Geo-synchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites

A Geo-synchronous Earth orbit Satellite is one which is placed at an

altitude of 22,300 miles above the Earth. This orbit is synchronized with
a side real day (i.e., 23hours 56minutes). It may not be circular. This
orbit can be tilted at the poles of the earth. But it appears stationary
when observed from the Earth.
The same geo-synchronous orbit, if it is circular and in the plane of
equator, it is called as geo-stationary orbit. These Satellites are placed
at 35,900kms (same as geosynchronous) above the Earth’s Equator and
they keep on rotating with respect to earth’s direction (west to east).
Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit Satellites are used for weather forecasting,
satellite TV, satellite radio and other types of global communications.

. The Axis of rotation indicates the movement of Earth.

DATA communication
Serial Transmission:
In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another
computer in bi-direction. In this transmission, one bit flows at one
clock pulse. In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time
having a start and stop bit.

Serial Transmission

Parallel Transmission:
In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously
from one computer to another computer. Parallel Transmission is
faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel
transmission is used for short distance.

Data and signals

Data and signals are like two building blocks of computer networks. All
the data transmitted over channel can either be in analog form or
digital form. Like data elements, signal can also either in analog form or
digital form.
Encoding data
Analog Signal
In analog signal infinite number of values within that continuous range.
An analog signal uses a given property of the medium to convey the
signal’s information, such as electricity moving through a wire. In an
electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be
varied to represent the information. Analog signals are often calculated
responses to changes in light, sound, temperature, position, pressure
etc.

Figure 1: Analog Signal

Digital Signal

A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete

values. A digital signal can only take on one value from a finite set of
possible values at a given time. Digital signals are used in all digital
electronics, including computing equipment and data transmission
devices.
Analog Signal Digital Signal

It uses a continuous range of values Digital signal uses discrete

to represent information. signals to represent information.
 Analog Signal Digital Signal

The bandwidth of the analog signal The bandwidth of a digital signal

is low. is high.

There is no fixed range in analog Digital signal has a finite range,

signals. i.e. 0 and 1

It is denoted by sine waves It is denoted by square

Analog signals are used in

Digital signals are used in
temperature sensors, FM radio,
computers, DVDs and CDs
photocells and light sensors.

Analog and Digital Signal Difference

Digital Signals: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
  Digital signals can convey information with less noise,
distortion etc.
 Digital circuits can be reproduced easily in mass quantities at
comparatively low costs.
 Digital signal processing is more flexible because DSP
operations can be altered using digitally programmable
systems.
 Digital signal processing is more secure because digital
information can be easily encrypted and compressed.
 Digital systems are more accurate, and the probability of error
occurrence can be reduced by employing error detection and
correction codes.
 Digital signals can be easily stored on any magnetic media or
optical media using semiconductor chips.
 Digital signals can be transmitted over long distances.

Disadvantages
 A higher bandwidth is required for digital communication
when compared to analog transmission of the same
information.
 Digital systems and processing are typically more complex.

Analog Signals: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages to using analog signals, including analog signal processing

(ASP) and communication systems, include the following:

 Analog signals are easier to process.

 Analog signals best suited for audio and video transmission.
 Analog signals are much higher density, and can present more
refined information.
 Analog signals use less bandwidth than digital signals.
  Analog signals provide a more accurate representation of
changes in physical phenomena, such as sound, light,
temperature, position, or pressure.
 Analog communication systems are less sensitive in terms of
electrical tolerance.

Disadvantages to using analog signals, including analog signal

processing (ASP) and communication systems, include the following:

 Data transmission at long distances may result in undesirable

signal disturbances.
 Analog signals are subject to noise and distortion, as opposed
to digital signals which have much higher immunity.
 Analog signals are generally lower quality signals than digital
signals.
Digital Transmission in Computer Network
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a
computer to use the data, it must be in discrete digital form. Similar to
data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To transmit data
digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion

It can be done in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all
communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is
optional.

Line Coding

The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be
Line Coding. Digital data is found in binary format.It is represented
(stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.
Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital
data. There are three types of line coding schemes available:

Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data.
In this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to
represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-
return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it either
represents 1 or 0.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary
values. Polar encodings is available in four types:
 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values.
Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and negative value
represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered

whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit
ended and when the next bit is started, in case when sender and
receiver’s clock are not synchronized.
 RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1,
negative voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals
change during bits not between bits.
 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is
divided into two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and
changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also
transit at the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is
encountered.
Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero.
Zero voltage represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering
positive and negative voltages.
Block Coding

To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used.
For example, in even-parity, one parity bit is added to make the count
of 1s in the frame even. This way the original number of bits is
increased. It is called Block Coding.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos,

which are treated is analog data. To transmit this analog data over
digital signals, we need analog to digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas
digital data is discrete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used methods to convert analog
data into digital form. It involves three steps:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in

sampling is the rate at which analog signal is sampled. According to
Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times of the
highest frequency of the signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every

discrete pattern shows the amplitude of the analog signal at that
instance. The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude
value and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation
of the instantaneous analog value.
Encoding
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary
format.

Transmission Modes

The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two

computers. The binary data in the form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two
different modes: Parallel and Serial.
Parallel Transmission

The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender
and receiver are connected in parallel with the equal number of data
lines. Both computers distinguish between high order and low order
data lines. The sender sends all the bits at once on all lines. Because the
data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or data frame, a
complete group of bits (data frame) is sent in one go. Advantage of
Parallel transmission is high speed and disadvantage is the cost of
wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in parallel.
Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue
manner. Serial transmission requires only one communication channel.
Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
It is named so because there ‘is no importance of timing. Data-bits have
specific pattern and they help receiver recognize the start and end data
bits. For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s
are added at the end.
Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.
Synchronous Serial Transmission
Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no
mechanism followed to recognize start and end data bits. There is no
pattern or prefix/suffix method. Data bits are sent in burst mode
without maintaining gap between bytes (8-bits). Single burst of data
bits may contain a number of bytes. Therefore, timing becomes very
important.
It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes. The
advantage of synchronous transmission is high speed, and it has no
overhead of extra header and footer bits as in asynchronous
transmission.
Digital to Analog Conversion

Digital Signal – A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a

sequence of discrete values; at any given time it can only take on one of
a finite number of values.
Analog Signal – An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the
time varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other
time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in
which carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The
amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary
data represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The
frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fibre.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes
it comparatively inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high
bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could
be lost due to this.
 It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in
frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary
low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.

Advantages of frequency shift Keying –

 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise
problems beset by ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low
data rate application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less
bandwidth efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.
3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data. The amplitude and
frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
It is further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):
BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest
form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed
according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying,
difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0.
This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and
is used for long distance wireless communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying:
This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e. we can code two
bits onto one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits
per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees.
It has double data rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits
are mapped on each constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to
ASK and FSK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more
efficiently as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –
 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very
complex.

Analog to Analog Conversion –

Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal. It is a process by virtue of which
a characteristic of carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. This modulation is generally
needed when a band pass channel is required. Band pass is a range of
frequencies which are transmitted through a band pass filter which is a
filter allowing specific frequencies to pass preventing signals at
unwanted frequencies.
Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three ways:
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation
1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
keeping phase and frequency as constant. The figure below shows the
concept of amplitude modulation:
AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the
amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
AM bandwidth:
The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the
modulating signal and covers a range centred on the carrier frequency.
Bandwidth= 2fm
2. FREQUENCY MODULATION –
The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
keeping phase and amplitude as constant. The figure below shows the
concept of frequency modulation:
FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as
with FSK. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input
voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
FM bandwidth:
1. The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both
deviation and modulating frequency.
If modulating frequency (Mf) 0.5, wide band FM signals.
2. For a narrow band FM signal, bandwidth required is twice the
maximum frequency of the modulation, however for a wide band FM
signal the required bandwidth can be very much larger, with
 detectable sidebands spreading out over large amounts of the
frequency spectrum.
3. PHASE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
keeping amplitude and frequency as constant. The figure below shows
the concept of frequency modulation:

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in

Phase modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. It is
normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along
with a derivative. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to
the derivative of the input voltage which is the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
PM bandwidth:
1. For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation
(AM) and exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth
and poor efficiency.
2. For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its
bandwidth is approximately, 2 (h+1) FM where h= modulation index.
Thus, Modulation allows us to send a signal over a band pass frequency
range. If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can
transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel, all using
different frequency ranges.
Difference between optical v/s metallic cables
Optical
Fiber Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable is used to

Optical Fiber is used to transmit
1. transmit the signal/data
the signal/data is in light form.
is in electrical form.

Optical Fiber is made of plastics Coaxial Cable is made of

2.
and glasses. Plastics, copper wires etc.

While Coaxial Cable is low

3. Optical Fiber is high efficient.
efficient.

The cost of coaxial cable

4. The cost of optical fiber is high.
is less.

Coaxial cable is heavier

Optical cable is lighter in
5. than optical fiber in
weights.
weight.

6. Optical fiber’s diameter is Coaxial cable’s diameter

Optical
Fiber Coaxial Cable

is larger than optical

small.
fiber.

Installation and Installation and

7. implementation of optical fiber implementation of
is difficult. coaxial cable is easy.

In the optical fiber, there is

Coaxial cable has finest
highest noise immunity as they
8. noise immunity due to
are unaffected by the electrical
the shield provided.
noise.

Coaxial cables are less

These cables are not affected
9. affected by the external
due to external magnetic field.
magnetic field.

Power loss happens in optical

Loss of power in coaxial
fiber is caused by the
10. cables is due to
absorption, scattering,
conduction only.
dispersion and bending.

It uses 10BaseF, 100BaseFX, It uses 10Base2 and

11. 1000BaseFx, and some other 10Base5 Ethernet
Ethernet variants. variants.

Its maximum
Its maximum transmission
12. transmission speed is up
speed is up to 10 Gbps.
to 10 Mbps.
 Optical
Fiber Coaxial Cable

It offers high bandwidth and It provides comparatively

13. data rates in comparison to low bandwidth and data
coaxial cable. rates.

Uses-
Uses-
 HDTV’s
14.  Cable TV signals
 Aircraft
 Internet
 Medical field
 Telephone connections
 Telephone connections
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)




SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a

communication protocol, developed by Bellcore – that is used to
transmit a large amount of data over relatively large distances using
optical fibre. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred
at the same time over the optical fibre.
Key Points:
 Developed by Bellcore
 Used in North America
 Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in
Europe and Japan.
Why SONET is called a Synchronous Network?
A single clock (Primary Reference Clock, PRC) handles the timing of
transmission of signals & equipment’s across the entire network.

SONET Network Elements:

1. STS Multiplexer:
 Performs multiplexing of signals
 Converts electrical signal to optical signal
2. STS Demultiplexer:
 Performs demultiplexing of signals
  Converts optical signal to electrical signal
3. Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates
(increases the strength) it.

4. Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given
path or remove a signal.

Why SONET is used?

SONET is used to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal so
that it can travel longer distances.

SONET Connections:
 Section: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring devices.
 Line: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring multiplexers.
 Path: End-to-end portion of the network.
SONET Layers:

SONET includes four functional layers:

1. Path Layer:
  It is responsible for the movement of signals from its optical
source to its optical destination.
 STS Mux/Demux provides path layer functions.
2. Line Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.
 STS Mux/Demux and Add/Drop Mux provide Line layer functions.
3. Section Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical
section.
 Each device of network provides section layer functions.
4. Photonic Layer:
 It corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
 It includes physical specifications for the optical fibre channel
(presence of light = 1 and absence of light = 0).
Advantages of SONET:
 Transmits data to large distances
 Low electromagnetic interference
 High data rates
 Large Bandwidth
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):-These are a set of
communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of
voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional
circuits of the public switched telephone network. Before Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system was seen as a
way to transmit voice, with some special services available for data.
The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on
the same lines, which were not available in the classic telephone
system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also
provides access to packet-switched networks that allows digital
transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better voice
or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-
switched connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided
a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and
downstream directions. A greater data rate was achieved through
channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six
to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in
data-link and physical layers but commonly ISDN is often limited to
usage to Q.931 and related protocols. These protocols introduced in
1986 are a set of signalling protocols establishing and breaking circuit-
switched connections, and for advanced calling features for the user.
ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission
between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group
videoconferencing systems.
ISDN Interfaces:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN:

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –

There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one
signalling channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B
channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel
operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are
independent of each other. For example, one channel is used as a
TCP/IP connection to a location while the other channel is used to
send a fax to a remote location. In series ISDN supports a basic rate
interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of
two B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This
equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl service itself
requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe
of 192 Kbps is required.

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –

Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23
 or 30 B channels depending on the country you are in. PRI is not
supported on the series. A digital pipe with 23 B channels and one
64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate Interface
(PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel
of 64 Kbps equal 1.536 Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of
overhead also. Therefore PRI requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.

3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) –
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current
communications infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the
copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainly on the evolution of fibre
optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service
requiring transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater
than the primary rate.

ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services
fall into 3 categories- bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary
services.

1. Bearer Services –
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users
without the network manipulating the content of that information
is provided by the bearer network. There is no need for the network
to process the information and therefore does not change the
content. Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI
model. They are well defined in the ISDN standard. They can be
provided using circuit-switched, packet-switched, frame-switched,
or cell-switched networks.

2. Teleservices –
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the
 data. These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model.
Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are
designed to accommodate complex user needs. The user need not
be aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include
telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex, and teleconferencing.
Though the ISDN defines these services by name yet they have not
yet become standards.

3. Supplementary Service –
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are
provided by supplementary services. Reverse charging, call waiting,
and message handling are examples of supplementary services
which are all familiar with today’s telephone company services.

Principle of ISDN:
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly
CCITT). The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
coordinates standards for telecommunications on behalf of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva,
Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T
recommendation are:

 To support switched and non-switched applications

 To support voice and non-voice applications

 Reliance on 64-kbps connections

 Intelligence in the network

 Layered protocol architecture

 Variety of configurations

Advantages of ISDN:

 ISDN channels have a reliable connection.

 ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
 It has faster data transfer rate.
 Efficient use of bandwidth
 Improved call quality
 Greater flexibility
 Integrated services

Disadvantages of ISDN:

 ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

 It requires specialized digital devices.
 It is less flexible.
 Limited coverage
 High installation and maintenance costs
 Obsolescence
 Limited features
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL):-Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL, originally, digital subscriber loop) is a communication medium,
which is used to transfer the internet through copper wire
telecommunication lines. Along with cable internet, DSL is one of the
most popular ways ISPs provide broadband internet access.
 Its aim is to maintain the high speed of the data being transferred.
 If we ask how we going to achieve such a thing i.e., both telephone
and internet facilities, then the answer is by using splitters or DSL
filters(shown in the below diagram). Basically, the splitter is used to
splits the frequency and make sure that they can’t get interrupted.
Types of DSL are as follows:
1. Symmetric DSL – SDSL splits the upstream and downstream
frequencies evenly, providing equal speeds to both uploading and
downloading data transfer. This connection may provide 2
Mbps upstream and downstream.it is mostly preferred by small
organizations.
2. Asymmetric DSL – ADSL provides a wider frequency range for
downstream transfers, which offers several times faster downstream
speeds. An ADSL connection may offer 20 Mbps downstream and 1.5
Mbps upstream, it is because most users download more data than
they upload.

Features of DSL include:

 Speed: DSL provides high-speed internet connectivity that is much

faster than traditional dial-up connections. With DSL, users can
expect download speeds of up to 25 Mbps and upload speeds of up
 to 3 Mbps, depending on the type of DSL service and the distance
from the service provider.
 Availability: DSL is widely available in many areas and is often the
most accessible high-speed internet option for users who live in rural
or remote areas. As long as there is a telephone line, DSL can be
provided, making it an attractive option for users who don’t have
access to cable or fibre internet.
 Security: DSL provides a secure connection, as the data transmitted
over the telephone lines is encrypted. This means that hackers and
other unauthorized users cannot intercept or access the data being
transmitted.
 Reliability: DSL is a reliable internet connection option, as the
connection is always on and doesn’t require users to dial in or
connect manually. This makes it ideal for users who need a constant
internet connection for work or other purposes.
 Affordability: DSL is generally more affordable than other high-speed
internet options, such as cable or fibre internet. This makes it an
attractive option for users who need high-speed internet but don’t
want to pay the high prices associated with other options.
 Compatibility: DSL is compatible with a wide range of devices,
including computers, smartphones, tablets, and other internet-
connected devices. This makes it easy for users to connect to the
internet and access online services and applications.
Benefits:
 No Additional Wiring – A DSL connection makes use of your existing
telephone wiring, so you will not have to pay for expensive upgrades
to your phone system.
 Cost-Effective – DSL internet is a very cost-effective method and is
best in connectivity
 Availability of DSL modems by the service providers.
 Users can use both telephone lines and the internet at the same
time. And it is because the voice and digital signals are transferred in
different frequencies.
 Users can choose between different
connection speeds and pricing from various providers.
 High-speed: DSL provides high-speed internet access, allowing users
to stream, download, and upload large amounts of data quickly.
 Simultaneous use: DSL allows users to make voice calls and use the
internet at the same time, making it a convenient option for
households with multiple users who need to use the internet and the
telephone at the same time.
 Reliable: DSL is a stable and reliable technology that provides
consistent performance, making it a dependable option for internet
access.
 No data caps: Unlike some other internet technologies, DSL doesn’t
have data caps, allowing users to stream, download, and upload as
much data as they need without worrying about additional charges
or throttled speeds.
 Easy setup: DSL is easy to set up and doesn’t require any special
equipment, making it a straightforward option for people who are
new to the internet or need to get online quickly.
 Supports multiple devices: DSL can support multiple devices
simultaneously, making it an ideal option for households with
multiple users and devices.
DSL Internet service only works over a limited physical distance and
remains unavailable in many areas where the local telephone
infrastructure does not support DSL technology. The service is not
available everywhere. The connection is faster for receiving data than it
is for sending data over the Internet.
Features of DSL:
 High-speed internet: DSL technology provides high-speed internet
access that can be up to 25 times faster than a dial-up connection.
 Simultaneous voice and data transmission: DSL technology allows
for simultaneous voice and data transmission over the same line, so
users can make phone calls and use the internet at the same time.
 Dedicated connection: DSL provides a dedicated connection, which
means users do not have to share bandwidth with other users.
 Distance limitations: DSL has distance limitations, and the speed of
the connection can decrease as the distance from the central office
increases.
 Different types of DSL: There are different types of DSL, including
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL), Symmetric DSL (SDSL), and Very High Bitrate
DSL (VDSL), each with different features and capabilities.
 Availability: DSL technology is widely available and can be used in
areas where other high-speed internet options are not available.
 Installation: DSL requires a modem to be installed at the user’s
premises and a DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer) to
be installed at the telephone company’s central office.
 Cost: DSL is typically less expensive than other high-speed internet
options, such as cable or fibre-optic connections.
 Security: DSL provides a more secure connection than a dial-up
connection because it is always on and does not require users to dial
in to access the internet.
 Dedicated bandwidth: DSL provides users with dedicated
bandwidth, which means that the speed of their internet connection
is not affected by the number of users sharing the same network.
This is in contrast to cable or fibre internet, where users often
experience slower speeds during peak usage times.
 Static IP addresses: DSL providers often offer static IP addresses to
their customers, which can be useful for businesses or individuals
who need to host websites or run servers. A static IP address makes
it easier for other users to find your website or connect to your
server.
 Easy installation: DSL is relatively easy to install, as it only requires a
telephone line and a DSL modem. Users can often install the modem
themselves or with the help of their service provider, which can save
time and money compared to other high-speed internet options that
require professional installation.
 Voice and data services: Some DSL providers offer bundled packages
that include internet and phone services, allowing users to save
money on their monthly bills. This can be especially convenient for
users who need both services and want to manage them through a
single provider.
 Distance tolerant: While the speed of DSL varies depending on the
distance between the user and the service provider, it is generally
more tolerant of longer distances than cable or fibre internet. This
makes it a viable option for users who live in areas with limited high-
speed internet options.

Disadvantages:

 Distance limitations: As mentioned earlier, the speed of the DSL

connection decreases as the distance from the central office
increases. This can limit the availability of high-speed internet in
rural areas or in places with a large distance from the central office.
 Speed inconsistencies: The speed of the DSL connection can vary
depending on the quality of the copper telephone lines, the distance
from the central office, and the number of users connected to the
network at the same time. This can lead to inconsistent speed and
performance.
 Limited bandwidth: DSL technology provides limited bandwidth,
which means that it may not be suitable for heavy data usage or for
households with multiple users who require high-speed internet
simultaneously.
 Dependence on telephone lines: DSL technology is dependent on
copper telephone lines, which can be prone to interference from
other devices, such as microwaves, televisions, or other electronic
devices.
 Installation limitations: DSL technology requires the installation of a
modem and a DSLAM at the central office, which can be costly and
 time-consuming for service providers. It may also require additional
wiring and infrastructure, which can be difficult in some areas.
 Security concerns: DSL connections may be vulnerable to hacking or
other security breaches, just like any other internet connection.
Users need to take proper security measures to protect their devices
and data.
 Availability of service providers: DSL services are provided by
telephone companies, and in some areas, there may be limited
options for service providers. This can limit the ability of users to
choose the best service provider or the best plan for their needs