Chapter-1

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Mole Concept
Avogadro’ s number (6.02x 10 23) of particle is called on mole.

Laws of chemical combination

1. Law of conservation mass
This law is developed by Lavoisier. It states that in a chemical reaction,the
total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the reactants. In other
words. matter can be neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
2. Law of definite proportions or Law of definite composition.
This law is developed by Joseph Proust. It states that "a chemical compound
always contains the same elements combined together in the same proportion
by mass". In carbon dioxide (CO2)carbon and oxygen combined in the ratio of
3:8.
3. Law of multiple proportions
This law is developed by Dalton. It states that "when two elements combine
to form more than one compound, the mass of one element that combines
with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole
numbers".
Eg:- (i)CO and CO2 -1:2
4. Gay Lussac's Law of Gaseous volumes.
It states that “when gases combine to form gaseous products, a simple whole
number ratio exist between the volumes of the reactants and the products at
constant temperature and pressure.
For example, consider the reaction
H2+ Cl2 ->2HCI
The ratio existing between the reactants and products is 1 : 1 : 2

5. Avogadro's Law
It states that "equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules".
Empirical formula and Molecular formula

Where n= 1,2,3 ……....

n= Molecular mass / Empirical formula mass
Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution or the amount of substance present in it can
be expressed in the following ways.
1.Mass percent
Mass per cent =mass of solute X 100
mass of solution
2.Mole fraction (X)
It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number
moles of the solution. If a solution containing two components A and B and
their number moles are nA and nD respectively.

3.Molarity (M)
It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre of the
solution.
M = nB/ V
4.Molarity (m)
It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one
kilogram of the solvent.
m = nB/WA
Molarity is temperature dependant but molality is temperature independent.
Limiting regent
The substance which is completely consumed during the
chemical reaction is called limiting regent .
 Chapter 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1.Write the properties of cathode rays?
Ans: a) Travel in straight lines
b) Negatively charged (electrons)
2.Who discovered elctrons?
Ans: J J Thomson
3.Write properties of anode rays(canal rays)?
Ans: a) Travel in straight line
b) Positively charged
4.What are canal rays?
Ans: Anode rays.
5.Who discovered proton?
Ans: Goldstein.
6.Who discovered neutron?
Ans: James Chadwick.
7.Charge of electron is ______.
Ans: -1.6022 x 10-19 C
8.Charge of neutron is ______.
Ans: neutral
9.Mass of electrons is______.
Ans: 9.1 x 10-31 kg
10.What is atomic number?
Ans: Atomic number = Number of electrons = Number of protons
11.What is mass number?
Ans: Mass number = No. of protons+ No. of electrons
12. What is nucleons?
Ans: Protons and neutrons are together called as nucleons.
13. What are the observations of Rutherford's Scattering experiment?
Ans:
• Most of the Alpha-particles pass without any deflection
• Few deflected with small angles.
14. What are the conclusions of Rutherford's Scattering experiment?
Ans:
• Most of the space in an atom is empty
• Size of the nucleus is very small
15. What are the postulates of Rutherford's nuclear model of atom?
Ans:
• Most of the space in an atom is empty
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus at very high speed
16. What are the limitations (failure) of Rutherford’s nuclear model of
atom?
Ans:
• He failed to explain the stability of an atom
 • He failed to explain hydrogen spectrum
17. Write the postulates of Maxplanck’s quantum theory?
Ans: Amount of energy with a quantum radiation is
𝐸 ∝ 𝜈

𝐸 = ℎ𝜈

18. What is photoelectric effect?

Ans: Ejection of the electrons from the surface of the metal when the
light strikes on it
19. Write the observations of the photoelectric effect?
Ans:
• Kinetic energy of electrons depends on frequency of light
• No. of electrons ejected proportional to the intensity of light
20. Explain the line spectrum of hydrogen
Ans:
1. Lyman series- UV Region
2. Balman series – Visible Region
3. Paschen series – Infra red
4. Brackett series – Infra red
5. Pfund series- Infra red
21. Write Rydberg’s Formula?
1 1 1
Ans: = 𝑅𝐻 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2] , 𝑅𝐻 = 109677 𝑐𝑚−1
𝜆 1 2

22. What are isotopes?

Ans: Atoms having same atomic number but different mass number
1
E.g: 1𝐻 , 1 𝐻2 , 1 𝐻3
23. What are isobars?
Ans: Atoms having same mass number but different atomic number.
E.g: 𝐶614 , 𝑁714

24. What are isotones?

Ans: Atoms with same number of neutrons
E.g: 𝐶613 , 𝑁714

25. Write the postulates of Bohr’s atom model?

Ans:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular path called orbits.
2. Energy of an electron in an orbit is constant
26. What are merits of Bohr's model of atom?
Ans:
1. He could explain stability of atom
2. He could explain atomic spectrum of Hydrogen
27. What are the limitations of the Bohr's model?
Ans:
1. He couldn’t explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
2. He couldn’t explain line spectrum of multielectron atom
28. State dual nature of matter.
Ans: Electron in motion have particle and wave nature
29. Write de Broglie’s equation.
ℎ ℎ
Ans: 𝜆 = =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝

→ h = Planck’s constant
→ 𝜆= wavelength
→ m = mass
→ v = velocity
→ p = momentum
30. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Ans: It is not possible to determine simultaneously both the position and
velocity of a moving electron with absolute accuracy.
31. Write mathematical equation of the Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle?
ℎ
Ans: ∆𝑥 . ∆𝑝 ≥ 4𝜋

32. What is orbit?

Ans: Circular path of electrons revolving around the nucleus (Circular
shape)
33. What is an orbital?
Ans: Region around the nucleus where maximum probability of finding
an electron (different shapes)
34. Write the four types of quantum numbers to identify an electron
Ans:
1. Principal quantum number (n) - Main shell, Size of the orbital
2. Azimuthal quantum number (l) - Subshell, Shape of the orbital
3. Magnetic quantum number (m) - Number of Orbital
4. Spin quantum number (s) - Spin of electron.
35. Write the quantum number required to designate an orbital?
Ans:
 1. Principal quantum number (n)
2. Azimuthal quantum number (l)
3. Magnetic quantum number (m)

36. Write the designation of orbital

i) n=2, l=0
ii) n=4, l=3
iii) n=5, l=2
iv) n=1, l=0
Ans:
i) 2s
ii) 4f
iii) 5d
iv) 1s
37.What are the rules for filling electrons in orbitals of an atom?
State these rules.
Ans:
1.Pauli’s exclusion principle : no two electrons in an atom can
have same values for all quantum numbers.
2.Hunds rule of maximum multiplicity : electron pairing not
takes place until singly filled (with parallel spin) in all orbitals
of a subshell.
Eg: configuration of N atom is 1s2 2s2 2p3
 3.Aufbau principle: orbitals are filled by electrons in the order
of increasing energy
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p
38. Electronic configuration of chromium(Cr) and copper(Cu) is
exceptional why ?
Ans: configuration of Cr is [Ar] 4s1 3d5
Configuration of Cu is [Ar] 4s1 3d10
Half filled and completely filled have extra stability.
39.explain (n+l) rule.
Ans:
1.orbitals are filled in the order of increasing value of (n+l)
2.if two orbitals have same (n+l) value, then the orbital with
lower value of n is filled first.
Eg:for 2p and 3s have same (n+l) value.Then 2p is filled
first(lower n value).
40.Draw the shape of 1s and 2s orbital.
41.Draw the shapes of 2p orbitals.

42. Draw the shapes of d orbitals.

43.Shape of s-orbital is ______.
Ans:Spherical
44.Shape of p-orbital is _______.
Ans:Dumb-bell
45.Number of spherical (radial) nodes in an orbital is_______.
Ans: n-l-1 n-principle quantum number
l-azimuthal quantum number
46.Number of planar or angular nodes in an orbital is_______.
Ans: l-azimuthal quantum number
47.Total number of nodes in any orbital is_______.
Ans: n-1
48. Number of spherical (radial) nodes in 3p orbital is_______.
Ans: n-l-1 = 3 – 1 – 1 = 1
49. Number of planar nodes in 4d orbital is_______.
Ans: l=2 .therefore 2nodes.
 CHAPTER-3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

1 Mark each

1) The general electronic configuration of d-block elements is

(n-1) d1-10ns1-2

2) Which is the most electronegative element in the periodic table

Fluorine

3) Name any one scale to express the electronegativity of elements

Pauling’s scale or Mulliken-Jaffe scale

4) S and P-block elements are collectively called

Representative elements

2 marks each

5) State Mendeleev’s periodic law

The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic mass

6) State merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table

• Made the study of elements easier

• Left vacant spaces for new elements

Eg: Eka aluminium(Ga), Eka Silicon(Ge)

7) State Modern periodic law

The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number

8) What are iso-electronic species. Give example.

Atoms and ions having same number of electrons

Eg: O2-,F-,Ne,Na+,Mg2+ - 10 electrons

9) Cation is smaller than parent atom. Why?

Cation has higher effective nuclear Charge. Na+ ion is smaller than Na atom.

10) Why anion is larger than parent atom

Anion has lesser effective nuclear charge than atom. Cl- ion is larger than Cl atom.

11) Write IUPAC names of the elements with atomic numbers- 108, 109, 114, 117,120

108- unniloctium 117-ununseptium 109-unnilennium 120-unbinilium 114ununquadium

12) Explain Ionisation enthalpy and its periodic trend

• Minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom is called Ionisation
enthalpy
 • Along a period, size of atom decreases, effective nuclear charge increases, Ionisation enthalpy
increases.
• Along a group, size of atom increases, effective nuclear charge decreases, Ionisation
enthalpy decreases.
13) Ionisation enthalpy of Nitrogen is greater than Oxygen. Why?
• Half filled electronic configuration of Nitrogen is more stable

14) What is electron gain enthalpy? Explain periodic trend.

• The energy released when an electron is added to a gaseous neutral atom.
• Along a period, electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative.
• Along a group, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative

15) Electron gain enthalpy of Flourine is less negative than that of Chlorine why?
• Very small size of Flourine
• Larger interelectronic repulsion
16) What is electronegativity. How it varies in a periodic table?
• Ability of an atom to attract shared pair of electrons towards it.
• Along a period , electronegativity increases
• Along a group , electronegativity decreases
17) Lithium (First element of each group) show properties which are different from the other elements of
same group. why?
The anomalous property is due to
• Small size
• High electronegativity
• Absence of d orbitals
18) What is diagonal relationship?
• Elements in second period show similarity in properties with elements in the third period.
• Eg: Lithium resembles Magnesium
Beryllium resembles Aluminium
4. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

1. State octet rule

Atoms enters into chemical combination in order to attain octet configuration

2. What are the limitations of octet rule

 formation of molecules with less than 8 electrons eg; BeCl2 ,BF3
 formation of molecules with more than 8 electrons eg: PCl5 ,SF6
 formation of compounds of Xe and Kr

3. Define lattice energy

Energy required to completely ionize one mole of ionic compound into gaseous ions

4. Bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons is……….

Covalent bond

5. Bond formed by transfer of electron is……..

Ionic bond

6. Draw the Lewis structre of CO2 molecule

.. ..
O: :c ::o
.. ..

7. Write the postulates of VSEPR theory

 The shape of a molecule depends on the number of electron pairs in the valence
shell of the central atom
 The electron pairs repel each other
 To minimise repulsion electron pairs are placed as far away as possible
 The repulsion follows the order lp-lp>lp-bp > bp-bp
 The geometry of molecule depends on the number of electron pairs

8. Differentiate between sigma bond and pi bond

Sigma bond Pi bond
 Axial overlap  Lateral overlap
 Strong  weak

9. What is dipole moment(Ц)

Dipole moment =charge x distance . Its unit is Debye
10. Dipole moment of NH3 is greater than NF3 . Why?
In NH3 dipole moments are in the same direction.
In NF3 dipole moment due to the lone pair is in the opposite direction to that of 3
N-F bonds

11. Dipole moment of BF3, BeF2 and CO2 are zero. why?
Dipole moment is zero due to their symmetrical structure

12. Types of bonds in PCl5

Two axial bonds and three equitorial bonds
Axial bonds are longer and weaker than equatorial bonds

13. Types of hybridization

HYBRIDISATION SHAPE BOND ANGLE EXAMPLE

sp3 Tetrahedral 109028’ CH4
sp2 Trigonal planar 1200 BF3
sp Linear 1800 BeCl2
sp3d Trigonal 1200.900 PCl5
bipyramidal
Sp3d2 octahedral 900 SF6

14. Define bond order .Give its significance.

Bond order=Nb -Na
2
 Bond length is inversely proportional to bond order
 If bond order is positive ,molecule is stable
 If bond order is zero or negative the molecule is unstable

15. He2 molecule does not exist. Why?

Bond order of He2 is zero .so it does not exist

16. Write the bond orders of oxygen and nitrogen

Oxygen=2
Nitrogen=3
17. Explain the magnetic behaviour of oxygen and nitrogen
Oxygen molecule is paramagnetic due to the presence of unpaired electron
Nitrogen molecule is diamagnetic due to the absence of unpaired electron

18. Explain the structure of NH3 and H2O using VSEPR theory
NH3 H2O
One lone pair Two lone pairs
Pyramidal shape V-shape
0
Bond angle 107 Bond angle104.50

19. State Fajan’s rule

Covalent character of ionic bond increases with
 Small size of cation
 Large size of anion
 High charge on both cation and anion

20. Name 2 types of hydrogen bonding.

 Inter molecular hydrogen bonding
hydrogen bond between different molecules Eg;H2O,HF
 Intra molecular hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bond between hydrogen atom and electronegative atom of the
same molecule Eg: Ortho nitro phenol

21. Calculate the number of sigma(σ) and pi(π) bonds

CH3-CH3 σ- 7 π- 0
CH2=CH2 σ- 5 π- 1
CH3-CH=CH2 σ- 8 π- 1
THERMODYNAMICS ΔH= H2- H1

SYSTEM SURROUNDINGS ΔH= qp, ie, heat exchanged between system and
surroundings in a process at constant pressure.
Part of universe which Part of universe other
is under our than system Relation between ΔH & ΔU
investigation
ΔH = ΔU + Δn RT
Types of System
Open System Can exchange both Δn = (number of moles of gaseous
Eg: Water boiled in an energy and matter reactants) -(Number of moles of gaseous
open vessel with surroundings products)

Closed system Can exchange energy Enthalpy of Reaction (ΔHR)

Eg: Water boiled in a but no matter with the
closed vessel. surroundings ΔHR= ΣΔfHProducts - ΣΔfHReactants
Isolated system It can exchange
Hot water in a thermo neither energy nor
Enthalpy of formation :- Enthalpy
flask. matter with the change occurs when one mole of a
surroundings compound is formed directly from its
elements
State of a system : A system is said to
be in a particular state if it has definite Enthalpy of Combustion:- Enthalpy
temperature pressure and volume. T , P & V are change occurs when one mole of a
called state variables. compound is completely burnt in excess
oxygen . Enthaly of combustion is
Thermodynamic Process- Way
through which a system changes from one state always negative because combustion is
to another exothermic reaction.
Isothermal Process Occurs at constant Entropy(S)- It is the measure of
temperature ΔT = 0 disordeness of a system . Entropy increases
Isobaric process Occurs at constant with increase in disorderedness.
pressure , ΔP =0
ΔS= S2-S1
Isochoric process Occurs at constant
volume ΔV =0 ΔS=qrev/T
Adiabatic process Occurs without the
exchange of heat Unit = J/K
Δq=0
Ssolid < Sliquid < Sgas
Internal Energy(U) – Total amount of
energy within a system. It is a state function . Gibbs Free energy(G)
ΔU= U2- U1 Maximum amount of energy available to a
system which can be converted into useful
ΔU= qv , ie, heat exchanged between system work.
and surroundings at constant volume process.
G= H-TS
Enthalpy (Heat Content) (H)
ΔG = G2- G1
H= U+ PV
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS ΔS =+ve , eg :
melting of ice
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Over all ΔG = -VE ΔG= +VE
Intensive Properties Extensive Properties
Independent of Depend on the At equilibrium ΔG=0
amount of matter in quantity of matter
the system present in the system ΔG & Equilibrium Constant (K)
Eg; T , P, density, Volume , mass, ΔG = -2.303RT logK
surface tension , Enthalpy, entropy ,
viscocity , specific internal energy , R- Universal gas constant (8.314JK-1Mol-1)
heat capacity Gibbs free energy
T-Absolute temperature.
State &Path functions
Effect of Temperature on
A state function is the property of spontaneity
the system which depend only on
the initial and final state of the 1. all exothermic reactions (ΔH= -
VE)with increase in entropy(ΔS= +ve) is
system. spontaneous at all temperature.
eg. Temperature, Pressure, Volume , 2. All endothermic reactions (ΔH=
U ,G, S, H +VE)with decrease in entropy(ΔS= -ve)
is non spontaneous at all temperature
Properties which depend on the
path followed are called path 3. exothermic reactions(ΔH= -VE) with
functions. decrease in entropy (ΔS= -ve)is
spontaneous at low temperature.
Eg: Heat and work
4. endothermic reactions
(ΔH=+VE)with increase in entropy(ΔS=
+ve) is spontaneous at high temperature
SPONTANEOUS & NON
SPONTANEOUS PROCESS Hess’s Law
Spontaneous Process Non Spontaneous Enthaly change during a reaction is same
Process whether it occurs through a single step or
Has natural tendency Need help of the through more than one step.
to occur external agency to
occur
Eg : Flow of water Eg: flow of water
from higher level to from lower level to
lower level higher level
Exothermic process Endothermic process
ΔH= -VE & ΔH= +VE &
Some endothermic Process with ΔS=-ve
process with
Born Haber Cycle for NaCl formation 1) Free expasnsion- expansion of
gas in vacuum, ie, Pex=0, W=0
in isotherml condition ΔU =0
So q=0
2)in isothermal irreversible
expansion
W= - P ΔV
3. For adiabatic change
First law of Thermodynamics
q=0, ΔU= Wad
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

ΔU = q + PΔV
Molar Heat Capacity
q- heat energy , ΔU – internal energy change
CP -CV = R
P- Pressure, ΔV- Volume change
CP – Molar heat capacity at constant P
Second law of thermodynamics
CV - Molar heat capacity at constant V
Entropy of the universe increases in the course of
every spontaneous (natural) process Questions
Third law of thermodynamics 1.Define latiice enthalpy?
Entropy of any pure crystalline substance It is the energy released when one mole
approaches zero as the temperature of an ionic compound is formed from its
approaches absolute zero gaseous ions. Lattice enthlpy is directly
Work done in an isothermal reversible proportional to stability of ionic
expansion or compression of an ideal gas compound.

W=-2.303nRT log(V2/V1) 2.

W=-2.303nRT log(P1/P2)

n – number of moles of gas

R – Universal gas constant

T- Absolute temperature

V1- initial volume

ans i) entropy decreases ii)entropy
V2- Final volume increases iii) entropy increases iv)entropy
increases.
Work
3. 7.

ΔG0 =- 2.303RT log K

= -2.303X8.314X300 log 10

4. = -2.303X8.314X300
= -5744.14 J
8.

ΔHR= ΣΔfHProducts - Σ ΔfHReactants

= (81+3x-393)- (9.7+3x-110)
= -1098+320.3= -777.7 KJ Mol-1
5.

ΔfH(NH3)= -92.4/2 = - 46.2 KJ Mol-1 9..

6.
 Unit-6 Chemical Equilibrium
1. What is Law of chemical Equilibrium or Equilibrium constant?

. aA+bB⇌ cC+dD
[𝐂]𝐜[𝐃]𝐝
𝐊𝐜=[𝐀]𝐚[𝐁]𝐛

2. Write expression for Equilibrium constant𝑲𝒄?

[HI]2
H2(g) +I2(g) ⇌2HI (g) Kc=
[H2][I
[NH3]2
+3H 2(g) ⇌ 2NH 3(g) c [N ][H ] 3
2 2

N2(g) K =

1
2HI→H2+I2 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 = K𝔀

3. What are the characters of chemical equilibrium?

Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature.

It can be attained from either direction.

4. What is the relation between 𝑲𝒑 and 𝑲𝒄?

𝐊𝐏 = 𝐊𝐜(𝐑𝐓)∆𝐧
∆n= (no of moles of gaseous products-no of moles of gaseous reactants)
If ∆n=0 𝐾𝑃 = 𝐾𝑐
5. State Le-chatlier principle?

If we change the concentration, pressure, temperature of a system in equilibrium, the

system will adjust itself to reduce the effect of the change.

(𝐠)+3(𝐠) ⇌ 2N(𝐠) .How can you increase the amount of ammonia in this reaction?

According to Le-chatlier principle the following methods are used.

a. increases the concentration of 𝐍𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝐇𝟐.

b. removes N𝐇𝟑from the system.
c. high pressure favours formation of ammonia. (.(200 atm)
d. low temperature is favorable. But optimum temperature is used. (773k)
 Various concepts of acids and bases
Arrhenius concept Lewis concept Bronsted-Lowry concept
Acids -give hydrogen ions Acids are electron pair
(𝐇+𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬) in water acceptors. Acid is a proton donor.
Bases – give (O𝐻−) 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 in Bases are electron pair
water. donors. Base is a proton acceptor.
Eg-HCl, NaOH Lewis acids-B𝐅𝟑,Al𝐂𝐥𝟑
Lewis bases-N𝐇𝟑,𝐇𝟐O, 𝐂𝐥−

6. What is mean by Conjugate acid-base pairs?

The acid-base pair differs by a proton (𝑯+)

7. What is Common ion effect?

Dissociation of a weak electrolyte can be suppressed by the addition of a strong electrolyte

containing a common ion

Eg-The dissociation of NH4OH is suppressed by adding NH4Cl.Here the common ion is

𝐍𝐇𝟒+.
8. What is mean by𝒑𝑯?

𝒑𝑯 =-log [𝑯+]
9. What are Buffer solution? examples?

Buffer solutions-resist the change in (No Change in 𝒑𝑯 of a solution) by the addition of

small amount of acid or alkali.2 types of buffer solution.

Acidic buffer-𝒑𝑯 is less than 7.eg- mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate.

Basic buffer-𝒑𝑯 is more than 7.eg- mixture of NH4OH & NH4Cl.

Ionic product of water (𝐊𝐰) is the product of concentration of hydronium ion and
hydroxyl ion. 𝐊𝒘=[𝐇𝟑𝐎+][O𝐇−]
Solubility product (𝐊𝐬𝐩) is the product of concentration of ions of sparingly soluble salt

Blood is a natural buffer

 Unit-7 Redox reaction
Redox reactions involve both Oxidation and Reduction reaction.
Oxidation -Increase in oxidation number.

Reduction- Decrease in oxidation number.

Explain different types of Redox Reactions

Combination Decomposition Displacement Disproportionation

reactions reaction Reactions Reaction:
breakdown of a an atom or ion in a an element in one
compound in to two compound is oxidation state is
Represented as
or more replaced by an ion simultaneously
A+B→C components, at or atom of another oxidised and
C+𝐎𝟐 →C𝐎𝟐 least one must be in compound. reduced. The
the elemental state. element should be
in the intermediate
2𝐇𝟐O→2 𝐇𝟐+𝐎𝟐
oxidation state.
2𝐇𝟐𝐎𝟐 →2𝐇𝟐O+𝐎𝟐
Using Stock notation represent the following compounds
HAu𝐂𝐥𝟒 HAu(𝐈𝐈𝐈)𝐂𝐥𝟒
FeO Fe(II)O
T𝐥𝟐O T𝐥𝟐(𝐈𝐈)O
CuO Cu(II)O
Mn𝐎𝟐 Mn(𝐈𝐕)𝐎𝟐
MnO Mn(II)O
CuI Cu(I)I
𝐅𝐞𝟐𝐎𝟑 𝐅𝐞𝟐(𝐈𝐈𝐈)𝐎𝟑
Balance the following equation by half reaction method?
 Unit-8,9-Organic chemistry
1. Explain different type of Structural Isomerism shown by organic compounds?

Chain isomerism, Position isomerism ,Functional group isomerism, Metamerism

2. Explain Lassaigne’s test?
The organic Compound is heated with sodium in a fusion tube.When it is red hot,it is
plunged in to water .The solution is boiled and filtered.The filtrate is called Sodium fusion
extract.
Test for Nitrogen Test for Sulphur Test for Halogens
sodium fusion extract sodium fusion sodium fusion extract+Nitic
+Ferrous sulphate solution extract+sodium nitro Acid+Silver nitrate
&Cons.Sulphuric acid prusside. white precipitate soluble in
Blue or green colour Violet colour indicates amonium hydroxide indicates
indicates presence of presence of Sulphur. the presence of Chlorine.
Nitrogen. yellow precipitate sparingly
soluble in amonium hydroxide
indicates the presence of
Bromin.
yellow precipitate insoluble in
amonium hydroxide indicates
the presence of iodine.

3. What is the difference between Homolytic fission&Hetrolytic fission of covalent bonds

Homolysis Heterolysis
Free radicals are produced Carbo cations &carbanions are formed.
Covalent bond breaks in such a way that, Covalent bond breaks in such a way that
each boned atom gives one electron each the shared pair of electrons remains with
one of the pair.
Important points to remember

Catenation-Self linking property of an element to form long chains&rings. (e.g.; Carbon)

Homologous series-A series of organic compounds in which adjacent members are differ
by a -C𝐇𝟐 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑.
Metamerism-arises due to different number of alkyl group on either side of the functional
group.
Inductive effect- Hyper conjugation Electromeric effect
Permanent effect Permanent effect Temporary effect

Different methods used for the estimation of Nitrogen-Dumas method&Kjeldahl’s

method.
 Electrophiles Nucleophiles
Electron loving species or electron deficient Electron rich centers
species. Eg-𝐎𝐇−, 𝐂𝐥−, 𝐂𝐍−, N𝐇𝟑, 𝐇𝟐𝐎
Eg-𝐇+, 𝐂𝐥+,B𝐅𝟑, Al𝐂𝐥𝟑

Carbocations Carbanions
Gp contains +ve charge Carbon atom Gp contains -ve charge Carbon atom
S𝐏𝟐 Hybridization S𝐏𝟑 Hybridization
Stability 𝟏° < 𝟐° < 𝟑° Stability 𝟑° < 𝟐° < 𝟏°

4. Give a method of preparation of Alkanes or What is Wurtz Reaction?

dry ether
CH3Br +2Na+ CH3Br→−−−−−→ CH3 − CH3
Bromomethane Ethane
75.Draw the Sawhorse Projections of the Eclipsed and Staggered Conformation of
Ethane(C𝐇𝟑-C𝐇𝟑)
5. Draw the Newman projections of the Eclipsed and Staggered Conformation of
Ethane(C𝐇𝟑-C𝐇𝟑) and explain their stability?

So Staggered conformation is more stable than the Eclipsed conformation, because the
Staggered form has the least torsional strain than the Eclipsed form.
Markovnikov rule
The rule states that when HBr is added to an unsymmetrical alkene, the reaction takes place
in such a way that the negative part of HBr goes to the carbon atom containing lesser
number of hydrogen atoms.
Propene+HBr→1-Bromo Propane + 2-Bromo propane

(Minor product) (Major Product)

Or

6. Anti Markovnokov Rule (Peroxide effect or Kharasch effect)

The rule states that when HBr is added to an unsymmetrical alkene, in presence of a
peroxide, the reaction takes place opposite to Markovnokov rule. That is the negative part
of HBr goes to the carbon atom containing higher number of hydrogen atoms.
𝑜𝑟𝑔.𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
Propene+HBr→−−−−−−−−→ +1-Bromo Propane + 2-Bromopropane
(Major product) (Minor Product)
Important reactions to remember
 Ca𝐂𝟐 + 𝐇𝟐O → CH≡CH (acetylene) + Ca(𝐎𝐇)𝟐

𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝟖𝟕𝟑𝒌

𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭
Phenol + Zinc dust→−→ Benzene

Aromatization or Reforming

7. Electrophilic Substitution Reaction

a) Nitration
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬.𝐇𝐍𝐎𝟑
Benzene →−−−−−−→ Nitro Benzene
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬.𝐇𝟐𝐒𝐎𝟒

b) Halogenation
C) Friedel-crafts Alkylation
𝐀𝐧𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐀𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐂𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐞
Benzene + Alkyl Halides →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Alkyl benzenes

d)Friedel crafts acylation

8. What is BHC or Gammaxene?

(addition of Chlorine in uv light gives BHC)

(Conversion of benzene to cyclohexane)

(addition of excess chlorine in dark and in

presence of anhy. aluminum chloride gives Hexa chloro benzene)
9. Huckel’s Rule-A compound is aromatic if it contains (4n+2) electrons.

10.Stability of free radicals

82.Draw Geometrical isomers of But-2-ene