INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE & GAS TURBINES

Module - I
INTRODUCTION
Heat engine:

A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy
and uses this energy to produce mechanical work. It is classified into two types-

(a) External combustion engine

(b) Internal combustion engine

External combustion engine:

In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a second fluid which
is the working fluid of the cycle.

Examples:

*In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to generate
steam which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a turbine (rotary type
engine) for useful work.

*In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace is transferred to
gas, usually air which the working fluid of the cycle.

Internal combustion engine:

In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are used as
the direct motive force. It can be classified into the following types:

1. According to the basic engine design- (a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston
arrangement), (b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)

2. According to the type of fuel used- (a) Petrol engine, (b) diesel engine, (c) gas engine
(CNG, LPG), (d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)

3. According to the number of strokes per cycle- (a) Four stroke and (b) Two stroke engine

4. According to the method of igniting the fuel- (a) Spark ignition engine, (b) compression
ignition engine and (c) hot spot ignition engine

5. According to the working cycle- (a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine, (b) diesel
cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine, (c) dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation- (a) Carburetted type (fuel supplied
through the carburettor), (b) Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold,
fuel injected into the cylinder just before ignition).

7. According to the number of cylinder- (a) Single cylinder and (b) multi-cylinder engine

8. Method of cooling- water cooled or air cooled

9. Speed of the engine- Slow speed, medium speed and high speed engine

10. Cylinder arrangement-Vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, radial, opposed cylinder or

piston engines.

11. Valve or port design and location- Overhead (I head), side valve (L head); in two stroke
engines: cross scavenging, loop scavenging, uniflow scavenging.

12. Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed engines and
qualitatively governed engine

14. Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for propulsion of
ships, aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines, prime movers for electrical
generators.

Comparison between external combustion engine and internal combustion engine:

External combustion engine Internal combustion engine

*Combustion of air-fuel is outside the engine * Combustion of air-fuel is inside the engine
cylinder (in a boiler) cylinder (in a boiler)
*The engines are running smoothly and * Very noisy operated engine
silently due to outside combustion
*Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output * It is light and compact due to lower ratio of
due to presence of auxiliary apparatus like weight and bulk to output.
boiler and condenser. Hence it is heavy and
cumbersome.
*Working pressure and temperature inside * Working pressure and temperature inside
the engine cylinder is low; hence ordinary the engine cylinder is very much high; hence
alloys are used for the manufacture of engine special alloys are used
cylinder and its parts.
*It can use cheaper fuels including solid fuels
*High grade fuels are used with proper
filtration
*Lower efficiency about 15-20% *Higher efficiency about 35-40%
* Higher requirement of water for dissipation *Lesser requirement of water
of energy through cooling system
*High starting torque *IC engines are not self-starting

Main components of reciprocating IC engines:

Cylinder: It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and fro. It
should have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and temperature above
2000 oC. The ordinary engine is made of cast iron and heavy duty engines are made of steel
alloys or aluminum alloys. In the multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders are cast in one block
known as cylinder block.

Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which inlet and
exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos gasket is provided
between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air tight joint.

Piston: Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. Usually
made of aluminium alloy which has good heat conducting property and greater strength at
higher temperature.

Figure 1 shows the different components of IC engine.

Fig. 1. Different parts of IC engine

Piston rings: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface
of the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at high temperature.
2 types of rings- compression and oil rings. Compression ring is upper ring of the piston
which provides air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion. Oil
ring is lower ring which provides effective seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine
cylinder.

Connecting rod: It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the
crank shaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is connected with
the piston by gudgeon pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is connected with the crank
with crank pin. The special steel alloys or aluminium alloys are used for the manufacture of
connecting rod.

Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the
help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the manufacturing of the
crankshaft. It consists of eccentric portion called crank.

Crank case: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves as sump for
the lubricating oil.

Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its speed
constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned
during other stroke.

Terminology used in IC engine:

1. Cylinder bore (D): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.

2. Piston area (A): The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.

3. Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals of its direction of motion.

4. Dead centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are
mechanically connected to it at the moment when the direction of the piston motion is
reversed (at either end point of the stroke).

(a) Bottom dead centre (BDC): Dead centre when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft.

(b) Top dead centre (TDC): Dead centre when the position is farthest from the crankshaft.

5. Displacement volume or swept volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the
working piston when travelling from the one dead centre to next one and given as,

Vs=A × L

6. Clearance volume (Vc): the nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the
piston at the top dead centre.

7. Cylinder volume (V): Total volume of the cylinder.

V= Vs + Vc

8. Compression ratio (r):

Four stroke engine:

- Cycle of operation completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolution of the
piston.
 (i) Suction stroke (suction valve open, exhaust valve closed)-charge consisting of
fresh air mixed with the fuel is drawn into the cylinder due to the vacuum pressure
created by the movement of the piston from TDC to BDC.
(ii) Compression stroke (both valves closed)-fresh charge is compressed into
clearance volume by the return stroke of the piston and ignited by the spark for
combustion. Hence pressure and temperature is increased due to the combustion
of fuel
(iii) Expansion stroke (both valves closed)-high pressure of the burnt gases force the
piston towards BDC and hence power is obtained at the crankshaft.
(iv) Exhaust stroke (exhaust valve open, suction valve closed)- burned gases expel out
due to the movement of piston from BDC to TDC.

Figure 2 show the cycle of operation of four stroke engine.

Fig. 2. Cycle of operation in four stroke engine

Two stroke engine:

-No piston stroke for suction and exhaust operations

-Suction is accomplished by air compressed in crankcase or by a blower

-Induction of compressed air removes the products of combustion through exhaust ports

-Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into combustion chamber

Figure 3 represents operation of two stroke engine

 Fig. 3. Cycle of operation in two stroke engine

Comparison of Four-stroke and two-stroke engine:

Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

1. Four stroke of the piston and two revolution Two stroke of the piston and one
of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
2. One power stroke in every two revolution of One power stroke in each revolution of
crankshaft crankshaft
3. Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform Lighter flywheel due to more uniform
turning movement turning movement
4. Power produce is less Theoretically power produce is twice
than the four stroke engine for same size
5. Heavy and bulky Light and compact
6. Lesser cooling and lubrication requirements Greater cooling and lubrication
requirements
7. Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear
8. Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement
9. Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost
10. Volumetric efficiency is more due to greater Volumetric efficiency less due to lesser
time of induction time of induction
11. Thermal efficiency is high and also part load Thermal efficiency is low, part load
efficiency better efficiency lesser
12. It is used where efficiency is important. It is used where low cost, compactness
and light weight are important.
Ex-cars, buses, trucks, tractors, industrial Ex-lawn mowers, scooters, motor cycles,
engines, aero planes, power generation etc. mopeds, propulsion ship etc.
Comparison of SI and CI engine:

SI engine CI engine
Working cycle is Otto cycle. Working cycle is diesel cycle.
Petrol or gasoline or high octane fuel is Diesel or high cetane fuel is used.
used.
High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature.
Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous mixture
Fuel is injected directly into the combustion
in the suction stroke. chamber at high pressure at the end of
compression stroke.
Carburettor used to provide the mixture. Injector and high pressure pump used to
Throttle controls the quantity of mixture supply of fuel. Quantity of fuel regulated in
introduced. pump.
Use of spark plug for ignition system Self-ignition by the compression of air which
increased the temperature required for
combustion
Compression ratio is 6 to 10.5 Compression ratio is 14 to 22
Higher maximum RPM due to lower weight Lower maximum RPM
Maximum efficiency lower due to lower Higher maximum efficiency due to higher
compression ratio compression ratio
Lighter Heavier due to higher pressures

Valve timing diagram:

The exact moment at which the inlet and outlet valve opens and closes with reference to the
position of the piston and crank shown diagrammatically is known as valve timing diagram.
It is expressed in terms of degree crank angle. The theoretical valve timing diagram is shown
in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Theoretical valve timing diagram

But actual valve timing diagram is different from theoretical due to two factors-mechanical
and dynamic factors. Figure 4 shows the actual valve timing diagram for four stroke low
speed or high speed engine.
Opening and closing of inlet valve

-Inlet valve opens 12 to 30ᵒ CA before TDC to facilitate silent operation of the engine under
high speed. It increases the volumetric efficiency.

-Inlet valve closes 10-60ᵒ CA after TDC due to inertia movement of fresh charge into
cylinder i.e. ram effect.

Figure 5 represents the actual valve timing diagram for low and high speed engine.

Fig. 5. Actual valve timing diagram for low and high speed engine

Opening and closing of exhaust valve

Exhaust valve opens 25 to 55ᵒ CA before BDC to reduce the work required to expel out the
burnt gases from the cylinder. At the end of expansion stroke, the pressure inside the chamber
is high, hence work to expel out the gases increases.

Exhaust valve closes 10 to 30ᵒ CA after TDC to avoid the compression of burnt gases in next
cycle. Kinetic energy of the burnt gas can assist maximum exhausting of the gas. It also
increases the volumetric efficiency.

Note: For low and high speed engine, the lower and upper values are used
respectively

Valve overlap

During this time both the intake and exhaust valves are open. The intake valve is opened
before the exhaust gases have completely left the cylinder, and their considerable velocity
assists in drawing in the fresh charge. Engine designers aim to close the exhaust valve just as
the fresh charge from the intake valve reaches it, to prevent either loss of fresh charge or
unscavenged exhaust gas.
Port timing diagram:

-Drawn for 2-stroke engine

-No valve arrangement

-3 ports- inlet, transfer and exhaust

Figure 6 shows port timing diagram for 2-stroke engine

Fig. 6. Port timing diagram for 2-stroke engine

Working cycle:

(a) Otto cycle- thermodynamic cycle for SI/petrol engine

-Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
-Constant volume heat addition (combustion) and heat rejection process (exhaust)
Figure 7 depicts the Otto cycle

Fig. 7. Otto cycle

Heat supplied, qs=Cv(T3-T2)
Heat rejection, qR=Cv(T4-T1)
Compression ratio, =
( ) ( )
Thermal efficiency, ( )
 In process 1-2, adiabatic compression process,

( )

( )

In adiabatic expansion process, i.e. 3-4,

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )

( )

Work done (W)

Pressure ratio, =

( ) ( )

[ ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ( )]

[( )( )]

Mean effective pressure,

[( )( )] [( )( )]
( )( )

(b) Diesel cycle- thermodynamic cycle for low speed CI/diesel engine
-Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
-Constant pressure heat addition (combustion) and heat rejection process (exhaust)
Figure 8 depicts the diesel cycle.
 Fig. 8. Diesel cycle
Heat supplied, Q1=Cp(T3-T2)
Heat rejection, Q2=Cv(T4-T1)
Compression ratio, =

Cut off ratio, =

( ) ( ) ( )
Thermal efficiency, ( ) ( )
In adiabatic compression process i.e. 1-2,

( )

( )

In process 2-3, pressure constant, then

( )
In adiabatic expansion process i.e. 3-4,
( ) ( ) =( ) ( )

( ) = ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
[ ]
( ) ( )

Work done (W)

( )

( ) since
( )( ) ( ) ( )
* +
( ) ( )
* +
Mean effective pressure,
( ) ( )
[ ] [ ( ) ( )]
( )( )

(c) Dual cycle or limited pressure cycle-thermodynamic cycle for high speed diesel
and hot spot ignition engine
-Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
-Constant pressure and constant volume heat addition (combustion) and heat
rejection
process

Total heat supplied, Q1= Cv(T3-T2)+ Cp(T4-T3)

Heat rejection, Q2=Cv(T5-T1)
Compression ratio, =

Cut off ratio, =

Pressure ratio, =

Figure 9 shows the P-V diagram of Dual cycle.

Fig. 9. Dual cycle

( ) ( ) ( )
Thermal efficiency, ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

In adiabatic compression process i.e. 1-2,

( ) ( )

In constant volume combustion process i.e. 2-3,

 =

In constant pressure combustion process i.e. 3-4,

In adiabatic expansion process i.e. 4-5,

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

( ) ( )
( )
[( )
]
( ) ( ) ( )

Work done (W)

( )

( ) ( )
( )

[ ( ) ( ) ( )]

Mean effective pressure,

[ ( ) ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
( )( )

Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle:

(a) For same compression ratio and same heat input

( ) ( ) ( )

(b) For constant maximum pressure and same heat input

 ( ) ( ) ( )

(c) For same maximum pressure and temperature

( ) ( ) ( )

(d) For same maximum pressure and output

( ) ( )

FUELS &FUEL INJECTION

In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted into mechanical power
by burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the combustion chamber of the engine.

Fuels suitable for fast chemical reaction have to be used in IC engines, they are following
types-

(a) Hydrocarbons fuels derived from the crude petroleum by proper refining process such as
thermal and catalytic cracking method, polymerisation, alkylation, isomerisation, reforming
and blending.

(b) Alternative fuels such as-Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)

Natural gas (methane)
LPG (propane, butane)
Hydrogen

*Classification of petroleum fuels used for IC engine:

Liquid hydrocarbons- Engine fuels are mainly mixtures of hydrocarbons, with bonds
between hydrogen and carbon atoms. During combustion these bonds are broken and new
bonds are formed with oxygen atoms, accompanied by the release of chemical energy.
Principal products are carbon dioxide and water vapour. Fuels also contain small amounts of
S, O2, N2, H2O. The different constituents of crude petroleum which are available in liquid
hydrocarbons are- paraffins, naphthenes, naphthenes, olefins, aromatics.

(i) Paraffin-

-Paraffins or alkanes can in general be represented by-CnH2n+2

-All the carbon bonds are single bonds – they are “saturated” high number of H atoms, high
heat content and low density (620 – 770 kg/m3)
-The carbon atoms can be arranged as a straight chain or as branched chain compounds.
-Straight chain group (normal paraffins)
 shorter the chain, stronger the bond
 not suitable for SI engines – high tendancy for autoignition according to the value of
“n” in the formula, they are in gaseous (1 to 4), liquid (5 to 15) or solid (>16) state.
-Hexan C6H14 (normal paraffin)
H H H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
H H H H H H

- Branched chain compounds (isoparaffins)

When four or more C atoms are in a chain molecule it is possible to form isomers,
they have the same chemical formula but different structures, which often leads to
very different chemical properties.

Example: Iso-octane- C8H18

(ii) Naphthenes-

-Also called as cycloparaffins and represented as CnH2n

-Saturated hydrocarbons which are arranged in a circle have stable structure and low
tendancy to autoignite compared to alkanes (normal paraffins)
-Can be used both in SI-engines and CI-engines
-Low heat content and high density (740 – 790 kg / m3)

(iii) Olefins-

-Olefins or alkenes are represented as Mono olefins-CnH2n or Dio-olefins CnH2n-2

-Olefins have the same C-to-H ratio and the same general formula as naphthenes, their
behavior and characteristics are entirely different
-They are straight or branch chain compounds with one or more double bond. The position of
the double bond is indicated by the number of first C atom to which it is attached, i.e.,
CH2=CH.CH2.CH2.CH3 called pentene-1
CH3.CH=CH3 called butene-2
-Olefinic compounds are easily oxidized, have poor oxidation stability
-Can be used in SI-engines, obtained by cracking of large molecules low heat content and
density in the range 620 – 820 kg / m3

Alkenes are such as,

Hexen (mono-olefin)
H H H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–C=C-H
H H H H
Butadien (dio-olefin)
H H H H
H–C=C–C=C–H

(iv) Aromatics-

-These are so called due to aromatics odour and represented as CnH2n-6

-They are based on a six-membered ring having three conjugated double bonds
-Aromatic rings can be fused together to give polynuclear aromatics, PAN, also called
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH simplest member is benzene (C6H6)