Important Questions and Answers Chemistry-First year G.Sridhar, M.Sc., M.

Phil
Lecturer in Chemistry

GJC, Parawada

Atomic Structure

1. What are the postulates of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom? Discuss the importance
of this model to explain various series of line spectra In hydrogen atom?

Postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom

(1) The electrons revolves round the nucleus in concentric circular path with definite energy,
called orbits or shells or energy levels. These are designated as 1,2,3,4, -- (or) K, L, M, N
(2) As long as the electron revolves in the same orbit, it neither loose nor gain energy i.e
energy of an electron in a particular orbit remains constant. Hence these are called stationary
orbits Eelectrons is the whole number multiple of h/2𝜋
The angular momentum of electron can be represented as
𝑛ℎ
mvr=2𝜋 where n = 1, 2, 3....... m = mass of electron, v = velocity of electron,
r = radius of an orbit and h = Planck’s constant
4) Electron may emit or absorbs energy when it jumps from one level to another level.
Electron moves from lower orbit to higher orbit by Type equation here.absorbing energy. If
electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit then it emits energy.Type equation here.
The energy emitted or absorbed is given by
ΔΕ
∆𝐸= E2-E1 =h𝜈 𝜈= ℎ
Bohr’s Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum:
Hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron in the ground
state. By the absorption of energy, electron jumps from the
ground state to the higher energy level and atom becomes
unstable. In order to get the stability the electron should
comes back to lower energy level with emission of energy.
While de-excitation of electron, the electron directly comes to
the first energy level (or) it may comes through the different
intermediate levels. Since many atoms are involved, hence it produces large number of
spectral lines in the hydrogen spectrum. The five series of spectral lines in the hydrogen
emission spectrum are as shown below.
Limitations of Bohr’s Model:
1. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the spectra of multi electron atoms.
2. It could not explain the fine structure of atomic spectrum.
3. It does not explain the splitting of spectral lines into a group of finer lines under the
influence of magnetic field (Zeeman Effect) and electric field (Stark effect).
4. Bohr’s theory is not in agreement with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

2. What are quantum numbers? Give their significance?

Ans. The various orbitals in an atom qualitatively distinguished by their size, shape and
orientation. The atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by the numbers known as quantum
numbers. Each orbital is designated by four quantum numbers denoted as n, l and ml and ms.

1) Principal quantum number (n) 2) Azimuthal quantum number (l)

3) Magnetic quantum number (ml) 4) Spin quantum number (ms)

1. Principal Quantum Number (n):

It was proposed by Neil’s Bohr. The value of n is 1,2,3,4 (Or) K,L,M, N.. respectively. As ‘n’
value increases, the size and energy of the orbit also increases. The maximum number of
electrons possible in an orbit = 2n2. Significance: The size and energy of the orbit

2. Angular momentum Quantum Number(l):

It was proposed by Somerfield. The values of l are 0, 1 to (n-1). These are l = 0,1,2,3 called
s,p,d,f...sub shells respectively. It indicates the orbital angular momentum of electron.
Significance: The shapes of orbitals. S-spherical, P-dumb bell and d- double dumb bell.

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml):

It was proposed by Lande . The values of m are -l to +l including zero, a total of 2l+1 values.
The total number of m values indicates the total number of orbitals in the subshell.
Significance: It indicates the orientation of orbitals in space

4. Spin Quantum Number(ms):

 1
It was proposed by Goldsmith and Uhlenbeck . The values are ± 2 .
1 1
+2 represents clock wise direction and -2 is represents anti clock wise direction of electron
spin. An orbital can accommodate maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spin. The
maximum number of electrons accommodated by s, p, d and f subshells is 2,6,10 and 14
respectively. Significance: It indicates the spin orientation of the electron

3. State and explain the following with suitable examples. a). Auf-bau principle b) Pauli’s
principle c) Hund’s rule.

Aufbau Principle:

It states that “Electrons filled into the orbitals in increasing order of their energies”. i.e.
electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter into higher energy
orbitals. The relative energy of an orbital is given by (n + l) value. As (n + l) value increases, the
energy of orbital increases. The orbital with the lowest (n + l) value is filled first.. Consider two
orbitals 3d and 4s. The n + l value of 3d = 3 + 2 = 5 and of 4s = 4 + 0 = 4. Since 4s has lowest (n
+ l) value, it is filled first. The order of increasing energy of atomic orbitals is: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s
< 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d etc

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:

“No two electrons in an orbital of an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers”. If
two electrons in an orbital may have the same n, same l and same m but differ in spin
quantum number. In an orbital if one electron has clockwise spin, the other has anticlockwise
spin. It follows that an orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins. Ex:
Helium has two electrons in its 1s orbital.

Quantum First electron Second electron

number
n 1 1
l 0 0
ml 0 0
ms 1
+2
1
-2
Hund’s Rule:

It states that “Pairing of electrons in the orbitals takes place only after the available
degenerated orbitals are half filled.

4. Explain the difference between emission and absorption spectra?

 S.No Emission spectrum Absorption spectrum
1 It is due to emission of radiation It is due to absorption of radiation

2 The spectra is formed when an The spectra is formed when an electron

electron Jumps from higher orbits to Jumps from higher orbits to lower orbits
lower orbits to higher orbits

3 Spectrum contain bright lines on dark Spectrum contain dark lines on bright back
back ground ground
4 It is a continuous spectrum It is a discontinuous spectrum

5. Explain photo electric effect?

Ans. 1) When a beam of light (h) of suitable wave length fall on a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. This phenomenon is called photo electric effect. It is
represented as follows.

6. What is a nodal plane? How many nodal planes are possible for 2p- and 3d- orbitals?

Ans. The plane passing through the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is zero
is called nodal plane. Number of nodal planes for orbit is equal to ‘l’. where l is Azimuthal
quantum number i) For a 2p orbital ‘l’ is 1. ∴ the number of nodal planes are one. ii) for a 3d
orbital l value is ‘2’. ∴ the number of nodal planes are two.

7. What is a black body?

Ans. It is an ideal body which is a perfect absorber and a perfect emitter

8. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum does Balmer series belong?

Ans. Visible region

9. What is an atomic orbital?

Ans. The region around the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is maximum is
called ‘Orbital’.

10. How many p electrons are present in sulphur atom?

Ans. Electronic configuration of ‘S’ (Z = 16) = 1S22S22P63S23P4 ∴ No. of ‘P’ electrons = 10

Periodic Classification
1) Define first and second ionization potentials. Why is the second ionization potential
greater than the first ionization potential? Discuss three factors affecting IP values of
elements?

Ans. The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an isolated, neutral, gaseous
atom in its ground state. It is expressed in e.v/atom or k.j/mole or k.cal/mole.

M+ IE1 ---- → M++ e-

M+= unipositive ion , IE1= First Ionisation Enthalpy

Second ionization Potential: The energy required to remove an electron from unipositive
gaseous ion is called second ionization potential.

M++IE2---→ M+2+ e-

M+2 = Dipositive Ion , IE2 ≫ IE1

In unipositive ion, the number of electrons is less than the number of protons. So the
attraction of the nucleus over the outermost electrons is high. Hence the energy required to
remove the electron from unipositive ion is higher than that from neutral atom. So, 2 nd I E. is
greater than the 1st I E

Factors influencing I.P

1) Atomic Radius: As the atomic radius increases, the nuclear force of attraction over the
valence electrons decreases. So I.P value decreases
1
IE ∝ 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒

2) Nuclear Charge: As the nuclear charge increases, the force of attraction on the valence
electrons increases. Hence I.P value increases.

IE ∝ 𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

3) Screenig Effect: (or) Sheilding Effect: The electrons present in inner orbitals reduce the
nuclear attraction on the valency electrons. This is called Screening or Sheilding effect. As the
number of electrons in the inner shells increases, sheilding effect increases. So I.P value
decreases. Order is S> p> d> f Ionization energy α 1/Screening effect
1
IE ∝ 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

4) penetration of Orbitals into inner shells: Penetration power of orbitals depends on the
shapes of orbitals. Penetration power of orbitals is in the order s> p >d> f . Greater the
penetrating power higher is the ionisation potential.

Order is S>p >d >f

5) Half filled or completely filled orbitals: Atoms with half filled (or) completely filled
orbitals are more stable. So I.P values of these atoms are high.

Example: I.E of N > I.E of oxygen, because N atom has stable half filled P-sub-shell i.e. 2P3

2) State Modern periodic law. Justify the classification of elements into 4 blocks?

Ans. Modern periodic law states that “The physical and chemical properties of the elements
are the periodic functions of their electronic configurations”. Basing on the electronic
configuration, elements are classified in to four blocks. They are

S-Block Elements:-

i) s-block elements are placed on the left hand side of the periodic table

ii) In these elements the differentiating electron enters into S- orbital.

iii) s-block contains two groups IA (alkali metals ) and IIA (alkaline earth metals ).

iv) The general electronic configuration is ns1-2

iv) These are Highly electropositive. They do not occur in free state in nature due to high
reactivity. Their ions are colourless and diamagnetic.

P-Block Elements:-

i) p-block elements placed on the right side of the periodic table.

ii) In these elements the differentiating electron enters into the p-orbital. iii) They contain ‘6’
groups IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and ‘0’ groups (From group 13 to 18).

iv) The general electronic configuration is ns2 np1-6 .

Boron Family 13th group Carbon Family 14 th group, 15th Nitrogen family, 16th Oxygen Family,
17th Halogen Family , 18th group Inert gases

v)p-block contains metals, non-metals and metalloids. 16th and 17th group elements are
Electronegative in nature

d-Block Elements:-

i) d-block elements are placed in between ‘s’ and ‘p’ block.

ii) In these elements, the differentiating electron enters into d-orbital [(n-1)d]. The elements of
III B, IV B, V B, VI B, VII B, VIII (these rows), I B and II B (Groups 3 to 12) are d-block elements.

iii) The general electronic configuration of these elements is

(n-1)d1-10 ns1-2

iv) d-block is divided into 4 series. 3d series- Sc (Z = 21) - Zn (Z = 30) 4d series- Y (Z = 39) - Cd
(Z = 48) 5d series- La (Z = 57) - Hg (Z = 80) 6d series- Ac (Z = 89) - In complete
Characteristic properties:

i) Hard and heavy metals with high M.P. and B.P. ii) They form mostly coloured ions iii) They
show variable valency iv) They show para magnetic nature. (Due to the presence of unpaired
electrons in d-orbitals)

4. f-Block Elements:-

i). The f-block elements are placed at bottom of the periodic table

ii). In these elements, differentiating electron enters into f-subshell of anti penultimate Shell
i.e. (n-2)f

iii). f-block contains lanthanides and actinides. Each series contains 14 elements.
Lanthanides are 58 -71 Ce Lu − and actinides are 90 -103( Th- Lr iv).

iv) The general electronic configuration is (n – 2)f1-14 (n – 1)d0 – 1 ns2 v). These are also known as
inner transition elements.

v) Most of these elements are Radio Active. They show +2 and +3 common oxidation states.

3) What is a periodic property? How the following properties vary in a group and in a
period? a) Atomic radius b) Ionisation enthalpy c) Electro negativity d)Electron gain
enthalpy.

Ans. The property of elements which repeats at regular intervals in the periodic table is
called a periodic property

a) Atomic radius: The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outer most shell of
an atom is called as atomic radius. In a period: Atomic size decreases from left to right in a
period, because the effective nuclear charge increases as the differentiating electron enters
into the same shell. In a group: Atomic radius increases from top to bottom due to increase in
number of new shells.

b) Variation of ionisation energy in a group: In a group from top to bottom I.P. decreases as
atomic size and the screening effect increases. V In a period, the ionisation enthalpy increases
with the increase in atomic number from left to right as atomic size decreases and the
effective nuclear charge increases.

Ex: ‘N’ has high I.E. than ‘O due to the stable half filled 2p-orbitals in ‘N’

C) Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom to attract the bonded pair of electrons

towards itself is called electro negativity. From left to right in a period, electro negativity
increases due to the decrease in atomic size. In a group from top to bottom , electro negativity
decreases due to increase in atomic size. * F is the most electronegative element.

d) Electron Gain Enthalpy: The amount of energy released when an electron is added to the
valence shell of neutral gaseous atom is called as electron gain enthalpy or electron affinity. In
a period from left to right in electron affinity increases due to decrease in atomic size. In a
group from top to bottom, electron affinity decrease due to increase in atomic size.

4. What is diagonal relationship? Give a pair of elements having diagonal relationship.

Why do they show this relation?

Ans. First element in first group, second element in second group are similar in their
properties . This type of relationship is known as diagonal relationship. It is due to same
electronegativity, size and polarisation power

Example: Li – Mg , Be – Al and B – Si

5. What is lanthanide contraction? What are its Consequences?

Ans. i). In lanthanides differentiating electron enters into 4f orbital which has poor shielding
effect. Hence it cannot shield the nuclear attraction. This decrease in atomic size in
lanthanides with increase in atomic number is called lanthanide contraction .

Consequences of lanthanide contraction 1) The melting points, boiling points of all the
elements increases from Ce to Lu 2) The crystal structures and other properties of
lanthanides are almost similar. Therefore it is not easy to separate them from the mixture. 3)
Inert pair effect is also a consequence of lanthanide contraction. 4) Due to this, pairs of
elements such as Zr & Hf , Nb & Ta, Mo & W belonging to 4d and 5d series of elements have
almost similar radii.

6. Give any four characteristic properties of transition elements?

Ans. Elements in which the ultimate and penultimate shells (n and n–1 shells) are partially
filled are called transition elements. Characteristic properties of transition elements are

(i). They are hard and heavy metals. (ii). Their M.P, B.P and densities are very high. (iii). They are
good conductors of heat & electricity. (iv). They show variable oxidation states. (v). They form
alloys. VI) They show paramagnetism and Catalytic activity.

7. Among N -3,O-2 ,F-1 ,Na +,Mg+2 and Al+3 a. What is common in them? b. Arrange them in
the increasing ionic radii.

Ans. a. Number of electrons is common in all the above species. Each is having 10 electrons.
Al+3< Mg+2< Na +, F-< O-2< N-3.

8. Electron affinity of chlorine is more than that of fluorine – explain

Ans. The electron gain enthalpy of F is less negative than that of(chlorine due to greater inter
electronic repulsion

Chemical Bonding

1) What is meant by Hybridisation? Explain different types of Hybridisation involving S

and P orbitals?
Ans. The process of intermixing of atomic orbitals of an atom resulting in the formation of new
orbitals of similar shape and energy is called as hybridization. The different types of
hybridization, involving S & P orbitals are.

SP hybridization:

One “s” orbital and one “p” orbital mix to form two “SP” hybrid orbitals. They have 50% “S” and
50% “p” character. Geometry of “SP” hybridized molecule is linear with bond angle 180 0 .

Ex: BeCl2 Electronic configuration of be in ground state is 1S2 2S2 . In excited state is 1S1 2S1
2p1. In the excited beryllium atom, ‘2s’ and ‘2px’ orbitals intermix to give two equivalent ‘sp’
hybrid orbitals. The electronic configuration of Cl is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px 23py 2 3pz 1. It has one
half filled ‘p’ orbital. The half filled 3pz orbitals of two chlorine atoms overlap with ‘sp’ hybrid
orbitals of beryllium atom to form two σ sp-p bonds. BeCl2 molecule has linear shape with
bond angle 180°.

sp2 Hybridisation :

The intermixing of one ‘s’ orbital and two ‘p’ orbitals to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals. Each
sp2 hybrid orbital has 33.33%‘s’ character and 66.66% ‘p’ character. Geometry of “SP”
hybridized molecule is trigonal planar with bond angle 1200 .

Ex; BCl3 The central atom is boron. The electronic configuration of boron atom in its excited
state is 1s2 2s1 2p2 . In the excited boron atom ‘2s’ orbital and two ‘2p’ orbitals intermix to give
three equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitals. In the formation of BCl3 molecule, three sp2 hybrid orbitals
of boron overlap with half filled 3pz orbitals of three chlorine atoms to give three σsp 2 -p
bonds. Shape trigonal planar with bond angle 120°.

sp3 Hybridization: The intermixing of one ‘s’ orbital and three ‘p’ orbitals to give four
equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals is known as sp3 hybridisation. The four sp3 hybrid orbitals are
directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron. The angle between any two sp3
hybrid orbitals is 109°281. Ex: Methane Molecule The central atom in CH 4 is carbon. The
electronic configuration of carbon atom in its excited state is 1s2 2s1 2p3 i.e. 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1
2pz1

In the excited carbon atom, one ‘2s’ orbital and three ‘2p’ orbitals intermix to give four
equivalent ‘sp3’ hybrid orbitals. In the formation of methane molecule, four ‘sp 3’ hybrid orbitals
of carbon overlap with ‘1s’ orbital of four hydrogens to give four σ sp3 -s bonds. Methane
molecule has tetrahedral shape with bond angle 109.5°.

2. What are the basic postulates of VSEPR theory? Discuss the shape of Methane and
Ammonia molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory?

Ans. Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory). It was put forward by
Sidgwick and Powell and later developed by Nyholm and Gillespie

a) The shape of the molecule is determined by repulsions between all of the electron pairs
present in the valency shell of central atom. These are two types, bond pairs and lone pairs
b) The electron pairs orient in space so as to have minimum repulsions among them.
c) The magnitude of repulsions between bonding pairs of electrons depends on the
electronegativity difference between the central atom and the other atoms.
d) The order of repulsions between various electron pairs is lone pair – lone pair > lone pair –
bond pair > bond pair – bond pair.
e) The repulsive forces between different bonds is of the order triple bond > double bond >
single bond.
f) The shapes of molecules can be predicted as

Total no.of No.of bond No.of lone Shapes of Examples

valency pairs pairs the
electrons molecules
2 2 0 linear BeCl2, CO2
3 3 0 Triangular BCl3
2 1 Angular SnCl2
4 4 0 Teytrahedral CH4
3 1 Pyramidal NH3
2 2 Angular H2 O
5 5 0 Trogonal bi PCl5
pyramidal
6 6 0 Octahedral SF6
3. Give the Molecular Orbital Energy diagram of a) N2 and O2. Calculate the respective
bond order?

Ans Electronic Configuration of Oxygen( O2)-

Bond Order = 10−6/2 = 4/2= 2

Electronic configuration of Nitrogen ( N2)

Bond Order = 10−4/2 = 6/2 = 3

4. Explain the formation of coordinate Covalent bond with one Example?

 Ans. A covalent bond is formed by sharing a pair of electrons. A special type of covalent bond
is formed in which the shared pair of electrons is contributed by one atom only. The atom
which donates the shared pair of electrons is called as donor and that which accepts the
electrons is called as acceptor. Such a bond results when a doubly filled orbital overlaps with
an empty orbital of another atom. The bond between two atoms in which one donates a pair of
electrons and the other accepts a pair of electrons is called as coordinate bond or dative
bond.

NH3+ H +----→ [NH4] + Coordinate bond is shown by an arrow which is directed from donor to
acceptor.

5. Explain the hybridization involved in SF6 molecule?

Ans. Sulphur in 2nd excited state One “s” and three “p” and two “d” orbitals undergo sp3d 2
hybridisation. These 6 hybrid orbitals overlap with 6 singly occupied p – orbitals of fluorine
atoms to form 6 sigma bonds. Shape is regular octahedron

6. Define Dipole moment. Write its applications?

Ans. Dipole moment can be defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge and the
distance between the charges.

It is designated by µ.

µ=Qxd

Where µ= dipole moment Q is charge , d is distance (bond length) It is expressed as debye

units (D) or coulomb meter (cm). Dipole moment designated by a small arrow and it
symbolizes the direction of shift of electron density in the molecule

Applications: 1) It is used to know the polarity of the molecule. Molecules with zero dipole
moment are non-polar and those with dipole moment are polar. 2) It is used to determine
geometry of molecule. Ex: CO2, BeF2 , are linear as µ=0. 3) It is also used to determine
percentage of ionic character of a covalent bond.
7. State Fajan rules and give suitable examples.

Ionic nature of the bond increases with increase in the size of cation, e.g.: The ionic nature
increases in the order
Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb– < Cs+
1. The formation of ionic bond is favoured with the decrease of the size of anion.
e.g.: CaF2 is more ionic than CaI2.
2. If the charge on cation (or) anion (or) both is less, then they can form ionic
bonds, e.g.: The ionic nature increases in the order

3. Cations with inert gas configurations form ionic compounds while those
cations with pseudo inert gas configurations favour covalent bond formation.
e.g.: Na+ in Na+Cl– has an inert gas configuration. So Na +Cl– is ionic. But CuCl is
more covalent because Cu+ has pseudo inert gas configuration.
4. The cation with inert gas configuration is more stable, e.g.: Ca2+ is more stable
than Zn2+ ion.
8. What is Hydrogen bond ? Explain the different types of Hydrogen bonds with examples?
Answer:
Hydrogen bond is a weak electrostatic force of attraction between hydrogen and highly
electronegative elements like F,O and N of the same molecule or another molecule.
Hydrogen bond is represented with dotted lines (—–). Hydrogen bond is stronger than Vander
Waals’ forces and weaker than covalent bond.
Hydrogen bonding is of two types.

(1) Intermolecular hydrogen bond and

(2) Intramolecular hydrogen bond.

1) Intermolecular hydrogen bond :

If the hydrogen bond is formed in between two polar molecules it is called intermolecular
hydrogen bond

Water molecule forms oi. associated molecule through intermolecular hydrogen bond. Due to
molecular association water possess high boiling point

2) Intramolecular hydrogen bond:

If the hydrogen bond is formed within the same molecule it is known as intramolecular
hydrogen bond.
Ex. : o – nitrophenol; o – hydroxy benzaldehyde.

9. Of BF3 and NF3, dipole moment is observed for NF 3 and not for BF3. Why?
Answer:
Out of BF3 and NF3 dipole moment is observed for NF3 and not for BF3.
Reasons:

• BF3 molecule is non polar and is a symmetrical molecule.

Symmetrical molecules have zero dipole moment.
• NF3 molecule is polar and it is a unsymmetrical molecule so it has
dipole moment.
• BF3 molecule has trigonal planar structure.
NF3 molecule has pyramidal shape.

State of Matter

1) State and explain Graham’s law of diffusion?

Ans. Graham’s law is stated as, at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a
gas is inversely proportional to square root of its density, Vapour density and Molecular weight

If r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion of two gases d1 and d2 are their densities respectively, then
r1/r2 = √d2/d1

This equation can be written as:

Comparison of the volumes of the gases that diffuse in the same time. Let V 1 and V2 are the
volumes of two gases that diffuse in the same time ‘t’.

𝑟1 𝑉1
When time of flow is same then 𝑟2
= 𝑇1 :
𝑟1 𝑡2
When volume is the same then =
𝑟2 𝑡1

Applications 1). Ansil alarm in coal mines for the detection of marsh gas is based on diffusion.
2) Atmolysis, a process of separation of uranium isotopes (U235 & U238) is also based on
diffusion, where the isotopes are converted to volatile uranium hexa flourides 3). Useful in the
calculation of molecular weights and density of gases and vapours.

2) Write the postulates of kinetic theory of gases?

Ans.1. All gases contain large number of tiny and particles, called gas molecules.

2. The volume occupied by gas molecule is negligible when compared to the total volume of
the container

3. Molecules of a gas are electrically neutral and they do not have attractions and repulsions
between them.

4. Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly in all the directions with high velocities

5. Motion of gas molecules is not affected by the gravitational force.

6. Pressure created by gas molecules when they collide with each other or with the wall of
the container.

7. These Collisions are perfectly elastic.

8. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute temperature
of the gas. Kinetic energy ∝ absolute temperature.

3. State and explain Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures?

Ans. At a given temperature, the total pressure exerted by two or more non reacting gases
occupying a definite volume is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component
gases.
P = P1 + P2+P3 ..... (T, V constant) Where P1, P2 and P 3 are the partial pressures of the
component gases respectively. In a mixture the pressure exerted by the individual gas is
known as its partial pressure

4. Deduce a). Boyle”s Law and b). Charle’s Law from kinetic gas equation?

Ans. a)

According to kinetic gas equation

1
PV = 3 mn urms2
2 1
= 3 X 2 mn urms2
2 1
PV=3 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(KE) since KE= 2 𝑚𝑛𝑈2
2
PV= 3 K T

According to Boyles law “T’ is constant

1
∴ PV= Constant or P ∝ 𝑉

Hence Boyles law is proved

b) Deduction of Charle’s law

According to kinetic gas equation

1
PV = 3 mn urms2
2 1
= 3 X 2 mn urms2
2 1
PV=3 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(KE) since KE= 2 𝑚𝑛𝑈2
𝑉 2 𝐾
=3 X𝑃
𝑇

According to Charles law “P” is constant

𝑉
∴ 𝑇 = constant (or) V ∝ T

Hence Charles law is proved

5. Deduce a) Graham’s law and b) Dalton’s law from kinetic gas equation?

Ans. A) Grahams law

1
According to kinetic gas equation PV = mn urms2
3
For one mole of a gas, with Avogadro number of molecules, the mass ‘mn’ becomes equal to
gram molecular weight, M.
3𝑃𝑉 3𝑃
PV = 1 /3 MC 2 (or) C2 = ( or ) C = √ 𝑑
𝑀

Where density (d) is mass per volume. Inversely proportional to square root of its density .

b) Dalton’s Law:

Consider a gas present in vessel of volume = V

no. of molecules = n1
mass of each molecule =m
RMS velocity = u1d
According to kinetic gas equation the pressure of the gas.
1 m1 n1Urms 2
P1 = 3 𝑉
1 m2 n2 Urms 2
When this gas is replaced by another gas in the same vessel, P2 = 3 𝑉
When these two gases are mixed in the same vessel, the total pressure of the mixture is P
1 m1 n1U1 2 1 m2 n2 U2 2
= P1 = 3 + P2 = 3 = P 1 + P2
𝑉 𝑉
∴ P = P 1 + P2.
This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.’

6) Derive an expression for Kinetic Energy of gas molecules.

Answer:
1
Kinetic gas equation is PV = 3 mn urms2
For one mole of gas ‘n’ the no.of molecules will be equal to Avagadro’s number ‘N’.
∴ m × N = ‘M’ (gram molar mass of the gas)
1
∴ PV = 3 M urms2
2 1
= X M urms2
3 2
2
PV= K E
3
Ideal gas equation for 1 mole of gas is PV = RT
2
∴3 KE = RT
3
⇒ KE = 2 RT
3
For ‘n’ moles KE = 2 nRT

7. Define a) RMS b) average and c) most probable speeds of gas molecules. Give their
interrelation ship?
Ans. RMS velocity It is the square root of mean of squares of velocities of molecules present

in the gas. It is denoted by C. C=

Average velocity: It is the ratio of sum of the velocities of all gas molecules to the total

number of molecules. It is also called mean velocity Cav =

Most probable velocity It is the velocity possessed by maximum number of molecules present

in a given amount of gas. It is denoted by Cp =

7’’. Derive Ideal gas equation?

Ideal gas equation : The combination of the gas laws leads to the development of
an equation which relates to the four parameters volume, pressure, absolute
temperature and number of moles. This equation is known as ideal gas equation.
In this Boyle’s law and Charles’ law combined together and an equation obtained
is called the gas equation.
1
V ∝ 𝑃(Boyle’s law)
V ∝ T (Charles law)
V ∝ n (Avogadro’s law)
Combining above three laws, we can write
1
V ∝ 𝑃 ∝ T ∝ n (or) V = R × 1P × T × n
(Or) PV = nRT
Where V = volume of the gasll
P = pressure of the gas
n = no. of moles of gas
T = absolute temperature
R = Universal gas constant.
8. What is an absolute Temperature?

Ans. Temperature expressed in kelvin scale is called absolute temperature. This is denoted by
T. T (in K) = (t°C + 273) K.

9). Why is gas constant (R) called universal gas constant?

Ans. ‘R’ is called universal gas constant as its value is same for all gases at S.T.P
10. What is an ideal gas?

Ans. The Gas which obeys Boyle’s law, Charle’s law and Avogadro’s law is called an ideal gas

11 . What are S T P Conditions ?

Answer:
STP means Standard Temperature and Pressure conditions.

• Standard temperature is 0° C = 273 K

• Standard pressure is 1 atmosphere = 76 cm = 760 mm. of Hg.
At S.T.P. one mole of any gas occupy 22.4 lit. of volume.

12. Which gas diffuses faster among N2, O2, CH4 gases? Why?

Ans. CH4 diffuses faster as its molecular weight is lower than remaining two gases.

13. How many times methane diffuses faster than sulphur dioxide?

Ans. Methane diffuses 2 times faster than sulphur dioxide

14. What is Boltzmann constant? Write its value?

Ans. Boltzmann constant is the gas constant per one molecule. It is given as the ratio of
𝑅
Universal gas constant and Avogadro number. k = 𝑁

the value of Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38 x 10–23J K -1 molecule -1

15. Find the kinetic energy of 2 moles of an ideal gas in calories at 27°C?
3 3
Ans. Kinetic energy is given as (K.E.) = 2 nRT = 2 x2x2x300 = 1800 calories.

15. Calculate the kinetic energy of 5 moles of Nitrogen at 27°C?

3 3
Ans. Kinetic energy is given as (K.E.) = 2 nRT= 2 x5x8.314 x300 = 18706.5 KJ.

17. What are Isotherms?

Ans. At constant temperature the curves which shows the relationship between variation of
volume of a given mass of gas and pressure are called isotherms

19. What are Isobars?

Ans. A Graph drawn between volume and temperature at constant pressure

20. What are Isochores ?

A graph drawn between temperature gas and pressure of a gas at constant volume

21. What is Gram molar Volume ?

The volume occupied by one gram gram mole of a gas at STP. At STP one mole of any gas
occupy 22.4 lit. of volume
22. Why Ideal gas equation is called Equation of State ?
Ideal gas equation is a relation between four variables (p, v, n, T) and it describes the state of
any gas. Hence it is called equation of state

23. Give the ratio of RMS average and most probable speeds of gas molecules.

24. What is surface tension ?

The force acting at right angles to the surface of the liquid along unit length of surface is called
surface tension.

• Units : dynes / cm.

25. What is laminar flow of a liquid ?
In liquids a regular gradation of velocity for layers in passing from one layer to the next
observed. This flow of liquid is called Laminar flow.

26. What is Compressibility factor ?

The ratio of the actual molar volume of a gas to the molar volume of a perfect
gas under the same conditions is called compressibility factor.
Compressibility factor Z = PVnRT
For a perfect gas Z = 1.
27. Why pressure Cooker is used for cooking food on hills ?
At hill areas pressure cooker is used for cooking food because low atmospheric
pressure is observed at high altitudes. At high altitudes liquids boil at low
temperature. So water boils at low temperature on hills.

28. Give the Kinetic gas equation and write the terms in it.
Kinetic gas equation is PV = 13mnu2rms
P = Pressure of the gas
V = Volume of the gas
m = Mass of 1 mole of the gas
urms = RMS speed of the gas molecules.

29. Give an equation to calculate the kinetic energy of gas molecules.

Kinetic energy for ‘n1 moles of gas is given by
K.E. = 3/ 2nRT
R = Universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature.
30. What is laminar flow of a liquid ?
In liquids a regular gradation of velocity for layers in passing from one layer to the
next observed. This flow of liquid is called Laminar flow.

Stoiochometry

1. Balance the following redox reaction by ion- electron method taking place in acidic
medium a) Cr2O 7 2- + SO2 (g) ---→ Cr3+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) (in acidic solution)

Reduction Half reaction Oxidation Half reaction

Cr2O72- + 14 H++ 6𝑒- --->2Cr3+ + 7H2O

( Charge balanced)
3 SO2+ 6 H2O--->3 SO42-+12 H++6e-
3( SO2 + 2H2O ---> SO42- + 4 H+ + 2 e -
Cr2O72-+3 SO2+2H+ --> 2Cr3+ +3 SO42- + H2O

b)

Reduction Half reaction Oxidation Half reaction

c) P4(s) + OH -(aq) → PH3(g) + HPO2- ( basic medium)

Reduction Half reactionp Oxidation Half reaction

P4 → PH3 4 → H2PO−2
P4 → 4PH3 P4 → 4H2PO−2 (‘P’ balanced)
P4 + 12H2O → 4PH3 + 12 OH– (H balanced) P4 + 8H2O → 4H2PO−2 (Oxygen balanced)
P4 + 12H2O + 12e– → 4PH3 + 12 OH– P4 + 8H2O + 8 OH– → 4H2PO−2 + 8H2O
(Hydrogen balanced)
P4 + 8OH– → 4H2PO−2 + 4e–
(Charge balanced)
Here P4 is oxidising agent as well reducing
agent.

d) MnO4- + I - ----> MnO2 + I2 ( Basic medium)

3) Chemical analysis of a carbon compound gave the following percentage composition by
weight of the elements present, carbon = 10.06%, hydrogen = 0.84%. chlorine = 89.10%.
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

S.NO Element % by weight % Atomic weight Divide with least

value

∴ Emperical formula of given compound = C1H1Cl3

= CHCl3

4. What are disproportionation ? Give one example .

Ans). The reactions in which the same element undergoing both oxidation and reduction
simultaneously are called Disproportionation. Examples; a) Reaction of white phosphorous in
aqueous caustic soda solution.

P4 +3NaOH+3H 2O ----→ PH 3+3NaH2 PO2

5. How many moles of glucose are present in 540 gm of glucose?

Ans. Molar mass of glucose is 180gm

Number of moles= weight/GMW= 540/180= 3moles.

6. Calculate the weight of 0.1 mole of Na 2CO3?

Ans. Weight of 0.1 mole of Na2CO3= moles X GMW= 0.1x106=10.6 gm

7.How many molecules of glucose are present in 5.23 gm of glucose (Molecular weight
of glucose is 180 U)?

Ans. No. of molecules = No. of moles × Avagadro no

GMW of Glucose= 180 gms

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 5.23
No of moles = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 180 = 0.02906 moles

No of molecules = 0.02906 X 6.023x1023 = 1.75X1022 molecules

8. Empirical formula of a compound is CH2O , molecular weight is 90, find molecular

formula of that compound?

Formulae:

∴ Molecular formula = 3(CH2O)

9. Calculate the oxidation number of chromium in (i) Cr 2O7 2- (ii) CrO42-

Ans. (i) Cr2O7 2- = 2x +7(-2) = -2

⟹x=+6

(ii) CrO 42-

= x+4(-2)= -2

⟹x=+6

10. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.5 Moles of a gas at STP?

Ans. volume of 1mole of a gas at STP= 22.4 lit

∴ Volume of 2.5 moles of a gas at STP= 2.5 X22.4 lit= 56 lit.

11. What volume of CO2 is obtained at STP by heating 10gms of CaCO3?

Ans. CaCO3--------→ CaO +CO2

1 mole of CaCO3 gives 1 mole of CO2 i.e. 22.4 lit at STP

i.e. 100 gms of CaCO3 gives 22.4 lit CO2 at STP

10
∴ Volume of CO2 at STP given by 10 gms CaCO3 = 22.4 X 100 = 2.24 Litres

12. What do you mean by significant figures?

Answer:
The meaningful digits which are known with certainty are called significant figures.
 • The uncertainty in the experimental (or) calculated values is indicated by
mentioning the number of significant figures.

Thermodynamics

1. Define heat capacity ? What are Cp – Cv ? Show that Cp – Cv = R

Ans. The amount heat required to raise the temperature of the system by 10C is called its heat
capacity (C). It is the ratio of heat absorbed (q) to the resulting increase in temperature (dT).
For a small change in temperature (dT). If the heat required is dq
𝑑𝑄
∴dC= 𝑑𝑇

There are two types of heat capacities i) at constant volume ( CV ) and ii) at constant
pressure (Cp). The heat capacity at constant volume gives the change in internal energy of the
constant temperature
𝜕𝐸
CV = ( 𝜕𝑇 )V

If a system at constant pressure, then heat capacity is given as

𝜕𝐻 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑉
CP = ( 𝜕𝑇 )P or CP = ( 𝜕𝑇 )P + P ( 𝑑𝑇 )P ( ∴H=E+PV)

Relationship CP and CV

In case of Ideal gas H=E+PV

𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐸 𝑃𝑉
Differentiating with respect to temperature, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑇 + d (𝑑𝑇 )

Ideal gas equation for one mole of a gas is PV=RT, Where R= Ideal gas constant
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐸 𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = + d (𝑑𝑇) or 𝑑𝑇 = + R (𝑑𝑇)
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐸
− 𝑑𝑇 = R ∴Cp – Cv = R
𝑑𝑇

2. What are intensive and extensive properties? Give examples?

Ans. The property of the system which depends on the quantity of matter present in the
system is called an extensive property.

E.g.: Mass, volume, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs energy etc.

The property of the system which does not depend on the quantity of matter present in the
system is called an intensive property.
 E g: Density, viscosity, surface tension, specific heat, boiling point, freezing point, pressure,
temperature

3. State and explain Hess law of constant heat summation?

Ans. Hess law of constant heat summation is stated as,” the total enthalpy change during the
complete course of a reaction is same whether the reaction is made in one step or in several
steps”.
A → B : ∆H1
B → C : ∆H2
C → D : ∆H3
The net heat of reaction is ∆H1 + ∆H2+ ∆H3.
According to Hess law ∆H = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3.

Ex : Consider the formation of CO2. It can be prepared in two ways.

1) Direct method : By heating carbon in excess of 02.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ∆H = – 393.5 kJ

2) Indirect method : Carbon can be converted into CO2 in the following two steps.
C(s) + 12O2(g) → CO2(g); ∆H1 = – 110.5 kJ
CO (g) + 12 O2(g) → CO2(g); ∆H2 = – 283.02 kJ
Total ∆H = -393.52 kJ (∆H1 + ∆H2)
The two ∆H values are same.
4. What is entropy? Explain with examples?

Ans. The thermodynamical quantity which measures disorder of molecules or randomness of

the system is called Entropy. It is denoted by ‘S’. The entropy change

( ∆S ) between any two states of the same substance at equilibrium is given as,
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆S= Here Qrev is the heat absorbed by the system isothermally and reversibly at the
𝑇
equilibrium temperature (T) during the transformation. The units of ∆S are J mol–1 K–1. Entropy
is a state function and is an extensive property. Ex: Ice ⇌ Water ⇌ Vapour. The order of entropy
is S(g) > S(l) > S(s). Entropy increases in all spontaneous processes

5. State second law of Thermodynamics. What do you understand by it?

Ans. The Heat cannot flow form colder body to hotter body on its own. (Or) Heat cannot be
converted into work completely without causing some permanent changes in the system or in
the surroundings.

6. State and explain the third law of thermodynamics?

Ans. The entropy of a pure and perfectly crystalline substance is zero at absolute Zero
temperature (-273° C)”.
Slim T → 0 = 0
 𝑇 𝐶
ST= ∫0 . dT
𝑇

One of the most important applications of third law is the calculation of entropy changes in
chemical reactions.
This law imposes a limitation on the value of entropy.

7. State the first law of thermodynamics?

Ans. First law of thermodynamics is also known as law of conservation of energy. It states
that ‘The energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it changes from one form to
other. (OR) In any process the sum of energies of the system and surroundings is constant.

8). What is Enthalpy? How are ∆U and ∆H are related?

“Enthalpy is the amount of heat exchanged by a system with its surroundings at constant
pressure and temperature”.
The energy change taking place at constant pressure and at a constant temperature is called
enthalpy change (∆H).
Mathematically, ∆H = ∆U + P. ∆V. Where ∆U = Internal energy change.

9. What is Gibbs energy?

Gibbs energy (∆G) : The amount of energy available from a system which can be put to useful
work at constant temperature and pressure is called Gibb’s energy. For explaining the criteria
for spontaneity of a reaction, Gibb’s introduced thermodynamic function which involved both
enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) functions. This is known as free energy function (G). This is given
by the equation,
G = H – TS

10. What is the standard enthalpy of formation ? Explain it with example.

The heat change involved in the reaction of formation of one mole of a
compound is called enthalpy of formation.
If all the substances are in the standard states the enthalpy of formation is called
standard enthalpy of formation.

Equillibrium , Acids and Bases

1. What is homogenous equilibrium ? Write two homogenous reactions.

Answer:
An equilibrium reaction in which the reactants and products are in the same physical state is
called homogeneous equilibrium
e.g.: H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g))
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

2. What is heterogeneous equilibrium? Write two heterogeneous reactions.

An equilibrium reaction in which the reactants and products are in different physical state is
called heterogeneous equilibrium

3. Write the relation between Kp and Kc.

Kp = Kc(RT)∆n
∆n = No. of gaseous products – No. of gaseous reactants
R = Universal gas constant

4. Give two chemical equilibrium reactions for which K p = Kc?

1. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2 HI(g)

Here ∆n = 0
∴ Kp = Kc
2. N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g)
Here ∆n = 0
∴ Kp = Kc
5. Give two chemical equilibrium reactions for which K p > Kc.

1) 2NH3(g) ⇌ N2(g) + 3H2(g)

∆n = np – nR = (3 + 1) – 2 = 2
∆n = 2 (+ve)
∴ Kp > Kc

2) 2SO3(g) ⇌ 2SO2(g) + O2(g)

∆n = np – nR = (2 + 1) – 2 = 1
∆n = 1 (+ve)
∴ Kp > Kc

6. What is a Bronsted base ? Give one example.

The substance which accepts a proton from the other substance is called Bronsted base
e.g.: NH3, H2O etc

7. What is Lewis acid ? Give one example.

A substance which can accept an electron pair to from a co-ordinate covalent bond with
donor is called Lewis acid.
e.g. : H+, BF3, SnCl2 etc.

8. What is meant by ionic product of water ?

At a given temp, the product of the concentrations of H + and OH– ions in water is called ionic
product
Ionic product Kw = [H+] [OH–]At 25°C Kw = 1.008 × 10-14 mole2/lit2

9. What is a, conjugate acid – base pair ? Illustrate with examples.

A pair of a Bronsted acid and a base that differs by one proton (H +) is known as conjugate acid
– base pair.
Consider the following reaction :
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O⊕ + CH3COO⊖
It involves two conjugate pairs. The acid – base pairs are :

10. The species H2O, HCO4–, HSO4– and NH3 can act both as Bronsted acids and bases.
Give the corresponding conjugate acid and base for each of them?

Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base

H2 O H3O+ OH-
HCO3- H2CO3 CO32-
HSO4- H2SO4 SO42-
NH3 NH4- NH2-

11. What is common ion effect ?

The decrease in the ionisation (dissociation) of a weak electrolyte, by the addition of a strong
electrolyte having an ion common with the weak electrolyte, is known as common ion effect.
Example : The dissociation of NH4OH is diminished by the addition of NH4Cl due to the
common ion, NH4+ ion
NH4OH ⇌ NH4⊕ + OH⊖

NH4OH NH4+ + OH⊖ (addition of NH4Cl)

11a) Define solubility product

Solubility product (KSP) : The product of the concentrations of the cation and the
anion in a saturated solution of a salt at room temperature is called solubility
product (Ksp).
Ksp = [Mn+][An-]
12. Aqueous solution of NH4Cl is acidic. Explain.
Given salt NH4Cl is obtained by the reaction of strong acid (HCl) and weak base (NH 4OH).
The ionisation of NH4Cl as follows
NH+4 + Cl– ⇌ NH4Cl
The above salt under goes cationic hydrolysis
NH+4 + H2O ⇌ NH4OH + H+
∴ The equation solution of salt is acidic due to greater H + ion concentration than OH– ion
concentration.
∴ PH < 7

13. Aqueous solution of CH3COONa is basic explain.

The ionisation CH3COONa as follows
CH3COONa ⇌ CH3COO– + Na+
The above salt under go anionic hydrolysis
CH3COO– + H2O ⇌ CH3COOH + OH–
∴ The equation solution of salt is basic due to greater OH – ion concentration than H+ ion
concentration.
∴ PH > 7

14. What is the value of Kw? What are its units ?

At 25°C Ionic product of water Kw = 1.008 × 10-14 mole2/lit2
Units : mole2/lit2

15. What is the pH of 10-8 M HCl ?

The given acid solution is very dilute. Hence the H + obtained from the acid and
water must be taken into consideration.
H+ ion concentration of acid is 10-8 M
H+ ion concentration of water is 10-7 M
Total [H+] = 10-8 + 10-7
= 1.1 × 10-7 or 1.1 × 10-7 M
∴ pH = – log 1.1 × 10-7
= 7 – log 1.1 = 7 – 0.0414 = 6.995
16. Explain Lewis acid-base theory with suitable example?

According to this theory.

Lewis Acid is a substance that can accept an electron pair to form a co-ordinate
covalent bond is called an acid.
Types of Lewis acids :
1) All Cations : Simple cations Ag ⊕, CO+3, Cu+2, Fe+3, Al+3 can act as Lewis acids.
2) Compounds in which the central atom has an incomplete octet and
possessing an empty orbital can act as Lewis acids.
Ex : BF3, BCl3, AlCl3, FeCl3.

3) Compounds in which the central atom has vacant d-orbitals and may expand
its octet can act as lewis acids.
Ex : SiF4, SF4, TeF4, SnCl4, FeCl3.

4) Molecules having multiple bonds between atoms of dissimilar

electronegativities can behave like Lewis acids.
Ex : CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2, Cl2O7, P4O10

5) Elements with six electrons in the valence shell or electron sextet can act as
Lewis acids.
Ex : O, S
Lewis base is a substance which can donate an electron pair to form a co-
ordinate covalent bond.

Types of Lewis bases

1) All anions
Ex: Cl⊖, OH⊖, CN⊖, NH⊖2, F⊖, SCN⊖ All simple anions can act as Lewis bases.
2) Molecules with one or two lone pairs on the central atom can act as Lewis
bases.

Ex :
a) Hydroxyl ion is a lewis base as it can donate an electron lone pair (:OH –).
b) Flouride ion acts as a Lewis base as it can donate any one of its four electron
lone pairs.
c) A Proton is a lewis acid as it can accept alone pair of electrons from bases like
hydroxyl ion and flowride ion.
d) BCl3 acts as a lewis acid as it can accept a lane pair electrons from species
like ammonia or amine molecules

Hydrogen and its compounds

1. Write any two methods for the preparation of H 2O2?

Ans. I) Electrolytic Method: Hydrogen peroxide is manufactured on a large scale by the

electrolysis of 50% sulphuric acid using platinum anode and lead cathode followed by
vacuum distillation. A current of high density is used for electrolysis. At cathode hydrogen gas
is liberated and at anode peroxy disulphuric acid is formed.

2H2 SO4 ⇌2H+ + 2HSO4-

At anode: 2HSO4- - → H2S2O8 + 2e-

At cathode: 2H+ + 2e– → H2

i. On distillation Peroxydisulphuric acid undergoes hydrolysis to give hydrogen peroxide.

H2 S2 O8 + H2 O→ H2 SO5 + H2 SO4

H2 SO5 + H2 O→ H2O2+ H2 SO4

ii. Industrially H2O2 is prepared by auto oxidation of 2-alkyl anthra quinone to 2-ethyl anthra
quinol in the presence of H2 /Pd

2. Write any two oxidising properties and two reducing properties of H2O2 with
equations.

Ans. Oxidising Properties:

1. It oxidises ferrous salts to ferric salts in acidic medium.

H2O2+2 Fe2+ ---→ 2Fe3 +2OH-

2. It oxidises black lead sulphide to white lead sulphate.

PbS(s) + 4 H2 O2 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 4H2 O (l)

3. It oxidises ferrous salts to ferric salts in basic medium

Reducing Properties:

i. It reduces HOCl into Cl-

HOCl + H2O2 → H3 O+ + Cl- + O2

ii. It reduces acidified potassium permanganate to colourless

Mn2+ + 2MnO4 -+ 6H+ + 5 H2O2 → 2Mn2+ + 8 H2 O + 5O2

iii. In alkaline solution it reduces potassium permanganate to manganese dioxide.

2MnO4 - + 3 H2O2 → 2MnO2 + 2OH- + 2 H2 O + 3O2

3. What do you mean by hardness of water? Give the reactions in the Ion-exchange
method.

Ans. water which does not give lather with the soap is known as hard water. Hardness of
water is of two types:
a) Temporary hardness (It is due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium)

b) Permanent hardness. (It is due to presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium)

permutite process : Permutite is artificial zeolite. Chemically it is hydrated sodium aluminium

orthosilicate (Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O).Calcium and magnesium ions which cause hardness in
water are replaced by sodium ions which do not cause hardness. Thus water is softened. This
method is called “Ion- exchange process”.

Na2 Al 2Si 2O8.xH2O + M2+ -----→ Mal 2Si 2O8.xH2O + 2Na+ . ( M 2+ is Ca2+ or Mg2+)

After some use, all the sodium ions in the permutite are replaced by Ca2+ + or Mg2++ ions and
then it is said that permutite is ‘exhausted’. The exhausted permutites can be regenerated by
soaking it with 10% brine (NaCl solution).

4. Write a few lines on the utility of hydrogen as fuel?

Ans. 1) Hydrogen is widely used as an industrial fuel as its heat of combustion is higher than
other fuels like LPG, methane, petrol etc.

2. Pollutants in combustion of Hydrogen are only the oxides of Nitrogen which are easily
removed by injecting small amount o f water in to Hydrogen cylinder. Thus it is a better fuel
than petrol.

3. It is used in Fuel cells for generating electricity.

4. The atomic hydrogen and Oxy Hydrogen torch are used for welding purposes and for
melting platinum metal and quartz.

5. Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel.

5. What is deuterolysis? Give an equation for Deuterolysis?

Ans. The reaction of salts with heavy water is called deuterolysis.

Al 4Cl3 + 3D2O →4 Al (OD)3 + 3DCl

BiCl3 + D 2O → BiOCl + 2DCl

6. Draw the structure of H2O2 .

Open book structure

7. Write any two modern uses of H 2O2

 1. It is used in the manufacture of chemicals like sodium perborate and per carbonate which
are useful in making high quality detergents. 2. It is used in manufacture of hydroquinone,
tartaric acid and Pharmaceuticals (Cephalosprin).

8. What is perhydrol? Give its volume strength?

A 30(w/v) % solution of hydrogen peroxide is called as perhydrol.

Its volume strength is‘ 100 volumes’

9. What is meant by coal gasification? Give relavant equation?

The process of producing syngas from coal is called ‘coal gasification’.

10. What do you mean by autoprotolysis? Give the equation to represent the auto
protolysis of water.

The self ionisation of water is called auto protolysis.

11). Explain the term “SYNGAS”?

The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas or synthesis i.e. syngas. It is used as a fuel gas

12. What is water – gas shift reaction? How can the production of dihydrogen be
increased by this reaction?
The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas. It is also called ‘Syngas’.
Water-gas shift reaction : When carbon monoxide of the syngas mixture reacted in presence
of Iron chromate as catalyst then the reaction is called as water-gas shift reaction.
By using this reaction dihydrogen production can be increased.

In this reaction CO2 gas is removed by using sodium arsenate solution by scrubbing

13. What happens when dihydrogen reacts with

a) Chlorine and
b) Sodium metal. Explain.
a) Reaction of dihydrogen with chlorine : Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen
chloride gas. This reaction occurs in presence of sun light.
b) Reaction of dihydrogen with sodium metal : Hydrogen reacts with highly reactive metal like
sodium and forms sodium hydride. The reaction occur at a high temperature.

2Na(s) + H2(g) → 2NaH(s)

14. Name the isotopes of hydrogen. What is the ratio of masses of these isotopes ?
Answer:
Hydrogen has three isotopes.

1. Protium (1H1)
2. Deuterium (1H2 (or) D)
3. Tritium (1H3 or T)
Tritium is radioactive isotope.

• The ratio of masses of these isotopes is 1 : 2 : 3 respectively for protium,

deuterium and Tritium.
• Protium has no neutrons, deuterium has one neutron and tritium has two
neutrons.

Alkali and alkaline earth metals

1. Why are alkali metals not found in the free stale in nature?

Alkali metals are highly reactive because of their high electropositivity and lower ionisation
enthalpies. Hence they occur in combined state but not in free state in nature.

2. What is the role of alkali metal ions in biology?

i. Sodium ions participate in the transmission of nerve signals, in regulating the flow of water
across cell membranes and in transport of sugar and amino acids into the cell.

ii. Potassium ions are the most abundant cations with in cell fluids, where they activate many
enzymes and participate in the oxidation of glucose to produce ATP. Potassium ions also
participate in the synthesis of proteins.

3. What is the importance of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in biology?

Role of Mg 2+ in biology

1. Mg 2+ ions are concentrated in animal cells.

2. Enzymes like ‘phosphohydrolases” and ‘phosphotransferases” Mg2+ contain ions. These

enzymes participate in ATP reactions and release energy in the process. Mg 2+ forms a complex
with ATP.

3. Mg 2+ is a constituent of chlorophyll, the green component of plants

Role of Ca2+ in biology 1. Ca+2 ions are necessary for blood clotting. 2. Ca2+ ions are
necessary to maintain regular heart beating 3. Ca2+ ions are necessary for muscle contraction
4. Ca 2+ present in bones and teeth as apatite Ca3(PO4)2. Enamel on teeth is fluropatite

Ca3 (PO4)2.CaF2.

4. What are the characteristic colours imparted by the IIA elements?

Calcium ---- brick red

Strontium ---- crimson and

barium ------ apple green

Beryllium and magnesium do not impart any colour to the flame due to their very high
excitation energy.

5. What happens when magnesium metal is burnt in air?

Magnesium burns with dazzling brilliant white light in air to give

MgO and Mg3 N2 .

2Mg + O2 →2 Mg O

3 Mg + N2 → Mg 3N2

6. Write a balanced equation for the formation of ammoniated IIA metal ions from the
metals in liquid ammonia?

Alkaline earth metals [M] dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue black solutions due to
formation of ammoniated electrons.

M + (x+y) NH3→ [M(NH3 )2] + + 2[e(NH3 )y]-

7. Write the average composition of portland cement?

The average composition of portland cement is

CaO 50-60%; SiO2 , 20 - 25%; A1 2O3 , 5-10%; MgO, 2-3%; Fe 2O3 , 1-2% and SO2 1–2%

8. Why is gypsum added to cement?

To increases the setting time of cement

9. Describe the important uses of caustic soda?

It is used in i) Used in the manufacture of soaps, paper, artificial silk and a number of
chemicals ii) In petroleum refining iii) In the Purification of bauxite iv) In the textile industries
for mercirising cotton fabrics

10. Describe the important uses of sodium carbonate?

i) Used in softening of water, cleaning and laundry. ii) In the manufacture of glass, soap,
borax, NaOH, paper, paints and textile industry. iii) as laboratory reagent both in qualitative and
quantitative analysis.

11. Describe the important Uses of quick lime?

i) It is an important primary material for manufacturing cement ii) It is used in the

manufacture of sodium carbonate from caustic soda. iii) It is used in the purification of sugar
and dye stuffs

12. Describe the importance of plaster of paris?

1) The largest use of plaster of paris is in the building industry as well as plasters. 2) It is used
in setting of fractured bones 3) It is also employed in dentistry, in ornamental work and for
making casts of statues and busts.

14. Lithium salts are mostly hydrated. Why?

Because Li+ ion has high polarizing power due to its smaller size. As the size of the ions
increases, their polarizing power decreases. Hence, other alkali metal ions usually form
anhydrous salts. E.g. LiCl.2H 2O

15. What happens when hydrated Mg (NO3)2 is heated ? Give the balanced equation.
When hydrated Mg(NO3)2 is heated, it first loses the six water molecules and on further
heating
decomposes to give the oxide.
2 Mg (NO3)2 → 2 MgO + 4NO2 + O2.

13th Group Elements

1. Explain the structure of Diborane?

Diborane is an electron deficient compound because there are no sufficient electrons to form
all the bonds. Raman spectra reveals diborane contains two coplanar BH2 groups. Diborane
has four terminal hydrogen atoms and the two boron atoms lie in one plane. Above and below
this plane, there are two bridge hydrogen atoms. The bridge hydrogen atoms are present in a
plane perpendicular to rest of the molecule. Boran in diborane undergo SP 3 hybridisation in
first excited state. Out of 4 orbitals, two orbitals linearly overlap with two hydrogen atoms to
form B-H bonds. The half filled orbital of first boran and empty orital of second boran linearly
overlap with hydrogen to form

B-H-B bond. It is called three centred two electron bond or banana or tau bond.
2. Explain borax bead test with a suitable example?

On heating borax first gives sodium tetra borate and finally gives a mixture of sodium
metaborate and B 2O3 called borax glass. The boric anhydride B 2O3 combines with metal
oxides to form metal metaborates as coloured beads. This is known as borax bead test and is
useful in the identification of basic radicals in qualitative analysis.

3. Discuss the structure of Boric acid. Give its uses?

In boric acid, B(OH)3 units are joined by hydrogen bonds to give two dimensional sheets. The
sheets are held together by weak vanderwaals forces which are responsible for the cleavage
of solid structure in to flakes

The dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds.

Uses: boric acid is used 1. As an antiseptic 2. As a food preservative 3. In making enamel and
glass.

4. Explain any two methods of preparation of diborane?

1. Ans In industries diborane is prepared by the reaction between boron tri

fluoride and lithium hydride.

2. Boron trichloride and hydrogen mixture subjected to silent electric discharge at

low pressure to from diborane.
2BCl3 + 6H2 → B2H6 + 6HCl
 3. Boron trichloride undergo reduction with LiAlH4 to form diborane.

5. What is the hybridisation of Boron in diborane and borazole?

Hybridisation of Boron in diborane is SP3 and in borazole is SP2 .

6. What is inert pair effect?

The reluctance shown by pair of outer s–electrons in heavier p-block elements to participate
in bond formation is called as inert pair effect. Tl+1 are more stable than Tl+3 due to inert pair
effect.

7. Give the formula of borazine. What is its common name?

The formula of borazine i.e borazole is B3 N 3 H6. It is commonly known as inorganic benzene
as it is iso structural with benzene.

8. Give the formula of a) Borax b) colemanite.

a) Formula of Borax is Na2B4O7. 10H2O

b) Formula of Colemanite is Ca2B6O11.5H2O

9. Al2O3 is amphoteric – explain with suitable reactions.

Amphoteric oxides are the oxides which possess both acidic as well as basic nature.
Al2O3 possess both acidic as well as basic behaviour.

• Al2O3 react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water.
Supporting reactions for amphoteric nature of Al2O3
a) With acids:

b) With bases:

14 th group elements

1. Explain the difference in properties of diamond and graphite on the basis of their structure.

S.No Diamond Graphite

1 carbon is sp3 hybridised carbon is sp2 hybridised.
2 Each carbon is bonded to 4 other Each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbon
carbons tetrahedrally atoms to form hexagonal rings. It has sheet
like structure.
 3 It has a 3 dimensional structure. It has a 2 dimensional structure.
4 C – C bond length is 1.54 Å and bond C – C bond length in hexagonal rings is 1.42
angle is 109° 28′ A° and bond angle is 120°
5 Carbon atoms are firmly held with The distance between two adjacent layers
strong covalent bonds is 3.35 A°. These layers are held by weak
Vander Waal’s forces.
6 Diamond is very hard. Graphite is soft.
7 Graphite is a conductor due to the Diamond is an insulator due to the absence
presence of free electrons of free electrons.

2. Write a short note on Fullerene.

• Fullerenes are one type of crystalline allotropes of carbon.

• These are formed by heating graphite in an electric arc in presence of
inertgases such as Helium (or) Argon.
• These have smooth structure without dangling bonds. Hence Fullerenes are
the only pure forms of carbon.
• C60 molecule is called Buck minster fullerene and it’s shave was like a soccer
ball.
• C60 contains twenty 6 – membered rings and twelve 5 – membered rings

• In C60 6 – membered rings can combine with 5 (or) 6 – mem-bered rings while
5 – membered rings only combine with 6 – membered rings.
• In Fullerens each carbon undergoes sp2 hybridisation.
• Fullere has aromatic nature due to delocalisation of electrons in unhybrid p-
orbitals.
• The C – C bond length in these compound lies between single and double bond
lengths.
• Spherical fullerene are also named as bucky balls.
• The ball shaped molecule has 60 vertices.
• The C – C bond distances are 1,43A° and 1.38A° respectively.
3. What happens when
a) CO2 is passed through slaked lime
b) CaC2 is heated with N2.
Answer:
a) Slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 is turned milky on passing CO2 with the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O on passing more ‘CO2‘, CaCO3 is converted into
Calcium bicarbonate.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
b) CaC2 on heating with N2 gives calcium cyanamide.

4. What is allotropy? Give the crystalline allotropes of carbon?

The property due to which an element exists in two or more forms that differ in their physical
and some of the chemical properties is known as allotropy. The crystalline allotropes of
carbon are diamond, graphite and Buckminsterfullerene.

5. Diamond has high melting point. Why?

Diamond has a three-dimensional net work involving strong C–C bonds, which are very
difficult to break and, in turn has high melting point.

6. Diamond is insulator, but graphite is a good conductor. Why?

Ans. Diamond has no free electrons. Hence it does not exhibit electrical conductivity graphite
has free delocalised p-electrons. Hence it is a conductor.

7. How does graphite functions as a lubricant?

Graphite is used as a solid lubricant, because it is soft. Due to weak vander Waals forces
between the layers of graphite, the layers have sliding nature.

8. What are silicones? Give their uses?

Silicones are synthetic organ silicon compounds containing Si - O - Si linkages with R 2SiO as
repeating units. So their general formula is (R2SiO)n, where R is alkyl or aryl group.

Uses: 1. In the preparation of water proof clothes and papers as alkyl groups are water
repelling in nature, 2. used in paints and enamels as they can withstand high temperature and
chemical inertness 3. Used in surgical and cosmetic plants as they are bio-compatible

9. Write the use of ZSM-5?

ZSM–5 is one type of zeolite used to convert alcohols directly into gasoline

10. What is synthesis gas? How is it prepared?

A mixture of carbon monoxide (40-50%) and hydrogen (45-50%) is called synthesis gas or
Water gas. It is prepared by passing super heated steam over red hot coke or coal.

C + H 2O →CO+H2 ; H = +121.22 kJmol–1

11. What is producer gas? How is it prepared?

Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide (33%) and nitrogen (64%) It is prepared by
passing air over White coke in a furnace called gas producer.

C + O2 →CO2 ; H = –394 kJ mol–1

CO2 + C →2CO; H = + 163 kJ mol–1

2C + O2 → 2CO ;∆ H = –231 kJ mol–1

12. Explain the structure of silica?

Silica is giant molecule with three dimensional structures. Each silicon is tetrahedrally linked
to four oxygen atoms by covalent bonds using SP3 hybrid orbitals.

13. Si [F6]2-is known whereas [SiCl6]2- not. Give possible reasons?

Six large chloride ions cannot be accommodated around Si4+ due to limitation of its size.
Interaction between lone pair of chloride ion and Si4+ is not very strong.

14. What are silicates? Name any two man-made silicates? . Silicates are metal derivatives
of silicic acid .The silicates are mainly divided into six types depending on the manner in which
different SiO4 4+ units are linked together. Two important man made silicates are glass and
cement.

15. Classify the following into neutral, acidic, basic or amphoteric?

a. CO b. B 2 O3 c. SiO2 d. CO2 e. Al2O f. Pb g. Tl2O3

i. CO is a neutral oxide ii. B 2O3, SiO2 and CO2 are acidic oxides iii. Al 2O3 and PbO2 are
amphoteric iv. Tl 2O3 is a basic oxide.

16. Give the Hybridisation of carbon in a. CO32- b. Diamond c. Graphite d. Fullerene

The Hybridisation of carbon in CO32-, Fullerene and graphite is same i.e. Sp2 where as in
diamond is Sp3

Environmental Chemistry

1. What is Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) ?

The amount of oxygen used by the suitable micro organisms present in water during five days
at 20° C is called as Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
2. List out four Gaseous Pollutants present in the polluted air.?
Oxides of Sulphur,Nitrogen and Carbon, Ozone, Hydrocarbons etc., are gaseous pollutants
present in polluted air.

3. Green house effect is caused by and gases?

Green house effect is caused by gases such as CO2, CH4, O3, CFCs (Chloro Fluoro Carbons)
and water vapour in the atmosphere.

4. Which oxides cause acid rain ? and What is its pH value ?

• Oxides of Nitrogen, Sulphur and Carbon dissolved in rain water forms acid rain.
• Acid rain has pH value less than 5.6.
5. Name two adverse effects caused by acid rains.

• Acid rains are harmful for agriculture, trees and plants because it dissolves and
washes away nutrients needed for their growth.
• Acid rains affects the plants and animal life in aquatic ecosystem.
• Acid rains damages the old buildings and historical monuments like Taj mahal.
• Acid rains corrodes water pipes which lead to decrease the quality of drinking
water.
6. Name the common components of Photo Chemical smog.
The common components of Photo Chemical smog are O3, NO, acrolein, formaldehyde and
Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN)
7. What is PAN ? What effect is caused by it ?

Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate is called as PAN.

Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate is (PAN) is a powerful eye irritant.

8. What is green house effect ? and how is it caused ?

a) Global Warming : The Earth is heated by sunlight and some of the heat that is absorbed by
the Earth is radiated back into space. But some gases like CO2, CFCs, O3, NO and water
vapour present in the lower atmosphere do not allow the Earth to re-radiate the heat into
space. A part of the heat so trapped in these atmospheric gases is re-emitted to the earth’s
surface. This phenomenon is called the “Green house effect” (or) Global Warming.
The gases which are responsible for Green house effect are CO2, CFC’s, O3, NO, CH4 water
vapour etc. and they are termed as Green house gases. The effect of increase in CO 2 causes
global warming.
Hydrocarbons

1. Write the conformations of ethane

2. Write the IUPAC names of

3. Name the products A, B and C formed in the following reactions. Give the equations for
the reactions.

A = 1, 2- dibromo ethane
B = Acetylene
C = 1, 1, 2, 2 – tetra bromo ethane

4. What is substitution reaction ? Explain any two substitution reactions of benzene.

Answer:
Substitution : When an atom or a group in molecule is substituted by another atom or group
then the reaction is called electrophilic substitution reactioni
e.g. : 1) Friedal craft’s alkylation : C6H6 reacts with chlorine in the presence of AlCl 3 and form
chloro benzene
5. Give two examples each for position and functional isomerism.
Position isomerism : This type of isomerism arises due to the difference in the position of
substituent group or in the position of multiple bond.
e.g.:

e.g.: 2. CH3 – CH2 – C = CH 1 – butyne

CH3 – C = C – CH3 2 – butyne

Functional group isomerism : This type of isomerism arises in carbon compounds having the
same molecular formula but with different functional groups

e.g.: 1. CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH 1 – propanal (C3H3O)

CH3 – CH2 – O – CH3 methoxy ethane (C3H8O)
e.g.: 2. CH3 – CH2 – OH Ethanol
CH3 – O – CH3 methoxy methane

6. Describe two methods of preparation of ethylene. Give equation for the reactions of
ethylene with the following,
a) Ozone
b) Hypohalous acid
c) Cold and dil. alkKMno4
d) Heated with O2 at high pressure
1. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide: When ethyl bromide is heated with alcoholic KOH,
ethylene is formed

2. Dehydration of ethanol: When ethanol is heated with cone. H 2SO4 at 170°C, ethylene is
obtained
Chemical properties :
a) With O3: Ethylene undergoes addition reaction with ozone and gives a cyclic compound
called ozonide. It undergoes hydrolysis in the presence of zinc dust to give formaldehyde.

d) Polymerisation : When Ethylene is heated in the presence of 02 at a temperature of 200° C

and high pressure of 1500 – 2000 atmospheres gives polyethene

7. Explain Friedel – Craft’s alkylation and acylation reactions with example

Friedel – Craft’s alkylation and acylation : Benzene reacts with alkyl halides and acylh in the
presence of Lewis acids (AlCl3, FeCl3) and gives alkyl benzenes and acyl benzenes.

8. What is wurtz reaction?

Alkyl halides reacts with sodium metal in presence of dry ether to form higher alkanes.
R – X + 2Na + R – X R – R + 2NaX

9. What is Ozonalysis? Give an example

Ethylene undergoes addition reaction with ozone and gives a cyclic compound called ozonide.
It undergoes
hydrolysis in the
presence of zinc dust
to give formaldehyde
10. Give two methods of preparation of acetylene. How does it react with water and
Ozone ?
1. Dehydrohalogenation : Acetylene is obtained when dibromo ethane is heated with alcoholic
KOH

Acetylene is obtained by heating iodoform with silver powder.

3. Addition of water : Acetylene undergoes addition reaction with water in the presence of
mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid. Vinyl alcohol formed in the reaction undergoes
rearrangement and gives acetaldehyde

4. Reaction with ozone : Acetylene reacts with ozone to form an ozonide which on hydrolysis
in presence of Zn forms glyoxal

11. Discuss Markonikoff’s

rule and Kharash effect.
When Hydrogen bromide added to an unsymmetrical alkene, negative part of the reagent is
added to the carbon having less number of hydrogen atoms

CH3-CH=CH2+ HBr-------→ CH3-CH.Br-CH3 ( 2-Bromo propane

12. What is Huckle rule?

All the ring systems who is having (i) Planarity (ii) Complete delocalisation of the π electrons
in the ring (iii) Presence of (4n + 2) π electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
This is often referred to as Hückel Rule