METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789

PHYSICS NOTES IX ICSE LAW OF MOTION

Force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another
object. The various effects of force are:
Force can move a body initially at rest.
Force can bring a moving body to rest.
Force can change the direction of a moving body.
Force can change the speed of a moving body.
Force can change the shape of a body. Force can
change the size of a body.

Muscular force – It involves the action of muscles.

Animals make use of muscular force to carry out their physical activities and other
tasks.
Friction – It is an opposing force that acts between surfaces in contact moving with
respect to each other.
Frictional force always acts between two moving objects, which are in contact with
one another.
Frictional force always acts opposite to the direction of motion.
Frictional force depends on the nature of the surface in contact.
Tension Force - This force appears in a string, attached to a rigid support, when an object
is suspended by it.
Mechanical Force - It involves the force generated by machines.
Force exerted during collision -Two objects push each other with an equal but opposite
forces if collision occurs between them. These forces are known as the force of action and
force of reaction.
Combined Forces - When two or more forces are acting on the same object.

Non-contact force come into play even when the bodies are not in contact.

Magnetic force – Force acting between two magnets or a magnet and a magnetic material
(eg. iron, steel, nickel, cobalt etc.). It can be attractive and repulsive.
Electrostatic force – Force due to electric charges. It can be attractive and repulsive.
Gravitational force – It is a kind of attractive force that comes into play because of the
mass of a body. (eg. earth's gravitational attraction).

First law of motion

A body at rest remains at rest and a body in uniform motion continues its uniform
motion unless an external force is applied.
Inertia:
 It is the tendency of a body to resist any change in its state of rest or of uniform
motion along a straight line.
Mass of an object is the measure of its inertia, more is the mass more is the inertia.
Types of inertia: Inertia of rest and motion
Momentum is the product of the mass of the body and its velocity. It is a vector quantity.
Momentum = Mass × Velocity
SI unit of the momentum is kg m/s.

Second law of motion

The second law of motion says, when a force F is subjected to a body of mass m,
an acceleration a is gained by the body in the direction of the force and the
magnitude of acceleration is directly proportional to the F and inversely
proportional to the m.
Rate of change of momentum Applied unbalanced force
Direction of change in momentum is the same as the direction of unbalanced force
F = ma
Unit of force is Newton
1 N = 1 kg × 1 m / s2

Third law of motion

For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force. The horse and
the cart: From the third law of motion the pull by the horse in the forward
direction is equal to the pull by the cart in the backward direction. The sum of these
forces is therefore zero. Why should then the cart accelerate forward? Apart from the
pulls of the horse and the cart there is frictional force and the reaction of the ground
on the horse and the cart is also present. The resultant force of this normal reaction
and the friction together helps the horse to move the cart in the forward direction.

Universal law of gravitation

For a point mass

The point of attraction between a hollow spherical shell of uniform density
and a point mass situated outside is just as if the entire mass of the cell is
concentrated at the center of the shell.
The force of attraction due to a hollow spherical shell of uniform density, on a
point mass inside it is zero.
 Gravitation Constant, G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2

Free Fall: A body is said to be free falling if it begins to fall downward towards the
earth due to earth’s gravity only.
mg=GMmR2g=GMR2
‘g = 9.8 m/s2’ is the acceleration due to gravity, it is the acceleration of a freely
falling body.

Tips to solve numerical

For upward motion take g = –9.8m/s2 and final velocity at the highest point as 0.
For downward motion take g = 9.8m/s2 and for a freely falling body take initial
velocity as 0.
Equations of motion of an object under the influence of the earth’s gravity
for downward motion of the particle
v=u+gts=ut+12gt2v2=u2+2gs for
upward motion of the particle v=u-
gts=ut-12gt2v2=u2-2gs
Mass: It is the amount of matter contained in the body
Weight: It is the force exerted on a body due to the gravitational pull of another body
such as the earth, the sun etc.
 METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789
PHYSICS NOTES ---- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric potential: The Electric potential of a point in an electric field is defined as the
work to be done to move a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Potential
difference: The potential difference between two separate points is defined as the work
done to move a unit positive charge from one point to another.

Electric cell— A device used to maintain

constant potential difference between conductors
Primary cell: Chemical energy directly converted to electrical energy
Secondary cell: Electric energy stored in the form of chemical energy, which on demand
converts into electric energy Simple voltaic cell:
Copper rod acts as +ve terminal and zinc acts as –ve terminal.
Electron flows externally from zinc to copper and current flows from copper to zinc. 1.
Symbols of Electric components
Electric component
Symbol Electric cell
Electric bulb
Battery
Wire
Switch in ON position
Switch in OFF position
Ammeter
Galvanometer

Voltmeter
2. Combination of cells
Positive (or negative) terminal of a cell is connected to the negative (or positive) terminal of the
other cell. This combination is called a battery.
3.An unbroken path or line that makes electrical current flow possible through conducting wires
connected to other resistances is known as an electric circuit.
4. The circuits where the appliances in connection operates simultaneously once the switch
is closed are known as series circuits. In series circuit, the working of each appliance is
dependent on each other.
5. The circuits where the working of each appliance present in the circuit is independent
oneach other are known as parallel circuits.

The bulb will glow or the magnetic needle will show deflection if the liquid in the
beaker is a good conductor of electricity.
Greater the deflection of needle or brighter the light, better is the conductivity of the
liquid.
Good conductor Poor conductor
Lemon Juice Coal tar
Vinegar Distilled water
Acid solutions Honey
Basic solutions Vegetable oil
Salty water Kerosene

Conducting liquids are also called electrolytes.

The electric current passing through a conducting liquid (electrolyte) causes chemical
reactions (electrolysis).
Ohm’ law: Under constant physical conditions (i.e., constant temperature, pressure etc.),
the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the conductor.

V =I → Ω= (Ohm)
Uni
(R)
resistance)
t

Ohmic
resistors:
Conductors which follow the ohm's law at constant temperature are called ohmic resistors.
Examples: All metallic conductors (Copper, Aluminium, silver etc.), copper sulphate solution
with copper electrodes, and dilute sulphuric acid etc.
Non-ohmic resistors:
Conductors which do not follow the ohm's law are called non-ohmic resistors. Examples: LED,
solar cell, junction diode, transistor, bulb filament etc.
Potential difference (which is measured in Voltage) is the cause of current (which is
measured in Ampere).
In conductors, flow of electrons constitutes the current. In a circuit current flow from the
positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal, but electrons travel from negative
terminal to the positive terminal. The negative terminal of a battery is said to be at lower
potential and the positive terminal is said to be at higher potential.

When a battery is not connected to any circuit, the potential difference

across the terminals of the battery is equal to the EMF of the battery. (EMF
= Electro Motive Force).
The more the number of collisions of electron with the atoms, the more is
the resistance offered by a conductor.
Electric resistance can be defined as the obstruction or opposition to the
drifting electrons.
Electric resistance completely depends on the nature of a conductor.
Units of Resistance:
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Materials which allow electric current to pass through them are called conductors of
electricity.
Materials which do not allow electric current to pass through them are called insulators.
Differences between Conductors and Insulators:

Electrical conductors Electrical insulators

Electricity can pass through certain Electricity cannot pass through certain
materials. These materials are known as materials. These materials are known as
electrical conductors. electrical insulators.

All metals (for example, aluminium, copper, Few examples of good electrical insulators
iron, and steel) are good conductors of are plastic, wood, glass, and rubber.
electricity. Therefore, electrical wires are Therefore, plastic or rubber is often used to
made up of metals such as aluminium and cover electrical wires.
copper.
Conductors and insulators are equally important for us.
 METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789
PHYSICS NOTES ----MAGNETISM
Magnetite is a rock that has the property to attract objects made of iron.
The substance that can attract iron, cobalt, or nickel is known as a magnet. Magnet was discovered by a
shepherd named Magnes around 2000 B.C. who lived in Magnesia, Greece.
With the passage of time, people learned to make magnets from iron pieces. These magnets are known
as artificial magnets.
Materials that get attracted towards the magnets are the magnetic materials. Materials that do not get
attracted towards the magnets are the non-magnetic materials.
Pin-holders, screwdrivers, refrigerator stickers, junkyard cranes, etc. consist of magnets.
There are two poles of a magnet – North Pole (N) and South Pole (S).
A large number of iron filings stick at the two poles of a magnet in comparison to the rest of the magnet
body.
Materials that get attracted towards the magnets are the magnetic materials. Materials that do not get
attracted towards the magnets are the non-magnetic materials.
Pin-holders, screwdrivers, refrigerator stickers, junkyard cranes, etc. consist of magnets.
The magnet attached at the end of the mechanical arm of a crane is used to separate magnetic materials,
i.e., those made up of iron, from the rest of the junk.
There are two poles of a magnet – North Pole (N) and South Pole (S).
A large number of iron filings stick at the two poles of a magnet in comparison to the rest of the magnet
body.
A freely suspended bar magnet always aligns along North-South direction. The direction at a place
can be identified with the help of a bar magnet or a magnetic compass.
A magnetic compass consists of a magnetic needle that always comes to rest in the North-South
direction.
In older days, sailors found direction by suspending bar magnets.
There are two poles of a magnet – North Pole (N) and South Pole (S).
Like poles of two magnets always repel each other.
Unlike poles of two magnets always attract each other.
A magnetic compass works on this principle because the earth is considered as a
huge bar magnet with its North and South poles aligned along the geographical South and North Poles
respectively.
Repulsion is considered the sure way for testing magnets.

There are several methods of making magnets, the simplest one is touch-stroke method.
An iron bar becomes a bar magnet when one of the poles of a bar magnet is rubbed on it several times.
This is known as touch-stroke method.
Remember that the pole of the magnet and the direction of its movement should not change.
You can convert iron nail, a needle or a blade into magnet by this method.
A freely suspended bar magnet always aligns along North-South direction. Induced Magnetism: The
temporarily acquired magnetism by a magnetic material such as soft iron or steel when placed near or in
contact with a permanent magnet is known as induced magnetism.
The direction at a place can be identified with the help of a bar magnet or a
 magnetic compass.
A magnetic compass consists of a magnetic needle that always comes to rest in the North-South
direction.
In older days, sailors found direction by suspending
They are closed continuous lines bar magnets.Originate from the North pole and end at
the South pole [outside the magnet]
Density of the lines increases near the poles and
poles decreases away from the
Lines never cross each other Like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.
The region where magnetic field lines are crowded
has relatively greater strength The magnetic poles of
the Earth continuously change their position with
time i.e., the magnetic North Pole becomes the
magnetic South Pole and vice-versa. This
phenomenon of flipping of poles is known as
magnetic reversal.
The angle of the horizontal plane between the
geographic North (true North) and the magnetic
North is known as magnetic declination.
Magnetic field of the Earth: Earth behaves as a
large magnet. The North Pole of the Earth acts like
the south pole of a bar magnet and the South Pole of
the Earth behaves like the north pole of the magnet.
Neutral points: These are the points situated symmetrically on either side of a magnet where the
magnetic field of the magnet and the horizontal component of the Earth magnetic field are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. Hence, these two magnetic fields neutralise each other at these
points.
1. When an electric current flows through a wire, it behaves as a magnet. This is called the magnetic effect
of electric current.
2. Electric bell works on the principle of magnetic effect of electric current.
3. A compass needle shows deflection when brought near a current carrying wire.
4. An iron nail behaves as a electromagnet when a current is allowed to flow through a wire, which is
wrapped around the nail.
5. Magnet is used to separate iron objects from a heap of garbage.
6. Types of electromagnet : Bar-shaped or I-shaped electromagnet and Horseshoe or U-shaped
electromagnet
7. An electric bell works on the principle of electromagnetism.
 METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789
PHYSICS NOTES --- PROPOGATION OF SOUNDS
Vibrating body produces sound.
Vibration motion– to-and-fro or back-and-forth or up-and-down motion of a body.
Sound is a form of energy that is produced by producing vibration in an object. Sound
cannot move through vacuum; sound waves are longitudinal waves.

Sound requires material medium for propagation.

Sound can travel through solid, liquid or gas.
Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
No sound can be heard in outer spaces.
Sound is a form of energy that is produced by producing vibrations in an object.
Sound cannot move through vacuum.
Sound is a wave that requires a medium for its propagation. The medium particles vibrate
only to and fro. They do not move with the sound.

Characteristics of sound waves

Amplitude – Magnitude of maximum displacement from mean position
Wavelength (λ) – Distance between two consecutive compressions or two
consecutive rarefactions
Frequency (Unit - Hertz, Hz) – Number of oscillations per unit time
Time period – Time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to
cross a fixed point
Frequency = 1Time period
Pitch – Higher the frequency, higher the pitch

Loudness – Determined by amplitude

 Tone – Sound of a single frequency
Quality or timbre
Differentiate between two sounds of same pitch and loudness
If the notes produce an unpleasant sound in the ear, then it is a dischord or dissonance.
Harmony - Harmony is the pleasant effect produced due to concord, when two or more
notes are sounded together.
Melody - Melody is the pleasant effect produced by two or more notes when they are
sounded one after another.
Musical intervals - Musical interval is the ratio of frequencies of two notes in the musical
scale.
Musical scale - Musical scale is the series of notes separated by a fixed musical interval.
Keynote is the starting note of a musical scale.
Diatonic scale
When two notes are sounded simultaneously and produce pleasant sensation in the ear,
then it is concord or consonance.
It contains series of eight notes.
Octave is the interval between the keynote and the last tone.
Advantages of a diatonic scale
This scale provides the same order and the duration of chords and intervals, which
succeed each other, that are required for a musical effect.
This scale can produce musical compositions with the lower and higher multiples
of frequencies of the notes.
Speed of sound
Speed of sound v = ν × λ
Speed in solid > Speed in liquid > Speed in gas
Speed depends on temperature, pressure, humidity and nature of the material of the
medium.
Speed increases with increasing temperature.
In air, speed of sound is 344 m s–1 at 22 °C
Supersonic – The rate of distance travelled by the object is more than the speed of sound.
Sonic boom - loud noise produced by supersonic object is sonic boom
The speed of sound (v) in a medium depends upon the following factors:
1. E, elasticity of the medium
2. ρ, density of the medium
Relation between speed of sound, elasticity of the medium and density of the medium
v =√Eρ .....(1) For
gas E = P,
v =√Pρ .....(2)
Laplace amendment, v =√γPρ
Speed of sound in different media

Medium Speed of sound (in-1m

) s
Air 330
Gases Hydrogen 1270
Carbon dioxide 260
Alcohol 1210
Liquids Turpentine 1325
Water 1450
Copper 3560
Steel 5100
Solids Glass 5500
Granite 6000
Factors affecting speed of sound in gas
1. Density: The speed of sound increases with decrease in density of the gas.
2. Temperature: The speed of sound increases with increase in temperature of the gas 3.
Humidity: The speed of sound increases with increase in humidity of air.
4. Direction of wind: The speed of sound increases or decreases in accordance with the
direction of the wind. If the direction of propagation of sound is along the direction of wind,
then its speed increases otherwise the speed of sound decreases.
Factors not affecting the speed of sound in gas
1. Pressure: speed of sound does not depend upon pressure.
2. Amplitude of wave: speed of sound does not depend upon the amplitude of sound
wave.
3. Wavelength or frequency of wave: speed of sound does not depend upon the
wavlength or frequency of sound wave.
Difference between sound wave and light wave
Sound Wave Light Wave
They can not travel in vaccum. They can travel in vacuum
They can travel in air at a speed of 330 ms- They can travel in air at a speed of
1. 8 -1
3 × 10 ms
There speed increases with increase in There speed decreases with increase in
density of the optical medium. density of the optical medium.
These are transverse electromagnetic
These are longitudinal mechanical waves. waves.

Range of hearing for humans: 20 – 20000 Hz

Rhinoceroses use infrasound (<20Hz) and bats use ultrasound (>20000Hz)

Hearing Aid
It is a device that amplifies sound and enables hearing impaired hear. It consists of a
microphone, an amplifier, and a speaker.
Sound is a longitudinal wave which needs material to travel. Its velocity (v), frequency (f)
and wavelength (λ) are related as, v = fλ
Properties of ultrasound
Ultrasonc waves are high-frequency sound waves that cannot be heard or sensed by
humans. These are so energetic that they can penetrate human muscles
Application of ultrasound
Cleaning, detecting defects in metals, echocardiography, ultrasonography, to break
small kidney stone
SONAR(Sound navigation and Ranging): Used by ships and submarines to
navigate, communicate or detect under water.
 METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789
PHYSICS NOTES IX ICSE -REFRECTION OF LIGHT
(a) i (Angle of incidence) = r (Angle of reflection) (b) AO, OP,
and OB lie on the same plane.
Laws of reflection:
The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection
The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray all lie in the same
plane.
Image formation by a plane mirror Reflection of light makes things visible.

Left part of the candle appears on the right and its right part appears on the left. This is known as lateral
inversion.
Characteristics of images formed by plane mirror virtual and
erect same size as of object
laterally inverted
image distance and object distance are same and perpendicular from mirror Virtual images
are those images which cannot be obtained on screen. But there are some images which can be obtained on
screen. Such images are called real image.

Uses of plane mirror

It is used as a looking glass.
It is used to increase the effective length of an optician's room. In periscope, two
parallel plane mirrors are inclined at 45 degrees with vertical walls such that they are
facing each other.
In kaleidoscope, three plane mirrors are inclined with each other at 60 degrees.
It is used in solar heaters and cookers to heat substances by reflecting the sunlight towards the
substances.
Regular reflection Irregular and diffused reflection

Regular reflection Diffused reflection

The laws of reflection are valid in regular as well as irregular or diffused reflections.
 Smooth or polished surfaces gives regular reflection.
Uneven of unpolished surfaces gives irregular reflection.
Objects that give their own light are known as luminous objects
Objects that are visible because of reflected light are known as illuminated objects.

Kaleidoscope works on the principle of multiple reflections.

Periscope is an optical device used to see objects that are not along the line of sight.
Sunlight consists of several colours.
Splitting of white light into diffrent colours is called dispersion.
Number of image formed in multiple reflection =

Spherical Mirror
Centre of curvature: Centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part

Pole: It is the midpoint of the aperture of the spherical mirror or mirror centre.

Focus: Where parallel rays (parallel to the principal axis) meet or appear to meet
after reflection.
Principal Axis: The imaginary line that runs through the pole and the center of
curvature of a spherical mirror.
Distance of focus from the pole is half the radius of curvature.
Spherical Mirror
Concave spherical mirror − A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the
sphere is called concave spherical mirror.
Convex spherical mirror − A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the
sphere is called convex spherical mirror.
Focal length − The distance between the pole and the principal focus of the mirror is called the focal
length (f) of the mirror. For both the spherical mirrors the f = R/2
Mirror formula for both the mirrors is
1f=1u+1v=2R
For convex mirror:
1. Concave mirror is used as the reflector of a torch, dentist mirror, etc. It is also used insolar furnaces.
2. Convex mirror is used as a rear view mirror in vehicles. It also used road safetymirrors.
METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789
PHYSICS NOTES IX ICSE FLUID
Thrust – Force acting perpendicular to a surface
Pressure = Perpendicular force per unit area

Lesser is the area more is the pressure; this is the reason why we
prefer to use sharp knives over the blunt ones to cut objects. This pressure is again the reason why it is
difficult to hold a school bag having a strap made of a thin and strong string.

Liquids exerts pressure on the walls of the container.

Pressure exerted by liquids increases with depth.
Liquids exert equal pressure at the same depth.
The pressure at which water comes out of the holes is directly proportional to its depth. Fluid—
Substance which can flow and has no fixed shape
Pressure due to a liquid column of height h:
p= hrg
Where, h = Height of column
r = Density of fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Pressure inside a fluid increases with increase in depth and density of the fluid.

Pascal’s law— When pressure is applied on a fluid, it is transmitted equally in all directions, irrespective of the area on which
it acts. It always acts at right angles to the surface-containing vessel.

Application of Pascal’s law— Hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes, hydraulic lift

Atmospheric Pressure— Force exerted by air surrounding the earth on a unit surface area Average
atmospheric pressure at sea level = 100,000 Pa
Barometer— Instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure changes with change in height, pressure, and temperature.

Liquid Pressure
1. Pressure exerted by liquid because of its own weight below its own free surface
2. Pressure is equally divided below its surface.
3. Pressure increases with depth.
4. Pressure remains the same in a given depth.
5. Pressure is exerted on the sides of the wall.
6. Pressure is transmitted equally in all directions when pressure is exerted on the liquid.
Pressure exerted by Gases
1. Gases also exert pressure on the walls of the container.
 2. Increasing the volume—lowers the pressure
3. Decreasing the volume—increases the pressure
4. Increasing the pressure—decreases the volume
5. Decreasing the pressure—increases the volume
Hydraulic Machines
These are based on Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure. This law states that the external pressure applied
on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions.
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic brakes, hydraulic press, etc. are some examples of hydraulic machines.
Atmospheric Pressure— Force exerted by air surrounding the earth on a unit surface area
Average atmospheric pressure at sea level = 100,000 Pa
Atmospheric pressure changes with change in height, season, and temperature.
Following two factors are mainly responsible for this decrease in atmospheric pressure with height:
(1) decrease in height of air column results in a linear decrease in the atmospheric pressure and
(2) decrease in density of air with height results in a non-linear decrease in atmospheric pressure

Advantages of Mercury Barometer :

Mercury gives more accurate readings because it does not stick to the glass tube. It
does not evaporate easily.
Fortin Barometer
It is a modified form of a simple barometer and has the same use as of simple barometer. It also uses mercury as the
barometric liquid.
Aneroid Barometer
This barometer is an exception as it has no liquid. It is very light and can be transported from one place to another. It is
calibrated to read directly the atmospheric pressure
Uses of Barometer
Measures atmospheric pressure of a place
Forecasts weather
Work as an altimeter to measure height
Barometer— Instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure
Altimeter: It is an aneroid barometer and is used only in aircraft to measure its altitude from the sea level.

Buoyancy
Buoyant force = Up thrust by a fluid on a partially or fully immersed object is buoyancy or buoyant force.
[Depends on fluid density]
Buoyant force = Weight of displaced liquid
Buoyant force = Volume of the object immersed in liquid × Density of the liquid × Acceleration due to
gravity
This is the reason why an object immersed in water weighs comparatively lesser than its weight when it is
outside water.

Archimedes’ principle
Upward force experienced by a body immersed in fluid = Weight of the displaced fluid Lactometer
measures purity of milk

Density of a substance- mass per unit volume. It is expressed as

The SI unit of density is kg/m3.
If density of body > density of fluid, then the body will sink in the fluid.
If density of body < density of fluid, then the body will float in the fluid.
(Density of cork) < (density of water), so cork floats.
(Density of iron) > (Density water), so iron sinks.

Relative density
Relative Density of a Solid Substance by Archimedes' Principle
W1 W1−W2
R.D. = W1W1-W2
where W1 is the weight of the body in air and W2 is the weight of the body in water.
(1) Relative density of a solid denser than water and insoluble in it
W1
Weight of solid in air
=
R.D.= R.D.=Weight of solid in airLoss in weight of solid in water=W1
Loss in weight of solid in water W1−W2
W2
(2) Relative density of a solid denser than water and soluble in it
Weight of solid in air
R.D.= × R.D. of liquid R.D.=Weight of solid in airLoss in weight of solid in
Loss in weight of solid in liquid
Relative Density of a Liquid Substance by Archimedes' Principle
If a solid is immersed in a liquid or water, it displaces the liquid or water equal to its own volume.
Weight of a liquid displaced by a body Weight of the body in air − Weight of the body in liquid
R.D.= =
Weight of water displaced by the same body Weight of the body in air − Weight of the body in water
W2W1-W3
Floatation:

1. When weight of a body is more than buoyant force, the body will drown.
2. When weight of a body is just equal to the weight of fluid displaced, the body will just float.
3. When weight of body is less than fluid displaced, the body will not drown in water. Even if a force is applied on it to
drown, it will come up as soon as the force is removed.

Stability of a floating body

 METAMIND SNEHA CLASSES ICSE /CBSE 8263073789
PHYSICS NOTES IX ICSE HEAT & ENERGY
The measure of degree of hotness of a substance is called its temperature. The device
that is used to measure the temperature of a substance is called thermometer.
Thermometers are of two types - clinical (used for measuring temperature of human
body) and laboratory (used for measuring temperature of common objects).
The temperature range of clinical thermometer is 37- 42 °C and that of laboratory
thermometer is -10 oC to +110 oC. The unit for temperature is °C.
The normal temperature of human body is 37 °C or 98.6 °F.
There are three commonly scales used in temperature
Celsius scale of temperature
Fahrenheit scale of temperature
Kelvin scale of temperature
Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
The SI unit of heat is joule (J)
Other common units of heat are calorie (cal) and kilocalorie (kcal).
1 kcal = 1000 cal
1 cal = 4.2 J
Expansion of Solids
When a solid is heated, it expands.

Type of expansion Amount of expansion

Coefficient of expansion

Cubical Expansion V t = V0 (1+ g Dt)

g = Coefficient of volume expansion
Superficial expansion
At= A0 (1+b Dt)
b = Coefficient of area expansion

Linear expansion Lt= L0 (1+a Dt)

a = Coefficient of linear expansion

Application of thermal expansion—Riveting, bimetallic strips, thermostat, space between railway

lines Expansion of liquids
Hope’s experiment proves anomalous expansion of water.

1. Lower thermometer reading— Stops at 4°C

2. Upper thermometer reading— Falls till 0°C
3. This happens because on cooling, water decreases in volume and sinks down whereas
warmer water expands and rises up.
Water shows compression when cooled and has maximum dsensity at 4°C, below 4°C water expands and
its density increase.

Expansion of Gases

Increase in volume for different gases for the same rise in temperature is same.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is composed of biotic and abiotic components. Biotic components are producers,
consumers and decomposers. Abiotic components are light, heat, rain, humidity, inorganic and
organic substances.
Sun is the most significant source of energy for all ecosystems.
Food Chain
Food chain is a link in which unidirectional flow of food energy takes places from producers to
different consumers.
Energy Flow in Ecosystem

A good fuel/source of energy

 That would do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass
Easily accessible
Easy to store and transport
Economical
Factors to be considered for choosing fuel
How much heat it produces
Less smoke generation
Easy availability
Calorific value is defined as the amount of heat energy obtained by burning one
gram of a substance. The unit of calorific value is kJ/g. The ignition temperature of a
substance is defined as the temperature at which the substance starts burning. It is
measured in °C, °F, or K.
Non-renewable sources of energy are those that are consumed at a rate faster than that at
which they are replenished. Example: Fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels – Coal, petroleum and natural gas
Coal: It is a non-renewable source of energy made up of complex compounds of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen along with some free carbon and compounds of
nitrogen and sulphur.
Petroleum:It is a dark coloured viscous liquid also known as crude oil or black
gold. It is a complex mixture of many hydrocarbons with water, salt, earth
particles and other compounds of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.We
obtain petroleum by drilling oil wells into earth's crust at its reservoirs. The
petroleum extracted from wells has to be purified to obtain different useful
components.The process of separating useful components from the crude oil is
called refining and this process is done by fractional distillation in big refineries.
Natural Gas: The main constituents of natural gas are methane
(upto to 95%), ethane and propane. It easily burns to produce heat.
Advantages –Easy availability
Generate heat that is easily converted into electricity Renewable sources of energy
are those that are replenished at a rate faster than that at which they are consumed.
Example:
Solar energy – Solar cooker, solar water heater (very efficient for small scale
electricity production)
Tidal energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy
Geothermal energy – Heat energy inside the earth
Nuclear energy – Not dependent on solar energy, never-ending source, very
efficient source, more environment friendly.
Sources of energy:
Bio-mass – Charcoal, cow-dung, vegetable waste, sewage
Wind energy – Environment friendly, renewable
 Solar energy – Solar cooker, solar water heater (very efficient for small scale electricity
production)
Geothermal energy – Heat energy inside the eart
Nuclear energy – Not dependent on solar energy, never-ending source, very efficient source, more
environment friendly
Tidal energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy

Greenhouse effect
Trapping of heat by gases (CO2) in the atmosphere.
Gases that cause the greenhouse effect are responsible for increasing the temperature of the
Earth and thus contributing to the phenomenon called global warming.
Causes of Green house effect
A part of solar radiations cause warming of the earth’s surface. A part of solar radiation is
reflected back, which is trapped by the earth’s atmosphere. This phenomenon is called green
house effect.
Green house gases
These are the gases, which trap the solar radiations, and in this way, are responsible for the
increase in the temperature of Earth. The examples include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, and water vapours.
Global warming
The CO2 level in atmosphere is increasing due to various human activities such as
deforestation and burning of fossil fuels. Build up of CO2 in the atmosphere will result in a
rise in the average temperature of earth’s atmosphere, leading to global warming.
Global warming will lead to melting of glaciers and increase in the sea level.
Judicious Use of Energy
1. Wastage of energy must be minimised.
2. Encourage reforestation and discourage deforestation.
3. Efforts must be made to make use of energy in groups.
4. Coal, petroleum, etc. should be consumed only when no other alternative sources of energy is
available
5. Research and efforts should be made to develop nuclear energy by the controlled nuclear fusion of
deuterium nuclei present in heavy water available in sea. This can become an endless source of energy.
Energy Degradation
The conversion of energy to some undesirable form is known as energy dissipation and since this undesirable
form of energy cannot be used by us to do any productive work, so it is regarded as the degraded form of
energy. The rate of generation of degraded form of energy increases with more and more use of energy.
Few examples of degraded form of energy:
In bulbs, only 25% of electrical energy converts into the light energy and remaining portion of energy is
either wasted in heating the filament and or gets converted to other invisible radiation.
In vehicles, a small part of the energy obtained from the burning fuel is used up in running the vehicle
while the major part of the energy is wasted in heating the moving parts of the vehicles, in overcoming
friction between the ground and its tyres, etc.
While cooking food, a significant part of energy is radiated in the atmosphere. This energy is of no use
to us.