% is
stored as a real number: 0.5, But when it is displayed it is shown formatted as a
percentage.
Examples: 100%, 25%, 1200%, -5%.

2.  Alphanumeric/Text  Data  
Alphanumeric (often simply called 'text') data refers to data made up of letters
(alphabet) and numbers (numeric). Usually symbols ($%^+@, etc.) and spaces are
also allowed.
Examples: DOG, "A little mouse", ABC123, [email protected].

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3.  Date/Time  Data  
Date (or time) data is usually formatted in a specific way. The format depends upon
the setup of the computer, the software in use and the user's preferences.
Date Examples: 25/10/2007, 12 Mar 2008, 10-06-08.
Time Examples: 11am, 15:00, 3:00pm, 17:05:45.

4.  Boolean/Logical  Data  
Boolean data is sometimes called 'logical1 data (or in some software, 'Yes/No' data).
Boolean data can only have two values: TRUE or FALSE.
Note that TRUE and FALSE can also be shown as YES / NO, ON / OFF, or even
graphically as tick boxes (ticked / unticked).
Examples: TRUE, FALSE, YES, NO, ON, OFF.

Selecting  Data  Types  

When we are presented with data to be input into a computer system, we must
analyze it and select appropriate data types for each value.

Student Name : Ben Smith Alphanumeric

Student Number: 1234 Numeric (integer)
Date of Birth: 10 July 1998 Numeric (Date)
Year Group: 6 Numeric (Integer)
Telephone: (0232) 744 6574 Alphanumeric
Special Diet: Yes Boolean
Exam Score: 78% Numeric (Percentage)
Height: 1.67 Numeric (Real)
Fees Paid: $ 1500 Numeric (Currency)

Note that the telephone number in the example to the left has a data type of
alphanumeric. You might think that it should be numeric, however phone numbers
often have spaces, dashes, etc. which numeric data cannot have.

5.2 Definition of Database

A database is an organized collection of data. A database program is software,
which stores and retrieves data in a structured way. This includes the data that is
stored and the links between the data items. All databases store data using a

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system of files, records and fields. The following section describes some database
terminologies.

5.3 Database terminologies

Field  
A field is an area of a record reserved for one particular type of data. Each field
contains one data item.

Record  
A record is a group of related items of data, which together can be treated as a unit.

File  
A file is an organized collection of related records

Field  name  
A field name is the title given to each field and is always present at the top row of
table.

Primary  key/Key  field  

A primary key is a field that uniquely identifies a record and may never be repeated
for more than one record.

Databases have two types: flat-file databases and relational databases.

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5.4 Database types

Flat-­‐file  databases  
A flat-file system refers to a database where all the date is held in a single table or
file. An example of a flat file database is given below.

Relational  databases  
A relational database stores data in more than one linked table, stored in a file.
Relational databases are designed so that the same data is not stored many times.
Each table within a relational database will have a primary key. Most tables will have
a primary key field that holds unique data (no two records are the same in this field)
and is the field used to identify this record.

For this example, all the data associated with the customer is held in one file and all
the data associated with each job is held in another file. In order to create a
connection between the two sets of data, a relationship must be created by using
two key fields.

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Foreign  keys  
The foreign key is the destination point of the relationship. It remains a unique
identifier as regards the customer file but it may occur more than once in the job file
because the customer may have more than one job.

As you can see, the 'Customer ID' field acts as the primary key in the customer file
and foreign key in the job file, thus enabling a relationship between the two tables.

Relationships  
A relationship is a term used with relational databases to indicate a link or
association between fields. The relationship between the tables can be:
• one-to-one
o Like the relationship between a person and their ID card. One person
has only one ID card and the ID card is associated only to one person.
• one-to-may
o Like the relationship between a father and his children. One father has
many children but each child only has one father.
• many-to-many
o Like the relationship between students and courses. One student can
take several courses and each course can be taken by several
students. Thus the relationship is many to many.

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5.5 Data Verification

Verification is a way of preventing errors when data is copied from one medium to
another. There are two common ways that verification checks are carried out:

Visual  check  
This is checking for errors by the person who is entering the data. They compare the
entered data with the original document (i.e, what is on the screen is compared to
the data on the original paper documents – note that this is not the same as
proofreading).

Double  data  entry  

In this method, data is entered twice, using two people, and is then compared (either
after data entry or during the data-entry process).

5.6 Data Validation

Validation is a process where data is checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria
when input into a computer. A number of validation techniques exist.

Validation check Description Example(s)

Range check Checks whether data is within e.g. To check if a person’s
given/acceptable values age is > 0 but is also < 150
Length check Checks if the input data e.g. If a field needs six digits
contains the required number then inputting a five-digit or
of characters seven-digit number should
cause an error message
Type check Checks that the input data e.g. A person’s age should
has the appropriate data type be numeric integer not
alphanumeric, for example
Format check Checks the data is in a e.g. A date which should be
specific format or fixed in the form of dd/mm/yyyy
pattern
Presence check Checks if data is actually e.g. In an electronic from a
present and hasn’t been person’s telephone number
missed out may be a required field so, if
no data is entered, an error
message will be produced

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Existence check Checks if data from a list has e.g. When signing up to a
been chosen and not left social networking website,
blank the country list may contain
existence check. If the user
doesn’t choose a country
from the list then an error
message will be displayed
Boolean check Checks that the input data is e.g. If a database admin
from only two options. wishes to restrict the users
to enter only ‘M’ or ‘F’ in the
Gender field, then the admin
should put Boolean check on
the Gender field that accepts
only characters ‘M’ or ‘F’
Check digit A validation check used in e.g. Validating the
barcodes to validate the correctness of a barcode
correctness of the barcode.
This is done by adding an
extra digit to the left that is
calculated from the rightmost
digits using some formula.

5.7 Testing data

Testing data is the data entered to the computer to check that the computer program
(the database in our case) will respond correctly to correct and incorrect data.
Testing data has three main categories:
Normal  data  
This is data that is acceptable/reasonable and has an expected outcome. For
example, the month can be any whole number in the range of 1 to 12.
Abnormal  data  
This is data outside the limits of acceptability, or wrong type of data, and should be
rejected or cause an error message. For example, all the following values are not
allowed as inputs for the month:
• Negative numbers.
• Any value greater than 12.
• Letters or non-numeric data.
• Non-integer values (e.g., 3.5,10.75, etc.).
Extreme  data  
This is data at the limits or acceptability. For example, the extreme values of month
can be either 1 or 12.

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Chapter 6
Networks

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6.1 Definition of a Network

Network is the connection of two or more electronic devices (computers, printers,
faxes, etc.) together.
A network can be established using one of the following
ways:
• Cables
• Wireless
• Satellite
• Telephone lines

Advantages of connecting a network:

• The sharing of hardware and software resources (such as printers, scanners,
applications, etc.).
• The sharing of data/information.
• Ease of communication between users.
• Users are controlled by a network administrator (for example, changing
passwords, monitoring internet use and so on).

Disadvantages of connecting a network:

• Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network.
• Printer queues developing, which can be frustrating.
• Slower access to external network, such as the Internet.
• Increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers.
• If the main server breaks down, in most cases the network will no longer
function.

6.2 Types of Networks

Local&Area&Network&(LAN)&
It is a network that covers small geographic area, for example a building. A typical
LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices (for example, printers) that
are connected together to hubs or switches by cables.

Wireless&Local&Area&Network&(WLAN)&
WLANs are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables. In other words, they
provide wireless communications over fairly short distances using radio or infrared
signals instead of cables. The main wireless technologies that are used to form a
WLAN are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.

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Advantages of connecting to a WLAN rather than to a LAN:
• Reduces cost of cables.
• Safer – won’t trip over wires.
• Easier to connect other devices to the network.
• Makes devices more portable within range of wireless access.

Disadvantages of connecting to a WLAN rather than to a LAN:

• Less secure since any WLAN-enabled laptop can access the network if it can
pick up the signal.
• Limited range of connection.
• The data transfer rate is slower than in a wired LAN.
• Physical obstacles can interfere with the signal and thus affecting it.

Wide&area&network&(WAN)&
WANs are used where computers or networks are
situated a long distance from each other geographically
(e.g. in a different city or country).
If a number of LANs are joined together using a router,
they can form a WAN.
The most common examples of WAN are the internet
and the network of ATMs used by banks.

6.3 Network Devices

Hub&
Hub is a hardware device that connects together a
number of devices to form a LAN.
Its main task is to take any data packet (data
being transmitted over a network) received at one
of its ports and broadcasts it to every computer in
the network. This means that using a hub is not a
very secure or efficient method of data distribution.

Computer$
Data$packet$sent$ Data$sent$out$to$all$
to$network$ computers$on$the$
Computer$
HUB$ network$

Computer$

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Switch&
Switches are similar to hubs but are more efficient and intelligent in the way that they
distribute data packets. As with hubs, they connect together a number of devices or
computers to form a LAN.
However, unlike a hub, the switch checks the data packet received and sends the
data to the appropriate computer(s)
only. This makes using a switch a more
secure way of distributing data.

How&does&the&switch&do&this?&
Each device or computer on a network has a media access control (MAC) address
that uniquely identifies it. Data packets sent to switches include the MAC addresses
of the devices that should receive the data. The switch inspects the data packets and
checks the destination MAC addresses so that the data is sent to the intended
recipients only.

data$packet$sent$ computer$ data$sent$out$

to$network$ only$to$the$
SWITCH$ appropriate$
computer$ computers$on$
the$network$
computer$

&Bridge&
Bridges are devices that connect two similar LANs together. They are often used to
connect together different parts of a LAN so that they can function as a single LAN.

computer$ computer$
HUB/SWITCH$ HUB/SWITCH$
computer$ computer$

computer$ computer$

BRIDGE$

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Router&
Routers are network devices that connect multiple
networks together.
Given this information, routers can connect:
• LANs to form a WAN
• Two WANS to form a bigger WAN
• LAN to a WAN
• LAN to the internet
For these tasks to be done, routers enable data packets to be routed between
different networks by a process called Routing.

computer$
HUB/SWITCH$ ROUTER$
computer$ internet!

computer$

!
Internet&Protocol&(IP)&address&
In order for the router to route the data packet to the correct destination, the router
should know the location of the destination router. This information is determined by
the IP address.

The IP address is a unique address assigned by the ISP (see below) to a

device connected to a network. IP addresses are usually written in the form:
192.108.158.1
The IP address is split into Network ID and Host ID. The Network ID is
identification for the network (identified by the network’s main router) and the
Host ID is identification for the device itself.
Also, an IP address can be used instead of typing the full URL; for example,
http://109.108.158.1 would take you straight to the device containing the web
page corresponding to this address.

Think of it as if you want to send a letter to someone. For this letter to arrive
correctly, the envelope should include the address and the name of the recipient
before sending it to the post office.

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Thus, the data packet should include the following data:
• IP address of the sender
• IP address of the receiver
• Message (Data)

In order to be connected to the Internet, an account with ISP (Internet Service

Provider) is required.
ISP is the company that provides user with access to the Internet.

&
Steps&for&Routing:&
1. Router receives and inspects the data packets sent to it from any computer on
any of the networks connected to it.
2. Router checks the destination’s IP address from the data packet against the
routing table.
3. The router is then able to route the data packet to reach the appropriate
destination router and then to the correct switch/hub (correct route).
4. In case of using a switch, the data packet will be delivered to the destination
device as switch checks the destination’s MAC address and forwards the data
packets to the intended device.
5. In case of using a hub, the data packet will be broadcasted to the whole
network.

In order for all routers on the internet to inspect the data packets in the same
way, they have to follow the same protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that is agreed by both the sender and the
recipient.
Without following a specific protocol, data packets will not be delivered to
their intended destination correctly.

&
!

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Firewall&
A firewall can be either hardware of software. It sits between the user’s computer
and an external network (for example, the internet),
and filters information coming in and out of the user’s
computer. Given this information, firewall can do the
following:
• Prevent access to certain undesirable websites;
the firewall can keep a list of all undesirable IP
addresses.
• Prevent hackers gaining access to the user’s
computer or network. This can be done by
blocking IP addresses, but it should be pointed out that hackers can still have
access to a computer if they are using an allowed computer.
• Warn the computer of any potential threat and thus prevents any malware
getting into the network.

User’s$ Firewall$
(software$ internet$
computer$
or$
hardware)$

Network&Interface&Card&(NIC)&
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to be connected to a
network (for example, internet). It is usually part of the device hardware and usually
contains the MAC address generated at the manufacturing stage.

6.4 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication
between different devices.

Comparison&between&WiFFi&and&Bluetooth&
• Wi-Fi offers much faster data transfer rates than
Bluetooth.
• Wi-Fi has a larger effective range than Bluetooth.
• Wi-Fi offers better security than Bluetooth.
• Usually Wi-Fi can connect more devices together than Bluetooth.
o Wi-Fi: Depending on the router used


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o Bluetooth: Maximum of 7

As a result, Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks.

While Bluetooth is useful:
• In case of transferring data between two or more devices that are very close
to each other.
• When the speed of transmitting the data is not important.

6.5 How to set up and configure a small network

If you are to set up and configure a small network (10 computers for example), you
should consider doing the following:
• Setting up an IP account from an ISP if internet access is required.
• Purchasing the appropriate hardware and software:
o Switches and hubs to connect the devices together.
o Network cables to physically connect the devices together.
o Router to connect the network to the internet.
o Firewall (either hardware or software) to help protect the network
against hacking.
o Browser to surf the internet.
o ISP to provide internet service to the network, if internet is needed.
o Servers to manage network security and to store common software and
files.
• Configuring all the hardware and software so that they work together properly.
• Putting all the common software onto a server.
• Setting up a network-manager-level of privilege (Admin) so that they can
monitor network usage, change passwords, etc.

6.6 The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks.
This collection of networks allows users to:
• Send and receive emails.
• Chat online (using text, voice and video).
• Transfer files from computer to computer.
• Browse the World Wide Web.

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&
Internet&vs.&Intranet&
Another concept exists which is the intranet.
The intranet is the name given to a private network that is accessible internally to
members of some company or organization. Intranets reside behind a firewall.

There are number of reasons for adopting Intranets rather than using the
internet:
• Intranets are safer since there is less chance of external hacking or viruses.
• Companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their needs.
• It is easier to send out sensitive messages in the knowledge that they will
remain within the company.
The following table shows the differences between the Internet and the Intranet:

Internet Intranet
The term Intranet comes from the
The term Internet comes from the
phrase: internal restricted access
phrase: international network
network
Covers topics of global or general Used to give local information relevant to
interest the company or organization
Can be accessed from anywhere in the Requires password and user ID entry
world provided the user has an ISP and can only be accessed from agreed
account computers
Open on an international scale, thus less
Safer than Internet
safety
Public access Private access

6.7 General Internet terms

Webpage&
A webpage is a web document written in HTML.

Website&
It is a collection of related webpages.
A website is typically identified by a common domain name (for example,
twitter.com) and published on at least one webserver.

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World&Wide&Web&(WWW)& &
WWW consists of massive collection of web pages all connected
together using hyperlinks. This means that World Wide Web is
only part of the Internet, which users can access by using web
browser.
The internet is the connection of all networks together, while the
World Wide Web is a way of making use out of this connection by
linking all webpages and websites together. The two terms WWW
and Internet are clearly not the same thing and should not be confused.

Webserver&
Web servers are computers that contain web pages.
Every webserver has an IP address (location on the
Internet) and possibly a domain name.
For example, if you enter the URL:
http://www.facebook.com/home.htm in your web browser, a
request is sent to the web server whose domain is
facebook.com. The web server (computer that has
Facebook service) then fetches the page named home.htm and sends it to the web
browser to be displayed.

Web&browser& &
A web browser is software that
allows a user to display a web
page on their computer screen.
They are able to translate HTML
code and show this translation.
Most of the web browsers have the
following features:
• They have a Home page.
• The ability to store a user’s favorite websites/pages.
• They can keep a history of websites visited by the user.
• They give the ability to go backward and forward through websites opened.
• They have hyperlinks that allow users to navigate between web pages.
Web browsers use uniform resource locators (URLs) to access websites, retrieve
files and so on.
The web browser contacts the Domain Name Server (DNS) to retrieve the IP
address of the intended website’s server to include it in the data packet before
sending it.

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Protocol&
A protocol is a set of rules agreed by the sender and the recipient when the data
packets are transferred between devices.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the protocol that handles the routing process. This
means that in order for all routers to route the data packets correctly, these routers
should follow the Internet Protocol to be able to inspect the data packets and
extract the IP address and MAC address of the destination device.
We have other protocols that are used in the internet:
• HTTP
• SSL
• HTTPS
• FTP

Hypertext&Transfer&Protocol&(http)&
Hypertext transfer protocol (http) is a set of rules that must be
obeyed when transferring data across the Internet. Requests
and responses are handled by this protocol.

Secure&Sockets&Layer&(SSL)&
SSL is a security protocol that allows data to be encrypted while being transmitted
over the Internet. Thus, making the process of data
transmission more secure.

Hypertext&Transfer&Protocol&Secure&(https)&
It has the same function of http but using SSL (or
encryption).
Because of encryption, it is slower to use https than http,
so it is usually only adopted when sensitive or private data is being transferred
across the Internet.

File&Transfer&Protocol&(ftp)&
It is the protocol used when transferring files from one
computer to another computer over the Internet.

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The URL is the unique address for a web page. The format of the URL is:
protocol://website address/path/filename
where:
• Protocol is usually http or https
• Website address:
o www
o domain name (name of website)
o domain type (.com, .org, .co, .net, .gov)
o sometimes a country code is given (.uk, .us)
• Path of the webpage
• Filename is the name of the webpage itself

6.8 Network communication

Faxes&
There are two basic ways of sending a fax:
• Physical fax
• Electronic (Online) Faxing

Physical&Fax&&
Physical faxing requires the presence of a fax
machine, ink and paper. A typical fax machine
allows documents to be sent to another fax machine
using a normal telephone line.

The following steps show how to use the fax to

send a document:
1. The user places the document in the fax
machine tray
2. User lifts the receiver and dials the fax number of the recipient.
3. User presses send.
4. At the receiver side, the document is printed on another fax machine when it
arrives.

Physical faxing can be quite a slow way to send a document if the fax line is busy
or if there are several pages to be sent.

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Electronic&(Online)&Faxing&&
This is a more modern way to use
faxing which makes use of
computer technology and the
Internet.
To set up an account for
electronic faxing, a fax number as
well as an email address is needed. The fax is sent from a computer to the
recipient’s fax machine (if exists) as well as the recipient’s inbox.

Electronic faxing has the following advantages over the Physical faxing:
• Costs are reduced, as there is no need to buy a fax machine, ink or paper.
• Data transferred is encrypted, which enhances security.
• Transmissions are sent to an email account, which is password protected.
• There is no issue of a ‘busy signal’ prevent the fax being sent.

Differences between Electronic Fax and Email

Actually the difference between an electronic fax and an email is not a lot. The only
real difference is that electronic faxing is associated with an email address and a fax
number. The fax number is similar to the traditional fax number and needs to be
known by the sender.

Steps of using Electronic faxing

1. The sender uses the recipient’s fax number to send a fax message. The
sender of the fax can either use an email account or log into any online
account to send the fax.
2. Once a fax is received, the online fax service provider sends an email with the
fax message attached in a pdf format.

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Electronic&mails&(emails)&
Emails can be sent to, or sent from, any device connected to the
Internet. Emails are very useful when sending attachments
and when sending messages to a group of people at the same
time.
In order to use the email services, Internet connection is needed
(an account with an ISP is needed). When sending an email, it
is necessary to include the email address (which must be
exact), a subject line and any attachments if needed.

The following table compares between emails with physical faxes:

Physical faxes Emails

They are more likely to be intercepted
More secure than faxes (password
since the document needs to be printed
protected and usually sent to an
out and the fax machine is potentially
individual’s computer).
accessible to many people in the office.
No need to print the document (thus cost
Signatures on faxes are accepted legally. saving and more environmentally
friendly).
The quality of the documents printed out The document is usually of much better
can be quite poor at times. quality.
Unlike paper-based faxes, documents
If the telephone line is busy (or shared),
received in emails can be modified or
there can be a considerable delay in
easily copied and pasted into another
sending the fax.
document.
It can be a slow process if several
Documents and files can be sent and
documents are to be sent, since each
received from any device that has
document needs to be scanned before
Internet connection.
it’s sent.

It is much easier to send to multiple

recipients at the same time – with a fax
you have to dial up the fax number of
each recipient before sending.
People are more likely to have access to
email accounts than a fax machine.

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Constraints&that&affects&the&use&of&email&
There are many rules we need to follow to ensure the security of the messages sent
and also to prevent people from writing things that are regarded unacceptable.
Some of these constraints are:
• Laws within a country
• Acceptable language
• Copyright
• Security and password protection
• Netiquette (Internet Etiquette)
• Local guidelines set by an employer

1. Laws&within&a&country&
Many countries have laws to protect people against the
misuse of emails.
The following are rules that most countries require
companies and individuals to follow when sending out
emails:
• Many countries require senders of emails to
obtain permission from the recipients before
sending emails to them (opt-in permission).
• A company or individual must have a clear way for recipients to avoid
receiving emails from them (opt-out).
• It is important that emails are not sent out with false or misleading
subject lines.
• Companies and organizations must make their privacy policy very clear
to subscribers.
• Many countries don’t allow companies or organizations to harvest
email addresses (this is the process of capturing lists of email
addresses)

2. Acceptable&language&
The language used by people when writing emails must lie
within an acceptable code of practice.
The following is a list of some unacceptable content to be used
in emails:
• Language that is regarded as abusive or profane.
• Racist, exploitative, violent messages.
• Use of illegal materials in messages.
• Pornographic images.
In many countries there are very stiff penalties for going outside the above
boundaries, and it is not regarded as adequate that recipient can simply delete
images or messages.


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3. Copyright&
Emails are subject to copyright laws. As with web pages, the copyright in an email is
determined by its content.
Printing, copying or forwarding emails is generally not considered a breach of
copyright unless the sender has indicated clearly that the message is confidential or
subjected to copyright law. It is important for the recipient to check this out before
forwarding it to somebody else.
Copyright should be checked whenever the sender’s email address is part of a
company’s name, for example [email protected]. Also, emails and attachments from
companies and organizations will usually contain a copyright statement to make it
clear that the content of the email falls under copyright law.

4. Security&and&password&protection&
It is very important to consider the security of emails to avoid hacking. The following
are some methods to increase the security of emails:
• Use strong passwords when logging onto your
email (for example, the name of your pet dog is a
weak password; strong passwords contain a
combination of letters, numbers and other
symbols: Aju123ass1RQ@J^@%@ would be
regarded as a strong password).
• Change passwords on a regular basis.
• Use spam filters to remove suspicious emails to a ‘junk folder’ or even to
block the email entirely.
• Run anti-virus and anti-spam software at all times on your computer to protect
against emails from unknown or malicious sources.

5. Netiquette&
Netiquette is a shortened form of Internet Etiquette,
which refers to the need to respect other users’
views and display common courtesy when posting
views in online discussion groups or when sending
out emails. The following are some rules of
netiquette:
• Don’t be abusive – don’t threaten people or
use personal violence.
• Don’t send spam – don’t repeatedly send somebody the same information.
• Be clear with your message – don’t waffle.
• Always check your spelling and grammar.
• Respect people’s privacy and don’t discuss or publish information that might
embarrass somebody.
• Don’t use CAPTIAL LETTERS to highlight comments.


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• Don’t plagiarize – always acknowledge quotes used in any messages you
write.
• Don’t use too many emoticons (emojis) as they might annoy your readers.

6. Local&guidelines&set&by&an&employer&
Sometimes an employer can set his/her own rules
of using emails, which may restrict the usage of
emails. An employer can simply announce that all
emails sent by the employees will get inspected
for example.

&
Email&groups&
An email group is simply formed by choosing a
name and then adding the needed email
addresses. After doing this, the added email
addresses can all be contacted together using the
name of the email group.
Email groups are used for number of purposes:
• It is easier to send out multiple emails if the
addresses are all grouped together under a
single name; the user only needs to use that single name in the “to” box to
send the email to the whole group.
• Companies and organizations can group people together for marketing
purposes, for example according to age, hobbies, favorite music and so on –
this means that each email can target specific group.
• “Spammers” can create email groups by buying addresses of people from
certain companies or from software that raids address books on computers or
email companies – this means that several thousand people can be sent
spam by simply pressing the <enter> key. (This is a malicious use for email
groups)
• Companies use email groups to set up meetings to ensure that everybody is
always invited to attend – it would be easy to forget someone if all email
addresses were typed in individually.

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Video&conferencing&
Video conferencing is a communication method that uses
both video and sound and acts as a substitute for face-to-
face conferences between a number of people. It is carried
out in real time and makes use of some form of network.
Video conferencing requires the use of the following
hardware:
• webcams/video cameras
• large monitors/television screens
• microphones
• speakers
• router for the internet

Advantages of video conferencing:

• Not travelling physically to meetings reduces costs:
o No travelling costs.
o No need to pay for hotel accommodation.
• It is possible to hold conferences at short notice.
• It may be better to use video conferencing than have delegates travel to
potentially unsafe places around the world.
• Workers use their own offices so documents do not get lost while traveling.
• Better solution for disabled people who cannot easily travel.

Problems with video conferencing:

• Potential time delays when talking.
• The whole system relies on a good network connection.
• Can be expensive to set up in the first place
• Training people to use the system correctly can be both costly and time
consuming.
• It can be demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the perks of their job
is international travel.

Audio&conferencing&
Audio conferencing refers to meetings held between people
using sound (audio) equipment. The equipment used can be:
• Telephone
• Computer with built-in microphone and speakers
• Internet phone
The audio conference can be done over the telephone
network or over the Internet.


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Audio conference over telephone network
Audio conferencing using over telephone network is also known as phone
conference.
The following steps show how to organize and actually conduct a phone conference:
1. The organizer of the phone conference is given two PINs by the phone
company.
o Personal PIN of the organizer (e.g. 2151)
o Participants’ PIN (e.g. 8422)
2. The organizer contacts all the participants and informs them of their PIN and
the date and time of the phone conference.
3. When the phone conference is about to start, the organizer dials the
conference phone number.
4. Once the organizer is connected, the organizer keys in his/her personal PIN
(2151 in this case).
5. The participants then call the same conference number to join in.
6. The participants then enter the PIN given to them by the organizer (8422 in
this case). Without this PIN, it will be impossible to join the phone conference.

Audio conference over the Internet

It is possible to hold an audio conference over the Internet using a computer with a
microphone and speakers are connected to it. This technology is called Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP).
VoIP is a method that uses the internet to send voice
data between the users without using the telephone
lines. VoIP converts sound (which picked up by the
computer microphone or special VoIP telephone
plugged into the USB port of the computer) into
discrete digital packets that can be sent to their
destination via the internet.
Viber, Whatsapp and Facebook messenger are three
famous apps that use this technology.
Clearly VoIP can be used to hold a phone conference. The organizer creates a group
by dragging and dropping user names and telephone numbers into the group. When
the conference is to take place, the organizer clicks on the required group and the
conference is initiated.

Advantages of VoIP:
• It is either free (meaning that there is no telephone expenses included, only
the cost of using the Internet) if both of the talking computers have VoIP
telephones or user their plugged in/built in microphones and speakers, or at a

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local rate to anywhere in the world (when VoIP is used to communicate with a
mobile or land line telephone rather than another computer).
• A webcam can be used so that it becomes a type of video chat. As this
doesn’t have the sophistication of a videoconference, it is much cheaper.

Disadvantages of VoIP:
• Quality of the sound when using this technique is completely reliant on the
Internet connection. If the connection is not stable and fast, some problems
may occur like: drop out (loss of voice on occasions) and echoing (when the
user can hear their own voice being echoed back as they speak).
• Security issues.

Web&conferencing&
Web conferencing is simply having a conference by using
the Internet.
The only requirement is a computer and a stable Internet
connection. It is the same idea of using an application or
website (Whatsapp or Facebook for example) to have a
group chat, but of course in a more formal way.
The following are some features of web conferencing:
• Participants can leave or join the conference as they
wish.
• Sending instant messages is the main way of communication in web
conferences.
• It is possible to transmit images or videos using the webcam throughout the
conference.
• Documents can be shared by uploading them to the website/application
before the conference begins.

Web conferencing clearly links into video conferencing and audio

conferencing through the use of webcams and built-in microphone and
speakers.

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6.9 Accessing the Internet

This topic discusses the advantages and disadvantages of using mobile phones,
tablets, laptops and desktop computers to access the Internet.

Mobile&Phones&and&Tablets&
Advantages:
• Very portable. They can be used
almost anywhere provided a mobile
phone network signal.
• A person is more likely to have a
mobile phone with them at all times.
• It is easier to use a mobile phone while
on the move than other devices.

Disadvantages:
• Expensive to use if Wi-Fi hot spot is not
available.
• Mobile phone screen sizes are smaller than other devices (tablets have larger
screens than mobile phones), which makes it harder to read web pages.
• Keyboards are small (Tablets have bigger keyboards compared to mobile
phones). Therefore, it is more difficult to type in messages or navigate web
pages.
• Not all websites are mobile friendly. This means that not all websites may be
accessible using a mobile phone (for tablets, it depends on the screen size).
• Signal is less likely to be as stable or reliable as a wired system (used by PCs
and laptops).

Laptops&
Advantages:
• Laptops are more portable than desktops.
• The keyboards on laptops are much better
than those on a mobile phone.
• Touchpads are much easier to use than
mobile phones when navigating web pages.
• Screen size is usually bigger than a mobile
and some tablets.

Disadvantages:
• Heavier and less portable than tablets or
mobile phones.

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• The keyboards on laptops are not as easy to use as a desktop.
• Touchpads on laptops are not as easy to use as a mouse when navigating
web pages.
• Screen size is not as large as that on a desktop computer.
• Laptops require expensive dongles to access phone networks.
• Processors used in laptops are not usually as powerful as those in desktops,
so access speed is not as quick.

Desktop&Computers&
Advantages:
• Tend to have faster processor than
other devices.
• Usually have a more stable and reliable
Internet connection as they use a wired
system rather than Wi-Fi.
• All web pages are accessible due to
larger screen size than other devices.
• Use of full-sized keyboard and pointing
devices. This makes web page
navigation much easier.

Disadvantages:
• Not very portable as the parts are separate and its size is large.
• Desktop computers require expensive dongles to access the phone network.

6.10 Security of data

!
There are number of security risks associated with any electronic device that
connects to a network. Some of the risks include:
1. Hacking
2. Phishing
3. Smishing
4. Pharming
5. Spyware
6. Viruses
7. Spam
8. Moderated and unmoderated forums

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1. Hacking!
Definition!
The act of gaining unauthorized access to a computer system.

Possible!effects!
• This can lead to identity theft or the misuse of personal information.
• Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted on a user’s computer.

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk!
• Use of firewalls.
• Use of intrusion detection software.
• Encryption
• Authentication techniques

Encryption&
Encryption is the process of converting
information into a form that is meaningless to
anyone except holders of a 'secret key'.
Encryption is used primarily to protect data in
case it has been hacked or accessed
illegally. While encryption won’t prevent
hacking, it makes the data meaningless
unless the recipient has the necessary
decryption tools.
The following are the steps to send an encrypted message:
• Generate a secret 'key'.
• Give a copy of this key to the intended recipient. Make sure that nobody else
can get to the key.
• Encrypt the message using special encryption software and the secret key.
• Send the encrypted message using a public network like the internet.
• The recipient uses special decryption software and his copy of the secret
key to decrypt the message.

Authentication&techniques&
They are techniques to verify that data comes from a secure and trusted source OR
to verify that the person who’s accessing the data on a computer system is an
authorized user.
Authentication methods include:
• Digital certificates
• Passwords
• Magnetic stripes/id cards/passports

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• Biometrics
o Fingerprint scans
o Signature recognition
o Retina scans
o Iris recognition
o Face recognition
o Voice recognition

Digital!certificates!
!
A digital certificate is a pair
of files stored on a user’s
computer, which are used to
secure sensitive messages
and to protect the user from
harmful receiving harmful
data.
Each pair of files is divided
into:
• A public key (which is
known by anyone).
• A private key (known
to the computer user
only).

The Public Key is what its name suggests - Public. It is made available to everyone
via a publicly accessible repository or directory. On the other hand, the Private Key
must remain confidential to its respective owner. Because the key pair is
mathematically related, whatever is encrypted with a Public Key may only be
decrypted by its corresponding Private Key and vice versa.
For example, if Bob wants to send sensitive data to Alice, and wants to be sure that
only Alice may be able to read it, he will encrypt the data with Alice's Public Key.
Only Alice has access to her corresponding Private Key and as a result is the only
person with the capability of decrypting the encrypted data back into its original form.
As only Alice has access to her Private Key, it is possible that only Alice can decrypt
the encrypted data. Even if someone else gains access to the encrypted data, it will
remain confidential, as they should not have access to Alice's Private Key.

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Magnetic!stripe!cards/id!cards/passports!

Magnetic stripe cards

These cards have a magnetic stripe on one. The stripe is read
by swiping it through magnetic stripe reader. Data such as
name, ID number, sex and date of birth may be contained on a
magnetic stripe when used as a security device to allow entry to
a building, for example.

ID cards
Some ID cards also use holographic image (hologram).
These are designed to make forgery of the card more
difficult. Holographic images change colour or appear to
have a moving object when the image is viewed from
different angles. Another form of security is to have a
photographic image of the card user printed on the card
surface.

Passports
Many passports contain an RFID tag, a photograph
and a holographic image.
The following are the step when somebody
approaches passport control at an airport:
1. The passport page containing the photograph
is placed faced down on a reader.
2. Microchip is read by a reader and the facial
image on the passport is also scanned in.
3. The owner of the passport now looks up at a digital camera and a photograph
is taken.
4. The photograph is compared to the scanned facial image.
5. The data read from the microchip is also compared to data stored on a central
database.

Biometrics!
Biometrics relies on certain unique
characteristics of human beings; examples
include:
• Fingerprint scans.
• Signature recognitions.
• Retina scans.
• Iris recognition.

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• Face recognition.
• Voice recognition.

Biometrics is used in a number of applications as a

security device. For example, some of the latest mobile
phones use fingerprint matching before they can be
operated. Another example is that some
pharmaceutical companies use face recognition or
retina scans to allow entry to secure areas.

The following table shows the advantages and disadvantages of using different
biometric techniques:
Biometric
Advantages Disadvantages
technique
Fingerprint scans • One of the most developed • For some people it is very
biometric techniques. intrusive, since it is still
• Very high accuracy. related to criminal
• Very easy to use. identification.
• Relatively small storage • It can make mistakes if the
requirements for the is skin is damaged (e.g.
biometric data created. cuts).
Retina scans • Very high accuracy. • Very intrusive.
• There is no known way to • It can be relatively slow to
replicate a person’s retina. verify retina scan with
stored scans.
• Very expensive to set up
and install.
Iris recognition • Very high accuracy • Very intrusive.
• Verification time is • Uses a lot of memory for the
generally less than five data to be stored.
seconds. • Very expensive to set up
and install.
Face recognition • Non intrusive-method. • It is affected by changes in
• Relatively inexpensive lighting, the person’s hair,
technology. their age, and if the person
is wearing glasses.

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2. Phishing!
Definition:!
The action of attempting to get sensitive data from the user via email.

The hacker sends out legitimate-looking

emails to target users. As soon as the
recipient clicks on a link in the email or
attachment, they are sent to a fake website or
they are fooled into giving personal data in
replying to the email. The email often
appears to come from a trusted source, such
as a bank or well-known service provider.

Possible!effects:!
• The creator of the email can gain personal data, such as bank account data or
credit card numbers, from the user.
• This can lead to fraud or identity theft.

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk:!
• Many ISPs or web browsers filter out phishing emails.
• Users should always be cautious when opening emails or attachments.
• Don’t click on executable attachments that end in .exe, .bat, .com or .php.

3. Smishing!
Definition!
Short for SMS phishing. It uses the SMS
system of mobile phones to send out fake
text messages. It is very similar to phishing
as described earlier.

These scams often contain a URL or a telephone number embedded in the text
message. The recipient will be asked to log on to the website or make a telephone
call. If they do, they will be asked to supply personal details such as credit/debit card
numbers or passwords. As with phishing attacks, the text message will appear to
come from a legitimate source.

Most people believe that only computers are liable to security threats and that mobile
phones are not at risk. This makes smishing a particular dangerous security threat to
many people.

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Possible!effects!
Same as phishing

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk!
Same as phishing

4. Pharming!
Definition!
This is malicious code installed on a user’s
computer or on a web server, the code will redirect
the user to a fake website without their knowledge
(the user doesn’t have to take any action, unlike
phishing).

Possible!effects!
• The creator of the malicious code can gain personal data such as credit/debit
card details from users when they visit the fake website. Usually the website
appears to be that of a well-known and trusted company.
• Pharming can lead to fraud or identity theft.

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk!
• Some of the anti-spyware can identify and remove pharming code from a
user’s computer.
• The user should always be alert and look out for clues that they are being
redirected to another website.

5. Spyware!
Definition!
This is software that gathers data by spying on the user.

Possible!effects!
• Spyware gives the originator access to all data
entered using a keyboard on the user’s computer.
• The software is able to install other types of
spyware, read cookie data and also change a
user’s default browser.

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk!
• Use anti-spyware software.
• Always be alert and check for clues that their keyboard activity is being
monitored.

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• Use pointing device (or touch screen) to select characters from a drop-down
list when entering a password (banks often do this).

6.&Virus&
Definition!
This is a program code or software that infects the
computer and causes damage to it.
The code can replicate/copy itself with the intention of
deleting or corrupting files on a computer.

Possible!effects!
• Viruses can cause the computer to ‘crash’, stop functioning normally or
become unresponsive (when the user gets the ‘not responding’ message).
• The software can delete files or data on a computer.
• The software can corrupt operating system files making the computer run
slowly.

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk!
1. Install anti-virus software and update it regularly.
Running antivirus software in the background on a
computer will constantly check for virus attacks. All
antivirus software has the following common
features:
• They check software of files before they run
or loaded on a computer.
• They compare viruses against a database
of known viruses.
• They need to be kept up to date as new
viruses are constantly being discovered.
2. Avoid viruses when accessing the Internet:
• Avoid unknown suspicious-looking websites.
• Look for security indicators while accessing a website, like https or the
padlock symbol.
• Do not open emails from unknown sources.
• Scan attachments before downloading them.
• Copy and paste the URL into the address bar rather than just clicking on the
link in the email or from an advert.
3. Don’t use software from unknown sources.
4. Scan hardware devices for viruses when connected to the computer.

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7.&Spam&
Definition!
Often referred to as junk email. It is usually sent out to a
recipient who is on a mailing list or mailing group.
Spammers obtain these email addresses from:
• Chat rooms.
• Websites.
• Newsgroups.
• Viruses that have been set up to harvest a user’s
contacts list.

Possible!effects!
• It can lead to denial of services.
o Denial of services is basically an attack on a network that is designed
to slow the network down by flooding it with useless traffic.
• Spam can be linked to phishing attacks or even spread of computer viruses.

Methods!to!help!remove!the!security!risk!
• To obtain the maximum protection when using the ‘junk email filter’, set the
protection level to high or to safe lists only. Make sure that the junk mail filter
is kept up to date.
• Look out for check boxes that are already selected when items are bought
online. Companies sometimes add a check box (which is already selected) to
indicate that you have agreed to sell or give your email address to third party
users. Make sure that this check box is ‘unticked’ so that your email address
can’t be shared.
• Do not sign up to commercial mailing lists.
• Do not reply to an email or unsubscribe from a mailing list that you did not
explicitly sign up to in the first place.

8.&Moderated&and&unmoderated&forums&
A moderated forum refers to an online discussion forum in which all the posts are
checked by an administrator before they are allowed to be posted.

Many users prefer this type of forum, compared to an unmoderated one, as the
moderator can prevent spam and filter out any posts that are inappropriate, rude,
offensive or even those that wander off the main topic.
The Internet is clearly an unmoderated forum. No one owns the Internet, and it is
essentially not policed.

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This brings us to the argument of policing the Internet. As mentioned earlier, the
Internet doesn’t have any controlling body that ensures that it complies with certain
standards. As a result, many inappropriate sites exist.
There are many arguments in favor of having control and others against it.

Arguments in favor of some form of control:

• It would help to prevent illegal material being posted on the Internet (such as
racist and pornographic material).
• It would help to prevent children and other vulnerable groups from being
subjected to undesirable websites.
• Harmful material and inappropriate sites can be found easily on the Internet
(for example, how to be a hacker, how to make bombs, etc.), especially if
using a search engine.
• It would help to stop wrong information being published on websites.

Arguments against some form of control:

• Material published on websites is already available from other sources.
• It would be expensive to police all websites.
• It would be difficult to enforce rules and regulations on a global scale.
• Policing would be against freedom of information.
• There are laws already exist to deal with those who post illegal material, so no
need to police the Internet.
• There is a problem in knowing who to decide what is illegal or offensive. Many
things can be offensive to certain people (e.g. religious comments) but not to
the majority.

6.11 Online credit fraud

It is possible to be the subject of fraud when

using a credit card online for the following
reasons:
• Hackers gaining access to a user’s
computer through the user of spyware,
phishing or pharming.
• The breaking of passwords.
• If passwords are weak or no encryption is used then it is a relatively easy task
to break these passwords and thus allow illegal access to bank and credit
card accounts.
• Visiting a fake website.
• Sometimes the web address/URL is slightly altered in the email and the user
ends up visiting a fake website. Once they visit the fake website, it is possible


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that they will give personal and financial details to a fraudster without the
owner’s knowledge.
• Monitoring Internet usage in a public area and tapping in to the data that is
going to and from any computer using this wireless link.
• Hacking cloud storage servers and acquiring sensitive data.

As a result, the user should be cautious when using their credit card online.

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System Development Life Cycle  
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Chapter 7
System Development Life
Cycle (SDLC)

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A systems analysis team is often brought in to review an existing system and
suggest a number of improvements. The existing method used may be either a
manual, paper-based system, or it could be a computer-based operation that is no
longer regarded as adequate for the task. The main stages in the systems life cycle
can be shown in the following figure.

 
  Analysis  
 
 
Evaluation   Design  
 
 
 
  Documentation   Development  &  Test  
 
 
Implementation  
 
 
 

7.1 Analysis
System analysis involves examining the existing system in details, in particular:
• Collecting information about the existing system.
• Describe the inputs, outputs and processing of the current system.
• Identifying problems with current system.
Having carried out these stages, the systems analyst then needs to:
• Identify and agree customer requirements for the new system.
• Identify suitable hardware and software for the new system

7.1.1    Methods  of  Researching  (Facts  Finding)  

There are four methods of collecting information about the current system:
• Observation
• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• Examination of existing documents.
 
 
 

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Observation  
This method involves watching personnel using the
existing system to find out exactly how it works.

Advantages
• Enables the systems analyst to see the
process as a whole to get an overall view of
the system.
• The systems analyst obtains reliable data.
• A relatively inexpensive method.
Disadvantages
• People are generally uncomfortable being watched and may work in a
different way.
• If workers perform tasks that violate standard procedures, they may not do
this while being watched.

Interviews  
The systems analyst can interview key people within the system to find out how it
works.

Advantages
• Flexible, the systems analyst can change script
to suit circumstances.
• Allow lots of very detailed information to be
gathered.
• More likely to get truthful responses.

Disadvantages
• It can be a rather time-consuming exercise.
• It is relatively expensive (use of system’s analyst time).
• Not possible if large groups of people are involved.
• The interviewee can’t remain anonymous with this method.
 
Questionnaires  
This method involves distributing questionnaires to the workforce, clients or system
users to find out their views of the existing system and to find out how some of the
key tasks are carried out.
 
 

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Advantages
• The questions can be answered quite quickly.
• It is a relatively inexpensive method.
• Individuals can remain anonymous if they want.
• This method allows quick analysis of data.
• No need to prearrange appointments.

Disadvantages
• Workers may exaggerate their answers.
• The number of returned questionnaires if often low.
• The questions are rather inflexible since they have to be generic.

Examination  of  existing  documents  

Most businesses and organizations use documents
to record information, or to deliver information
(forms get filled in and passed to other offices,
etc.). This method allows the systems analyst to
see how the paper files are kept, look at operating
instructions and training manuals, check the
accounts, etc. It allows the analyst to get some idea
of the scale of the problem.

Advantages
• This method allows information to be obtained which wasn’t possible by any
of the other methods.
• Systems analysts can see for themselves how the paper system operates.

Disadvantage
• It can be very time-consuming.
• Because of the systems analyst’s time needed, it is a relatively expensive
method to use.
• Documents can sometimes be difficult to understand.

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7.1.2    Recording  and  analyzing  information  about  the  current  

system  

Identifying  features  of  the  existing  system  

Whist carrying out the fact-finding methods, the systems analyst needs to record all
the results in order to establish all the relevant features of the existing system.
 
Identify  inputs,  outputs  and  processing  of  the  current  system  
The systems analyst needs to identify the data input to the present system, and the
data output. This is because any new system that is designed will have to deal with
similar inputs and outputs as the present system.
 
Identify  problems  with  the  system  
The job of the systems analyst is to identify the problems of the current system. The
new system must be designed to avoid the problem in the old system.

Identify  and  agree  customer  requirements  for  the  new  system  

After meeting with the client(s) and agreeing with them about the features of the new
system, the systems analyst produces a requirements specifications document.
The document includes the agreed features of the new system.
 
Identify  suitable  hardware  and  software  for  the  new  system  
The actual hardware and software will not be recommended at this early stage,
however, the system analyst makes generalized recommendations for the software
and hardware to use.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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7.2 Design
Using the list of requirements, the design team (composed of system designers and
sometimes the systems analyst himself) now has to design the new system. The
design team needs to:
• Design data capture forms and screen layouts.
• Design reports layouts and screen displays.
• Design validation routines.
• Design the required data/file structures.

 
7.2.1    Designing  Data  Capture  Forms  for  Data  Input  
To get data into a system is a two-part process:
• Data must first be 'captured'
(collected in a way that then
makes it easy to input)
• Data must be input into the
computer
The systems analyst selects a data
capture method and data input method
that best suit the requirements of the
new system.
Much of the data that enters computer
systems needs to be typed in. A well-
designed data capture form can make
this task easier and quicker.
Data capture forms should:
• Have all of the necessary fields.
• Have obvious places for user input (boxes, use of colour, etc.).
• Use appropriate controls (see right) for each field.
• Have text box controls that are the right size for the data.
• Have easy-to-understand instructions (if needed).
• Make good use of the screen area available.

As data is entered into the form, it needs to be checked for accuracy. Two
techniques help us do this: validation and verification.
 
Data  Validation  Techniques  
Validation is a process where data is checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria
when input into a computer. A number of validation techniques exist.

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Validation check Description Example(s)

Range check Checks whether data is within e.g. To check if a person’s
given/acceptable values age is > 0 but is also < 150
Length check Checks if the input data e.g. If a field needs six digits
contains the required number then inputting a five-digit or
of characters seven-digit number should
cause an error message
Type check Checks that the input data e.g. A person’s age should
has the appropriate data type be numeric integer not
alphanumeric, for example
Format check Checks the data is in a e.g. A date which should be
specific format or fixed in the form of dd/mm/yyyy
pattern
Presence check Checks if data is actually e.g. In an electronic from a
present and hasn’t been person’s telephone number
missed out may be a required field so, if
no data is entered, an error
message will be produced

Existence check Checks if data from a list has e.g. When signing up to a
been chosen and not left social networking website,
blank the country list may contain
existence check. If the user
doesn’t choose a country
from the list then an error
message will be displayed
Boolean check Checks that the input data is e.g. If a database admin
from only two options. wishes to restrict the users
to enter only ‘M’ or ‘F’ in the
Gender field, then the admin
should put Boolean check on
the Gender field that accepts
only characters ‘M’ or ‘F’
Check digit A validation check used in e.g. Validating the
barcodes to validate the correctness of a barcode
correctness of the barcode.
This is done by adding an
extra digit to the left that is
calculated from the rightmost
digits using some formula.

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Data  Verification  Techniques  

Verification is a way of preventing errors when data is copied from one medium to
another. There are two common ways that verification checks are carried out:

Visual  check  
This is checking for errors by the person who is entering the data. They compare the
entered data with the original document (i.e., what is on the screen is compared to
the data on the original paper documents – note that this is not the same as
proofreading).

Double  data  entry  

In this method, data is entered twice, using two people, and is then compared (either
after data entry or during the data-entry process).
 
7.2.2    Designing  File  Structures/Database                
When designing a database, the system designer needs to consider
• The type of data being stored (numbers, text, dates, etc.)
• The size of the data (how long is a typical name, etc.)
• The field names to use
• How many records will need to be stored

7.2.3    Designing  the  System  Outputs  

There are usually two types of output from a system that need to be designed:
• Screen displays (information displayed on the monitor)
• Printed reports (hard-copy to be mailed, filed, etc.)

7.3 Development and testing

7.3.1    Development  
Once the design stage is completed, it is then necessary to create the system and
test it fully.
• If the system contains files (for example, a database) then the file structures
would need to be finalized at this stage (e.g. what type of data is being stored,
how will the data files be linked, etc.). Once the file structures has been
determined, it is then created and tested fully to make sure it is robust when
the system actually goes alive.
• Obviously any system being developed will have some form of user interface.
The types of hardware have already been considered how these are used to

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actually interface with the final system now needs to be identified. For
example, how the screens will be used to collect the data and the way the
output will be presented. If specialist hardware is needed (for example, for
people with disabilities) then it will be necessary to finalize how these devices
are used with the system. This will be followed by testing to ensure that the
user screens are user-friendly and that the correct output is associated with
the inputs to the system.

7.3.2    Testing  
Software is often developed in modular form. This method allows the software to be
broken down into smaller parts (known as modules). Each part is developed
separately by a programmer (or team of programmers) and is then tested to see if it
functions correctly. Any problems resulting from the testing require the module to be
modified and then tested again.
Once the development of each module is completed, the whole system needs to be
tested (i.e., all modules functioning together). Even though each module may work
satisfactorily, when they are all put together there may be data clashes or
incompatibility, memory issues, etc.
All of this may lead to a need to improve the input and output methods, database,
validation and verification methods, etc., and then test everything fully again. It is a
very time-consuming process but it has to be as perfect as possible before the
system goes live.
To sum things up, there are two main testing strategies:
• Test each module.
• Test the whole system.

Testing will use many different types of test data, which will fall into one of four
categories:
• Normal.
• Abnormal.
• Extreme.
• Live.
 
Normal  data  
This is data that is acceptable/reasonable and has an expected outcome. For
example, the month can be any whole number in the range of 1 to 12.

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Abnormal  data  
This is data outside the limits of acceptability,
Normal    
or wrong type of data, and should be rejected
or cause an error message. For example, all
Extremes    
the following values are not allowed as inputs
for the month:
• Negative numbers. Abnormal   Extremes   Abnormal    
• Any value greater than 12.
• Letters or non-numeric data.  
• Non-integer values (e.g., 3.5,10.75, etc.).
Extreme  data  
This is data at the limits or acceptability. For example, the extreme values of month
can be either 1 or 12.

Live  data  
Once the system has been fully tested, it is then tested with live data. Live data is
data with known outcomes. Live data is entered into the new system and the results
are compared with those produced from the existing system. Further modifications to
the software may be needed following this testing procedure.
The following table shows an example:

Live data Expected result Actual result Any actions

January error message data was accepted validation routines
on month element
need to be
modified
0 message output: ‘a computer software software needs to
zero value is not crashed be modified to
allowed’ avoid the crash
 
Improve the system as a result of testing
If an error is detected in some module in the testing phase, the development team
will have to modify the module to fix the error and then send it again to be tested. If
the detected error is beyond the development team’s scope, the design team will be
responsible for fixing this error.  
 

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7.4 Implementation
After the system has been developed and tested the system analyst will want to get
the system up and running. There are four methods of implementation:
• Parallel running
• Direct Changeover
• Phase implementation
• Pilot running
 
7.4.1    Parallel  Running  
The old and new systems run side by side for a time before the new system takes
over completely.
 
  Old  System    
 
 
   New  System    
 
 
Advantages
• If the new system fails, the old system will still be available as a backup.
• It is possible to gradually train staff.

Disadvantages
• More expensive than direct changeover as since extra staff is needed to run
both systems together.
• More time consuming than direct changeover since data needs to be entered
into two systems.

7.4.2    Direct  Changeover    

The existing system is stopped and the new system starts running immediately.
 
 
 
  Old  system     New  system    
 
 
 

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Advantages
• The cost is less than parallel running (since only one system is used, there is
no need to pay two sets of staff).
• The benefits of the new system are immediate.
 
Disadvantages
• This method can be disastrous if the new system fails since the old the
system is no longer available.

7.4.3    Phased    
With phased implementation, only part of the new system is introduced and only
when it proves satisfactorily, the next part is introduced, and so on, until the old
system is fully replaced. For example, the production of invoices is done by the new
system whilst other aspects like payroll and processing of orders carries on as
before.
 
Advantages
• If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to the point
of failure; hence failure isn’t disastrous.
• It is possible to ensure that the system works properly before expanding.
 
Disadvantages
• More expensive than direct changeover since it is necessary to evaluate each
phase before moving to the next stage.
• Very time consuming since each part needs to be fully evaluated before
making any further changes to the system.

Old  system    

New  system    

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7.4.4    Pilot  Running    

Pilot running is the method adopted by large organizations. The new system is
introduced into one branch or office of the company and its performance assessed
before being introduced elsewhere in the company.
 
Advantages
• If the new system fails, only one part is affected; the remainder is unaffected.
• It is possible to train staff in one area only, which is much faster and less
costly than parallel running.

7.5 Documentation
Once the new system is fully developed, a considerable amount of documentation
also needs to be produced for:
• The end-user.
• Specialists who may need to modify and develop the system further at some
later stage.
Thus, there are two types of documentation: User and Technical.

7.5.1    User  Documentation  

User documentation is intended to help users to learn how to use the software or
system. This can consist of any of the following:
• Purpose of the system.
• How to load/install/run the software.
• Limitations of the system.
• Hardware requirements.
• Software requirements.
• How to use the system.
• Screen layouts (input formats).
• Print layouts (output format).
• Sample runs.
• Error messages/ Meaning of error messages.
• Trouble-shooting guide/ Frequently asked questions.
• Tutorials.
• Glossary of terms.

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7.5.2    Technical  Documentation  

Technical documentation is designed to help programmers/analysts to make
improvements to the system or to repair/maintain the system. This can consist of any
of the following:
• Purpose of the system
• Limitations of the system
• Program coding
• Program flowcharts
• System flowcharts
• Hardware and software requirements
• File structures
• List of variables
• Validation routines

7.6 Evaluation
The purpose of an evaluation is to assess the system to see if it does what it was
supposed to do, that it is working well, and that everyone is happy with it in order to
carry out any maintenance if necessary.
When the new system is evaluated, the following questions will be asked: Is the
system:

efficient?
• Does it operate quickly, smoothly and with minimal waste?
• Is the system saving time, and resources?

easy to use?
• Are all of the system's users able to use the system easily and effectively?
• Can new staff understand and use the system with minimal training?

appropriate?
• Is the system suitable for the particular business / organization?
• Does the system actually meet the needs of the business / organization?
 
The following is a list of some of the techniques used to evaluate the new system:
• Comparing the final solution with the original task requirements.
• Identifying any limitations of the system.
• Identifying any necessary improvements that need to be made.
• Evaluating the user’s responses to using the new system.

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• Comparing test results from the new system with results from the old system.
• Comparing performance of the new system with performance of the old
system.
• Measure the time take to complete tasks (comparing old with new).
• Interviewing users to gather responses about how well the new system works.
• Giving out questionnaires to gather responses about the ease of use of the
new system.
• Observing users performing set tasks (comparing old with new).
 
What Happens Next?
The outcome of the evaluation will be to identify any limitations/problems and
necessary improvements to the new system.

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Audience appreciation
When planning and creating ICT solutions, it is important to consider the audience
who will either use or take part in this solution in order to achieve better results.
These better results are in terms of:
• Users’ satisfaction.
• Users’ response and appreciation.
The following list shows a number of factors that should be considered:
• The age of the target group.
o Young children will have a different response compared to more
mature group of adults.
• The experience of the audience.
o A board of company directors would expect a different approach
compared to an audience composed of school children.
• The expectations of the audience.
o For example, if you are advertising or giving a presentation on a new
restaurant, an older audience would expect to see good waiter service;
whereas a group of students would be more interested in pizzas and
fast counter service.
• Knowledge of the audience.
o For example, graduates in maths would expect to see a different
approach to a solution than a group of history students.

When starting to look at the ICT solution, some or all of these factors need to be
taken into account. Some research needs to be done first to find out about the target
audience. This could be done by:
• Interviewing a cross section of the target group to find out how to engage the
audience.
• Giving out questionnaires to people in the target group to find out their
background, interests, and so on, so that the final solution can be tailored to
meet the full expectation of the audience.
• Carrying out market research – this could involve the two techniques
described above, but would certainly involve a more sophisticated and in-
depth analysis of the data received.  

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Legal, moral, ethical and cultural implications

Legal  
Anything that breaks the law is termed illegal.
Examples would include breaking the software copyright by, for
example, copying software and then selling it without the
permission of the copyright holders.

Morality  
Morality covers the human desire to distinguish between right and wrong.
The only problem here is that culture can get in the way.
What may be immoral in some cultures is regarded as
acceptable practice in other cultures.
Note that, if something is immoral it doesn’t mean that it is
necessarily illegal (and vice versa).
For example, creating fake websites is not in itself illegal
(provided that the person who carries out the act doesn’t try to gain from their
actions), it is simply an immoral act since it can cause distress to others who aren’t
aware that it was simply a harmless prank. However, as soon as they try to obtain
personal and financial data then it becomes an illegal act.
Some people regard hacking as simply immoral. This again ceases to be true if the
act of hacking leads to breaking national security, or financial gain or leads to
revealing of personal information.

Ethics  
Ethics governs professional interactions by a society or group of people (it
sometimes goes against an individual’s own sense of morality). Unethical behavior
is essentially breaking a code of conduct/ethics.
For example, if somebody works for a software company and passes on some of the
ideas to a rival company, this would be regarded as unethical behavior.

Culture    
It refers to the attitudes, values and practices shared by a society or group of people.
The importance of culture is less clear-cut.
For example, writing software games that make fun of religion could be seen by
certain people as unacceptable behavior – but some cultures would find it funny and
would understand why it seen as offensive.
When writing computer games, for example, programmer need to be careful that
they don’t include items which some cultures would find offensive.

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Chapter 8
Effects of using ICT

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8.1 Software copyright

Software copyright is a lawful protection. Software is protected by copyright laws in
much the same way as music CDs, videos and
articles from magazines/books are protected.  
Software copyright is a strong tool to preserve the
rights of the software owners. When software is
supplied on CD or DVD, there are certain rules that
must be obeyed. It is illegal to:
• Make a software copy and then sell it or give it
away to a friend or colleague.
• Use software on a network or in multiple computers unless a license has been
acquired to allow this to happen.
• Use code from the copyright software without the permission of the copyright
holders.
• Rent out software without permission to do so from the publishers.
• Use the name of copyrighted software on other software without agreement to
do so.

Software  piracy  
It is illegal copies of software.
Software piracy is a considered to be a big issue
amongst software companies. They take many steps to
stop illegal copying of software and to stop illegal copies
being used once they have been sold. There are a
number of ways to protect software from software piracy and copyright infringement:
• When software is being installed, the user will be asked to enter a unique
product key, which was supplied with the original copy of the software.
• The user will be asked to click ‘OK’/’I AGREE’ or put a cross a box to agree to
the license agreement (which has the copyright rules) before the software
continues to install.
• The original software often comes with a sticker informing the purchaser that it
is illegal to make copies of this software. The label is often in the form of a
hologram indicating that his is a genuine copy.
• Some software will only run if the CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or memory stick is
actually in the drive. This stops illegal multiple use and network use of the
software.
• Putting digital signature on the CD/DVD itself, which prevents writers from
copying exactly.
• Some software will only run if a dongle is plugged into one of the USB ports.

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8.2 Effects of ICT on employment

The use of computers and microprocessor systems has revolutionized many aspects
of how we work. From the offices to manufacturing, every task humans do has been
affected in some way be electronic devices and their associated software. This has
had both positive and negative effects on employment.

Negative  effects  –  job  losses  

The introduction of ICT systems – whether to improve efficiency, reduce costs or
improve safety – has led to redundancies in many areas of industry and commerce.
The following is the impact that ICT has had on office work and manufacturing.

Office work
By the introduction of computers and new
software, many tasks could be done by fewer
staff and in much shorter scale. Skills like filling
and carrying out numerical analysis manually
have effectively been replaced by sophisticated
software (word processors, spreadsheets and
databases). As a result, office work especially
payroll workers and typing pools have suffered from job losses.

Manufacturing
Job losses due to ICT have affected
industry even more than in the office
environment. The introduction of
machines and robots has revolutionized
how items (such as cars) are produced.
Car manufacturing is one of the biggest
fields that have experienced great job
losses as it makes considerable use of
robotics. One robot is capable of doing
the same tasks as a number of workers,
and as a result, the need for manual laborers has greatly reduced.

Positive  effects  
While the introduction of new software packages and robots has clearly resulted in
staff reductions, the positive side is the need for better-trained people, the need
for trainers, and the creation of new ICT-related work.
Offices have become more pleasant and safer places to work (no noisy typewriters
or the dangers of heavy, overfilled filing cabinets), while the introduction of robots in

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manufacturing has led to a cleaner, safer, quieter and altogether more pleasant
working environment.
There has also been a large increase in job
opportunities in some areas, for example:
• Network managers and computer
technicians.
• Computer Programmers.
• Web designers.
• Systems analysts.
• Delivery drivers to deliver goods to
customers.

8.3 Effects of ICT on working patterns

The introduction of ICT into the workplace has led to a number of changes in working
patterns for staff. Essentially, the old concept of the ‘9 to 5’ working day (the normal
full-time work pattern) has given way to more flexible working patterns.
The following are four main additional types of work pattern:

Part-­‐time  working  
It is working fewer hours per week than full-time staff. This can be either fewer hours
per day or fewer days per week.

Flexible-­‐working  (flexi-­‐time)  
It is any working schedule outside the traditional working pattern. Flexi-time is the
ability to choose the start and finish times, but they must complete a full day’s work.
This requires agreement with the employer to ensure the office is operated at all
required times.

Job  sharing  
With job sharing, a full-time job is divided between two part-time workers. For
example, one could work in the mornings and the other the afternoons – or one could
work Monday to Wednesday and the other from Wednesday to Friday. Both workers
are doing the same job, so one picks up the work where the other left off.

Compressed  hours  
In compressed hours, an employee works their full hours for the week (40 hours for
example) but works for fewer days. For example, they may complete their 40 hours
in four days rather than the normal five days.

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What are the main reasons for having these different work patterns?
For employees, this leads to more contented staff, since they can work hours that
suit their lifestyle or home circumstances. It can allow them to avoid rush hour
commuting in the morning and evening. It mainly leads to more highly motivated
staff, which is good for the staff and company.

In addition, employers see advantages in these work patterns as well:

• A contented workforce is more likely to stay in the job, thus reducing the
company’s recruitment and training cost of new staff.
• Flexi-time allows them to remain open for longer hours.
• Job sharing ensures that the company has more than one person with a
particular skill set.
• Compressed hours often lead staff to be more focused on their work.
• Varied work patterns give more flexibility during busy times and during staff
sickness.

8.4 Microprocessor-Controlled Devices in the

home
A microprocessor is a small CPU built into a single
'chip'.
Typically microprocessors are used in everyday
devices.
In a single 'chip', a microprocessor contains:
• A CPU
• RAM
• ROM (Used for storing the devices software)
Often microprocessors also contain ADCs and DACs to allow easy connection to
devices such as sensors and actuators.
The microprocessor-controlled devices fall into two main categories:
• Labor-saving devices
o Automatic washing machines.
o Microwave ovens.
o Cookers.
o Automatic dishwashers.
o Robotic vacuum cleaners.
o Bread-making machines.
o Smart fridges and freezers.
• Other types of devices
o Alarm clocks.

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o Televisions sets.
o Central heating and air conditioning systems.
o Home entertainment systems.
§ Games consoles
§ DVD players

Effects  of  microprocessor-­‐controlled  devices  on  our  lives  

Advantages
• People no longer have to do manual tasks at home.
• There is no longer a need to stay home while food is cooking or clothes are
being washed.
• They give people more time for leisure activities, hobbies, shopping and
socializing.
• Automated burglar alarms give people a sense of security.
• Smart fridges and freezers can lead to more healthy lifestyles (they can
automatically order fresh food from supermarkets using their internet
connection) as well as prevent food waste.
• People are able to communicate with each other easily using computers,
mobile phones, etc. They can become part of online social networks, making
friends with people from all over the world.

Disadvantages
• They can lead to unhealthy lifestyles because of the reliance on ready-made
meals, for example.
• They tend to make people rather lazy since there is a dependence on the
devices.
• People can become less fit if they just lie around at home while the devices
carry out many of the previous manual tasks.
• Tasks carried out by people in the past are now done by microprocessor-
controlled devices, which means there is a potential to lose these household
skills.

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8.5 Effects of ICT on health

The prolonged use of ICT equipment has caused health problems. In this section, a
number of health risks as well as the ways to eliminate or minimize these risks are
discussed.

Eyestrain  
Caused by staring at a computer screen for a long time or having incorrect lighting in
the room.

Ways of eliminating or minimizing the health risk

• Take regular breaks.
• Try focusing on a point that is some distance
away.
• Make use of anti-glare screen especially if the
lighting in the room is incorrect.
• Make sure that there is no screen flicker as this can lead to eye problems.
• Change to LCD screen where screen flicker is less of a problem than with
CRT screens.
• Have your eyes tested regularly and use middle vision glasses if necessary.

Headaches  
Caused by staring at a computer screen for a long time or having incorrect lighting.

Ways of eliminating or minimizing the health risk

• Take regular breaks.
• Make use of anti-glare screen especially if the
lighting in the room is incorrect.
• Have your eyes tested regularly and use
middle vision glasses if necessary.
• Change to LCD screen where screen flicker is
less of a problem than with CRT screens.

Back  and  neck  problems  

Caused by sitting in front of a computer screen for long periods in the same position
or in the wrong posture.

Ways of eliminating or minimizing the health risk

• Use ergonomic chairs to give the correct posture.

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• Use foot rests to reduce posture problems.
• Use screens that can be tilted to ensure the neck is at the correct angle.

Wrong    Posture   Correct    Posture  

Repetitive  Strain  Injury  (RSI)  

RSI can affect both fingers and wrists (causes damage and pain). RSI in fingers is
caused by repetitive clicking of mouse buttons. RSI in wrists is caused by continuous
use of a keyboard.

Ways of eliminating or minimizing the health risk

• Ensure correct posture is maintained (i.e, correct angle of arms to the
keyboard and mouse, for example).
• Take regular breaks (and do some exercise).
• Use ergonomic keyboards.
• Use wrist rest when using a mouse or keyboard.
• Use voice-activated software if the user is prone to problems when using a
mouse and keyboard.

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8.6 Effects of ICT on physical safety

Safety is a different issue to health; health is more generally how to stop people
becoming ill or being affected by daily contact with computers. Physical safety is
more concerned with dangers that could lead to serious injury or even loss of life.
Some of the more common examples of physical safety risks, together with
possible solutions, are listed in the following table.

Safety risk Ways of eliminating or minimizing risk

Electrocution • Check insulation on wires regularly

• Don’t allow drinks near computers or any electricity-
operated device
• Check the state of the wires/cables and plugs (check
whether any wires/plugs are damaged, make sure there
are no lose wires in the plugs and make sure the plug
isn’t broken or cracked

Trailing cables/wires • Use cable ducts to make the wires safe

• Fix wires along walls and behind disks wherever possible
to prevent any contact between people and wires
• Use wireless connections wherever possible

Heavy equipment • Use strong desks and tables to support heavy hardware
falling and causing • Use large desks and tables so that the hardware isn’t too
injury close to the edge where it can fall off

Fire risk • Have a fully tested CO2 dry fire estinguisher nearby (not
water estinguishers)
• Don’t overload sockets with too many items
• Don’t cover computers with paper or fabric (towels or
sheets) since these can either block ventilation holes
(causing computers to overheat) or there materials could
catch fire
• Ensure good ventialltion in the room to stop overheating
of hardware
• Make sure that the electrics used in the hardware is fully
maintained
• Change to low-voltage hardware wherever possible (e.g,
replace CRT monitors with LCD and LED monitors)

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8.7 E-safety
 
Definition  of  Personal  Data  
Personal data refers to any data concerning a living person who can be identified by
this data.
Examples of personal data include:
• Name.
• Address.
• Date of birth.
• Medical history.
• Banking details.
Some personal data is often referred to as
sensitive personal data and includes:
• Ethnic origins.
• Political views.
• Religion.
• Sexual orientation.
• Criminal activity.

Data  Protection  Acts  

DPAs are acts that are set up to protect the rights of the individual about whom the
data is obtained, stored and processed. In other words, they are concerned with the
collection, usage, disclosure, destruction and holding of personal data.
DPA are based on the following eight principles:
1. Data must be fairly and lawfully processed.
2. Data can only be processed for the stated purpose.
3. Data must be sufficient, relevant and not excessive.
4. Data must be accurate.
5. Data must not be kept longer than necessary.
6. Data must be processed according to the data
subject’s rights.
7. Data must be kept secure.
8. Data must not be transferred to another country unless they also have
sufficient protection.
In many countries, the failure to abide by these rules can lead to a heavy fine or
even imprisonment to anyone who holds data about individuals.

 
 

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Definition  of  e-­‐safety  

E-safety refers to safety when using the
Internet.
In other words, it is the need to take
personal precautions to keep personal data
safe when using the Internet.

Measures  to  maintain  e-­‐safety  

When using the Internet:
• Never give out any personal information (own name, address, school name, a
picture in school uniform) to people who are unknown to you online.
• Never send people photos of yourself (either online or via mobile phone)
unless the person is know to you.
• Always maintain your privacy settings on whatever device is being used
online or during communications.
• When using search engines, always make sure the device settings are set to
‘safe search’ and the highest possible level of security is used.
• Only use websites recommended by teachers.
• Only use learner-friendly search engine.

When using email:

• Only open emails from known sources.
• Only email people you know.
• Never include the school’s name or photos of a student wearing a school
uniform in any email.

When using social networking sites, instant messaging or chat rooms:

• Block or report anybody who acts suspiciously or how uses inappropriate
language.
• Keep private and personal data secret.
• Never arrange to meet anyone alone.
• Always tell an adult first and meet in a public place.
• Avoid the misuse of images.
• Always use appropriate language.
• Always respect people’s confidentiality.

When playing games online:

• Always use a nickname and never your real name.
• Never give your personal data to any player.

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8.8 Internet developments

Search  engines  
Search engines are useful if you don’t know the URL
of the website or if you want to find some
information but don’t know here to look. Many
search engines exist, and they search for websites
using a variety of methods, but they all have on
common underlying feature: they use the words
entered in the search box and look up in their
database of webpages to find out which of them
match your search words/text.
Obviously, the more specific your search words/text, the more accurate the results
(know as ‘hits’) will be.
Once the information is found it can then be saved or used as follows:
• Saved as favourite and accessed when required.
• Adding hyperlinks in a document, so that his web page can be accesed when
required.
• Using ‘Print Screen’ (taking a screenshot) and then pasting the saved
information into a word processor page.
• Copy and pasting the information into another document (don’t forget to cite
the information to avoid plagiarism).

It is important to acknowledge/cite your sources of information when doing this to

avoid plagiarism and because the information may be subject to copyright.

Blogs  
Blogs (web logs) are personal internet journals where the
blogger will type in their observations on some topic (for
example, a review about the latest movie release) and perhaps
provide links to some relevant websites.
Blogs tend to range from minor projects (such as the
performance of an actor) through to important social issues.
However the comments made on blogs are not immune from
the law: bloggers can still be prosecuted for writing offensive material.
   
Features of blogs
• Entries normally come from a single author.
• Other internet users can only read and comment on the material on blogs.
• Public.

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• Updated on a regular basis by the author.
• Usually organized in reverse chronological order (most recent to least recent
entry).

Microblogs  
Microblogs are similar to blogs but are most often used on social networking sites to  
make short, frequent posts. The posts can be done using instant messaging, emails
or other social networking vehicles (such as tweets). Social networking sites use
microblogs to allow members to update their personal profiles, for example (user
profiles on Facebook).

Wikis  
Wikis are web applications or websites that allow users to
create and edit web pages using any web browser. They
are often described as ‘web pages with and <edit> button’.

Features of wikis
• Many authors can be involved in a wiki.
• Anyone can edit, delete or modify the content.
• Keeps track of all entries – i.e. it stores a document history.
• Allows large documents to be seen by many people – it is easier than
emailing several people.

Examples of wikis:
• Wikipedia
• Wikibooks
• Wikidata
• Wikimedia
• Wikisource

Social  networking  sites  

Social networking sites focus on building online communities
of users who share the same interests and activities. They
enable people to share photos, videos and music, hobbies,
favourite eating-places, and so on. The members do this by
creating public profiles and thus communicate with other
users. Most social network services are web based and
provide a variety of ways for users to interact, such as e-mail
and instant messaging services.

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Features of social networking sites

• Each member is provided with free web space.
• Each member can build their own private and public profiles.
• It is possible to upload content such as photos and videos.
• It is possible to email other members withing the community.
• It is possible to invite people to become friends.
• Members have control over who can access their private or personal data
(privacy settings).

Digital  media  uploading  websites  

They are websites where the visitors can upload media
(such as videos, photos, podcasts and etc.) to a site
from their computers so that this media can be shared
online with people all over the world.
An example for video sharing websites is YouTube.
YouTube allows individuals to upload video clips.
YouTube then stores the video on its server and allows
others to view this video.

8.9 Searching the internet for information

It is well known that the internet is a vast and very useful source of information, but it
is important to be aware of its disadvantages as well its advantages.

Advantages
• Information on the internet tends to be up-to-
date since it is quicker and easier to amend
web pages than, for example, to reprint books.
• The internet has vast, almost limitless, amounts
of information.
• Searching for information using a search engine is fast and easy.
• People can look for information in the comfort of their own home – there is no
need to travel to a library to find the required book(s).
• Most of the information on the internet is usually for free, unlike the
books/magazines.
• Pages on the internet can have multimedia files (for example, videos,
animations, cartoons, music and voiceovers) that make learning more
interesting and often make it easier to understand the topics.

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Disadvantages
• The internet is not regulated – anything can be posted on a webpage and,
consequently, information may be biased or totally incorrect (books usually
undergo some form of review before being published).
• There is always the risk of accessing inappropriate sites when using search
engines (undesirable information).
• It is too easy to be distracted when searching on the internet – users can find
computer games or enter social networking websites instead of doing their
work.
• There is a huge risk of plagiarism as it is very easy to copy material from the
internet.
• Some research skills are lost when using the internet as search engines do all
the work for you.

Why  are  internet  searches  to  find  relevant  information  not  always  
fast?  
When using search engines, there is always the danger of information overload. It
is possible for millions of sites to be found matching the given criteria. Thus, unless
the user narrows down their search criteria, it can take a long time to find out exactly
what they are looking for. Also, if the user is uncertain of what needs to be asked, it
can also take a long time to obtain relevant information.
In addition, while search engine companies deny it, certain websites are placed at
the top of their lists. When a user keys in certain words, these websites in the list
always show up first in the search results and may not contain exactly what the user
is looking for.

Why  isn’t  it  always  easy  to  find  reliable  information  on  the  internet?  
When using a search engine to find information on the internet, there is no guarantee
that the material returned is accurate or unbiased. Essentially, anybody is able to set
up website and write whatever they like without having to be first verified.
Consequently, the material can be inaccurate or unverified and it can also be biased
towards one way of thinking only. Unlike books, the material posted on websites
doesn’t have to be checked by other people to ensure it is correct. It is also possible
for search engines to suggest websites that are completely out of date so that the
information displayed on the webpages is no longer correct or relevant.

 
 

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How  to  evaluate  the  reliability  of  information  found  on  the  internet?  

• Commercial websites tend to be biased (to advertise their products, for

example).
• If a website has excessive advertising, it could be unreliable (due to pressures
from those who advertise on their website).
• If the advertising on a website is related only to its own products it could be
unreliable (due to arguments claiming that their products are the best to carry
out specific task).
• Use the final part of the URL (domain type) to identify the website’s reliability.
For example, websites ending with: .edu, .org and .gov are more likely to be
reliable.
• If a comparison of information from reliable sites or reliable student books is
made, this will often help to show if the information is reliable.
• Check if responsible bodies have endorsed the website.
• Check if the website links to other reliable websites or to unreliable websites.
• If a website has testimonials, this can indicate reliability.
• If the date of the last update was a long time ago, it is likely to be unreliable
website.
• If the author of the website has good credentials, then it is more likely for the
content to be reliable.
• Look at the spelling and grammar used. Reliable websites are usually
checked for errors. Too many spelling errors mean it's probably not to be
trusted.
• Check information from different sources.

Undesirable  Information                                                                                                                                    
In addition to having websites that contain inaccurate information, there are also a
huge number of websites that contain highly offensive, or illegal material.
Many organizations such as schools, some governments (e.g. for religious reasons),
and also many parents, make use of web page filtering software. This software
attempts to prevent offensive and illegal material being accessed.
Even if filtering software is not installed on a computer, you can still take steps to
help you avoid these types of sites:
• Use the 'safe search' feature on search engines such as Google.
• Don't click the links that are shown in junk email (spam).
• Think carefully about the keywords that you use to search with.

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ICT Applications

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(June&2009)&

(June&2008)&

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(Nov&2009)&

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(Jun&10&V.1)&

(June&2009)&

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(Specimen&2016)&

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11 Describe how automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems work.

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12 Explain what is meant by cookies, giving its use.

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14 Explain what is AI biometrics used for. Give an example.

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15 Define the term Quantum cryptography, stating why it is used.

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16 Define the term Holography, naming three applications that make use of holographic
9 images.

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17 There are areas outside manufacturing where robotics is evolving rapidly. Discuss.

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Chapter 10
Banking Applications

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10.1 Computer processing modes

Computers are generally used for various tasks and used by many types of users.
For example, some computers are embedded in systems that control things such as
factories, or aircrafts. Concerning users, the user can be normal end users,
businessmen, office workers, etc. Consequently, the computer has different modes
at which it operates.

Batch  Processing  
Sometimes we have a lot of data to process and it is all of a similar form (e.g.
calculating the pay for 10,000 employees; the calculations we have to do for each
employee are very similar). In cases like this, we can prepare the data into a set or
'batch' and hand it over to the computer to be processed in one go. Once we have
prepared the batch of data, no user input is required - the computer works its way
through the data automatically.
This type of data processing is known as batch processing.
An advantage of this type of system is that the processing can occur when the
computer is not being used for anything else (e.g. overnight). The job is setup,
people go home, and when they return the next morning the work will be done.

Typical application where batch processing can be used:

• Payroll processing.
• Processing bank cheques.
• Printing of bank statements.
• Updating of a stock database.

Real-­‐Time  Processing  
Sometime we need to process data immediately - we cannot wait and process it later
(e.g. using batch processing). For example, if we want to book a seat on a flight, the
booking must be processed immediately. We can't put it in a pile and do it later,
because other people might be trying to book the same seat.
If an item of input data must be processed immediately, and the result is ready
before the next input data is accepted, this is known as a real-time system.

Typical application where real-time processing must be used:

• Monitoring systems (e.g. hospital patient monitoring).
• Computer control systems (e.g. an automatic production line, an aircraft auto-
pilot, the system controlling a nuclear power station, etc.).
• Traditional booking systems (e.g. flight booking, cinema seat booking, etc.).

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On-­‐Line  Processing  
An on-line system is one where the user is directly interacting with the computer - the
user is 'on-line' with the computer.
So, any system where the user is entering data directly into the computer must be an
online system. If data is being entered and then processed, it's an on-line processing
system.

Examples of on-line processing systems:

• Online booking systems (e.g. online flight booking, online cinema seat
booking, etc.).
• Online Payment systems (e.g. online banking).
• EFTPOS.
• Withdrawing money from an ATM.

10.2 Payment cards

We have two main credit/debit cards: Magnetic stripe cards and Chip and PIN
cards.
 

Magnetic  stripe  card  

It is a type of card that stores information on the
magnetic stripe found on its back. The stripe contains
useful information, for example: account number, sort
code (bank’s code), expiry date, start date.

Chip  and  PIN  card  

Most payment cards no longer rely on a magnetic strip to
store customer account details. Instead the cards use a
chip, which contains a small amount of computer
memory, in which the account information stored inside.
When a customer wishes to pay for goods in a store, the
customer inserts the Chip and PIN card into a Chip and
PIN reader, and then types in a PIN using the keypad to confirm that they are the
true owner of the card. The reader also has a small screen, which gives instructions
to the operator. Once the PIN is verified, the customer can remove the card.

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Advantages of using Chip and PIN card over Magnetic strip cards
• More secure system, as the PIN typed must match up with PIN stored on
chip.
• More robust system than magnetic stripe cards.
• Data in chip is encrypted.
• Presence of editable memory.
• More Reliable as it is not affected by magnetic fields.
The main disadvantage of using Chip and PIN cards is fraud. The user needs to be
careful to ensure that PIN isn’t read by somebody else while typing it in.

10.3 Payment systems/processes

Let’s assume that a person goes to a supermarket and buys things that worth $100.
There are different ways for that person to pay the money to the supermarket:
• Pay in cash.
• Use credit/debit card.
• Withdraw money from ATM.
• Write a bank cheque.
Paying money in cash is the easiest approach and doesn’t involve many steps.
However, the days for carrying a lot of cash money in wallets/bags has passed. We
will discuss three main payment processes other than paying money in cash:
1. Electronic Fund Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS).
2. Withdraw money from ATM.
3. Clearing of cheques.

1.    EFTPOS  
Before going through the process of EFTPOS, we need to introduce two main
terminologies: Electronic Fund Transfer and Point of Sale.

Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)

EFT is a system that allows money transfer instructions to be
sent directly to a bank's computer system. Upon receiving
one of these instructions, the computer system automatically
transfers the specified amount from one account to another.
Transfer instructions can come from other banks or from
businesses.
A very common use of EFT is when a large business pays
its employees' salaries. On payday, the businesses tell the bank to move money
from the business account to the employees' bank accounts.
 

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Point of Sale (POS)
The Point-of-Sale (POS) in a store is the place that you pay for your purchases. It is
usually where the cash register (till) is located.
A typical POS has:
• A method of inputting the codes of goods
purchased (usually a bar-code scanner). The
codes are then used to search for more
information about the goods, such as price,
from a database.
• A system to accept electronic payments or
EFTPOS (see below).
• A system to update the stock-level of goods
whenever they are sold, and possibly to
automatically re-order goods that have low
stock-levels (see below).
• A method of producing a receipt for purchases (usually a small dot-matrix
printer).
Now we go back to the EFTPOS process of paying money to the supermarket. As
mentioned earlier, EFTPOS stands for Electronic Fund Transfer at Point Of Sale.
This basically means the process of transferring money electronically at a POS
terminal. Using the above example of paying $100 to the supermarket, the steps for
EFTPOS process using Chip and PIN card are listed bellow:
1. The card is inserted into Chip and PIN reader to make contact with the
customer’s bank computer.
2. The card is checked to see if it’s valid (check on expiry date, whether stolen
card, etc.).
3. The customer is requested to enter their PIN.
4. The PIN is read from the chip on the card and is compared to the one just
keyed in by the customer.
5. If they are the same, then the transaction will proceed, otherwise the system
will ask the user to re-enter the PIN. If this is the third attempt at entering the
PIN, the transaction is terminated.
6. The cashier enters the value of purchase, which is $100 in our case.
7. A check is made on whether the customer has sufficient funds to pay $100 or
not.
8. If there are enough funds available, then the transaction is authorized and an
authorization code is sent to the supermarket. Otherwise, the transaction will
terminate.
9. The price of the goods is deducted from the customer’s bank account and the
same amount of money is added to the supermarket’s bank account.
10. A receipt is produced as proof of purchase.

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Automatic  re-­‐ordering  of  stock  

It is important to keep track of the amount of stock for each good in a store. Before
using computers, this was done manually using paper based systems. Obviously,
these old systems were not efficient or accurate. After the introduction of computers
and computerized databases, things became much easier to control the stock in
markets and stores.
The following are the steps for automatic update/re-ordering of stock:
• Before payment, the barcode of each good is scanned to calculate the total
price and amount of all goods purchased.
• The barcode is then searched in the database of the stock control system
record by record until a match is found.
• The ‘number in stock’ of the matching record is read.
• The ‘number in stock’ is subtracted by the quantity sold to the customer.
• The new ‘number in stock’ is compared with the re-order number (it is a pre-
set value for the minimum allowable stock for a good before ordering more
stock from suppliers).
• If the new ‘number in stock’ of the searched good is lower than re-order
number, then more stock is automatically re-ordered from the suppliers.
• The new value for ‘number in stock’ (the updated number after subtracting
what the customer has purchased) is written back to the file and the database
is updated.

Note that checking for reordering stock from suppliers is done before updating the
database with the new value of stock.

2.  Automatic  Teller  Machines  (ATMs)  

Automatic teller machines (ATMs) are places where
customers can get cash (or carry out other banking activities)
using their Chip and PIN credit/debit card.

The following sequence is for withdrawing cash using ATM:

Sequence for withdrawing cash What goes behind the scenes
Contact made with the bank’s computer
and card is checked to see if card
Customer puts card into ATM
expiration date is exceeded or card is
reported stolen
PIN is entered using the keypad PIN is checked to see if it is correct
A number of options are given:
• Change PIN

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• Top up mobile phone
• See account balance
• Pay in cheques
• Receipt required?
• Pay a bill
• Make a money transfer
• Withdraw cash
The customer selects the withdraw cash
option
A number of cash amounts are shown
• Customer’s account is accessed to
The customer accepts one of the options see if they have sufficient funds
or types in a different amount • Check is made to see if daily limit
exceeded
The customer is then asked if they want
a receipt
The card is returned from the ATM Transaction is OK
Money is dispensed Customer’s account is updated
 

3.  Clearing  of  cheques  

The third way to pay for the purchased goods is to write a cheque for the
supermarket with the amount $100.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The previous image shows a typical bank cheque. As shown, a typical bank cheque
has:
• Place to write the amount.
• The code line, which consists of cheque number, sort code (unique, six digit
numbers that are used to identify each bank or building society) and account
number.

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• Name/logo of the paying bank.
• Place for signature.
• Place write to whom the cheque is written to.
• Place to write the date.
 
Note that the following information are pre-printed on the cheque:
• Name/logo of the paying bank.
• Cheque number.
• Account number.
• Sort code.
The last three items form the code line, as mentioned earlier, and are printed in
magnetic ink characters to be scanned by the MICR.
   
This remaining of this section discusses how banks clear cheques using a
centralized clearing center.
Suppose that Ahmed uses HSBC Bank and he pays a cheque for 10,000 LE to
Omar who banks with CIB.
The following steps are done to clear this cheque:
1. First of all, Omar delivers the cheque given by Ahmed to his bank, CIB.
2. The cheque is sent by CIB to a centralized clearing center.
3. The cheque is processed by the clearing center by doing the following:
a. The cheque is passed through MICR to automatically read the amount
on the cheque (10,000 LE in this case) and the code line (containing
account number, sort code and cheque number).
b. The data from the cheque, which has been read, is converted into an
encrypted file known as IBDE file (Inter-Bank Data Exchange).
c. Every IBDE is signed with a digital signature so that the receiving bank
can be sure that the data hasn’t been tampered with.

4. All cheques sent by CIB to the centralized clearing center are sent back to
CIB after processing them.
5. CIB then delivers all processed cheques to an exchange center.
6. The exchange center passes all cheques to their corresponding paying
banks (HSBC Bank in this case).
7. HSBC receives the cheque and sends it to its own clearing center to be
checked.
8. At HSBC’s clearing center, the digital signature is first checked and then the
cheque is passed through HSBC’s own MICR to scan the cheque and to
make sure that the data matches with that on the IBDE file.

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9. HSBC checks to see if Ahmed has enough money in his account to cover the
cheque, and also it has been signed, dated, and written correctly and is
genuine.
10. Based on this information, HSBC finally decides whether to:
a. Pay Ahmed’s cheque to Omar.
b. Return it unpaid to CIB.
Note that the cheque may be returned unpaid for many reasons, such as:
• The customer has not got enough money in their account to pay the cheque.
• It has not been signed, dated or written correctly.
• It is fraudulent for some reason.
This whole process, known as ‘clearing a cheque’, takes three working days.

10.4 Internet banking

It is now very common for bank customers to access
their bank accounts from home using on-line banking
services.
Customers use a computer and connect to the bank's
secure (encrypted) website where they login (usually
with a username and a password).
Customers can use the on-line banking system to:
• Check the balance of bank accounts.
• Pay bills.
• Transfer money between accounts (using EFT).
• Apply for loans.
• Other services.
The following notes give a comprehensive list of the advantages and disadvantages
of using internet banking.

Advantages to the customers

• Disabled and elderly people can now access any bank without the need to
leave home.
• Because it is online, banking can be done at any time on any day of the week
(i.e. 24/7). This is particularly helpful to people who work as the banks would
normally be closed when they finish work.
• There are often long queues at the banks, so internet banking saves time.
• As it is less time consuming, it allows people to spend more time doing other
things.
• Many people find it less embarrassing to ask for bank loan using the internet
rather than enduring a face-to-face discussion with bank staff.

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• The banks save money by not having as many staff working (reduced wage
bill) for them or hiring of high street premises (reduction in rental costs).
These savings are often passed on to customers in the form of lower interest
rates or higher interest rates on interest for savers.

Advantages to the banks

• Banks can save costs here since fewer staff need to be paid and it isn’t
necessary to have as many banks in high streets to deal with potential
customers.
• Because the internet is global, potential customer base is increased.
• Robberies are less likely due to the decrease in the number of high street
banks.
• Banks need to employ fewer security staff, which has a cost benefit.

Disadvantages to the customers

• Possibility of isolation and lack of socialization.
• There are possible health risks associated with online banking because of
lack of exercise.
• Security issues are a major concern (e.g. hacking, stealing credit card details,
etc.) as are viruses and other malware.
• Accidently using fraudulent bank websites is always a risk and this is linked to
security issues.
• It is necessary to have a computer and to pay for the internet to take part in
online banking.
• High street banks are closing because of the increase in online banking and
this is leading to ‘ghost towns’ forming.
• It is easier to make errors with online banking and transfer money incorrectly
to different accounts.

Disadvantages to the banks

• There will be increased costs because of the need to retrain staff.
• There are costs due to the setting up and maintaining of websites to enable
online banking.
• Since there is very little or no customer-employee interaction, this could lead
to a drop in customer loyalty, which could lead to loss of customers.

10.5 Telephone banking

It is similar to internet banking. The main difference is that it uses the telephone
rather than a computer.

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With this system, the customer calls the bank using a
telephone. The sequence is as follows:
1. The customer keys in their account number.
2. They are then requested to enter a four-digit
PIN or selected numbers from their PIN.
3. The customer will then hear various options,
which might include:
a. Press ‘1’ for your balance.
b. Press ‘2’ to carry out a money transfer.
c. Press ‘3’ to pay a bill.
d. Press ‘0’ to talk to one of our representatives.
4. The customer chooses one of the options (either by pressing the correct key,
or some systems ask the customer to speak the number – this relies on voice
recognition).

Similarities with internet banking

As with internet banking, customers are able to:
• Check their balances anywhere in the world.
• Pay bills or transfer money to another account.
• Talk with a bank representative.

Advantages over internet banking

• No need to have a computer and Internet service, thus cheaper.
• It is possible to talk to an actual human being, which is more attractive
proposition for many people.
• Quicker in case your computer isn’t switched on at the time and you only want
a balance enquiry.

Disadvantages compared to internet banking

• It can be much slower (there may be a long queue before you can talk to
somebody).
• Options can be a little more complex to navigate using telephone banking.

10.6 Internet Shopping (e-Commerce)

In the last few years, Internet shopping has become very
popular. Stores like Amazon and the iTunes Store are
some of the largest retail businesses in the world. Online
you can buy anything from air flights to fresh eggs.  

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Advantages to the customers
• There is no longer a need to travel into the town center, thus reducing costs
(money for fuel, bus fares, etc.) and time wasting. It also helps to reduce town
center congestion and pollution.
• Users now have access to a worldwide market and can thus look for products
that are cheaper. Users also have access to a much wider choice of goods.
• Because it is online, shopping can be done at any time on any day of the
week (i.e. 24/7).
• There are often long queues at the shops, so internet shopping saves time.
• People can spend more time doing other things. For example, going shopping
to the supermarket probably takes a lot of time; by doing this online people
are can be free to do more leisure activities.

Advantages to the business companies

• Companies can save costs here since fewer staff need to be paid and it isn’t
necessary to have as many shops in high streets to deal with potential
customers.
• Because the internet is global, potential customer base is increased.

Disadvantages to the customers

• Possibility of isolation and lack of socialization.
• There are possible health risks associated with online shopping because of
lack of exercise.
• Security issues are a major concern (e.g. hacking, stealing credit card details,
etc.) as are viruses and other malware.
• Accidently using fraudulent shopping websites is always a risk and this is
linked to security issues.
• It is necessary to have a computer and to pay for the internet to take part in
online shopping.
• High street shops are closing because of the increase in online banking and
this is leading to ‘ghost towns’ forming.
• Unlike traditional shopping, it is only possible to see a picture of the goods,
which might not portray the real thing before buying them.
• Goods arrive after several days.
• Returning goods is expensive.

Disadvantages to the business companies

• There will be increased costs because of the need to retrain staff.
• There are costs due to the setting up and maintaining of websites to enable
online shopping.
• Since there is very little or no customer-employee interaction, this could lead
to a drop in customer loyalty, which could lead to loss of customers.

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10.7 Online booking systems

Online booking systems rely on the ability to update
files immediately thus preventing double booking which
could happen if the system response time was slow.
Booking systems are used in many things, but we will
consider only transport (flights, trains and buses),
cinemas and theatres.

Advantages of online booking systems

• They prevent double booking (which could happen in paper based systems
that do not update the system fast enough).
• The customer gets immediate feedback on the availability of seats and
whether or not their booking has been successful.
• The customer can make bookings at any time of the day.
• The customer’s email address allows the booking company to attach ‘special
offers’ to them and inform them of such offers automatically.
• It is usually easier to browse the seating plans (especially on flights) to
choose the best seat available at the price.
• Very often there are no printed tickets, which saves postal costs and also
allows ‘impulse’ booking only a few hours in advance.

Disadvantages of online booking systems

• The setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive.
• All customers using the service need access to a computer and a reliable
internet connection.
• It is often more difficult to cancel the booking and get your money back using
online systems.
• If the server is down for maintenance or if the system breaks down, it
becomes impossible to book seats.
• If the websites are not well designed, it can be difficult to make exactly the
booking you want or can lead you to make mistakes (in flight booking system,
mistakes can cost the customer to pay for additional fees).
• Booking online does not allow you to a build a personal relationship with the
travel agent who might offer free upgrades or special offers, which may not be
available to online bookings.

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