CONCRETE

Concrete is a of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse aggregates

mixed with water. Portland cement is the mostly used cement for the
production of concrete. It is the most popular artificial material.
Probably It is used more than any other man-made product in the
world.

Uses of Concrete

1. It’s an important building product. Concrete is chosen over wood

as a construction material.
2. It is a durable and cost-effective material which is a necessity for
underground use.
3. Concrete is a sustainable choice for residential and commercial
projects.
4. The strength of concrete increases over time.
5. Concrete can hold up against weather condition and is easy to
maintain.
6. It is budget friendly to use everywhere. It is easy to repair &
energy efficient.
7. Concrete is safe for building occupants.
8. Concrete is an inert material which doesn’t burn, mildew or feed
rot.
9. Its superior structural integrity provides added degree of
protection from the severe weather as well as an earthquake.
10. Concrete walls and floors make a home quite place of rest,
relaxation and rejuvenation.
11. Concrete is produced from locally available materials and
leaves a small environmental footprint while still providing high-
level durability.
12. It is used as aggregate in roadbeds or as granular materials
while making new concrete.
13. Concrete is fire resistant. It can resist extreme level of
flames and heat which is a good choice of the ceiling in a storage
room.
14. Concrete can be shaped in various forms when freshly
mixed.
15. Concrete isn’t sensitive to moisture.
16. It doesn’t release any volatile organic compounds into the
air which is environment-friendly.
17. Concrete gives a longer service life.
 18. It keeps home safe from insects. It doesn’t attract insect
pest and rodents. That’s why small animals cannot burrow
through the concrete to make a home.
19. Concrete has multiple design possibilities.
20. Concrete can be used to achieve optimum environmental
performance.
21. As it is recyclable, it is possible to use it for addition.
22. High-performance concrete is used to build bridges.
23. Concrete is able to accommodate steel reinforcements in
gates, tunnel lines, electrical controls.
24. A concrete floor can be stamped to create an attractive
surface. It can admit natural light during the day and transmit
artificial light after work.
25. Concrete is used in driveways and patios.

Advantages of Concrete

 Ingredients of concrete are easily available in most of the places.

 Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws.
 Concrete can be manufactured to desired strength with an
economy.
 The durability of concrete is very high.
 It can be cast to any desired shape.
 The casting of concrete can be done in the working site which
makes it economical.
 Maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.
 The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age.
 Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its noncombustible
nature.
 Concrete can withstand high temperatures.
 Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very
useful in storm shelters.
 As a soundproofing material cinder concrete could be used.

Disadvantages of Concrete

 Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of

concrete is relatively low.
 Concrete is less ductile.
 The weight of compared is high compared to its strength.
 Concrete may contains soluble salts. Soluble salts cause
efflorescence.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete is a combination of traditional cement concrete

with reinforcements (steel bar). This combination is made to utilize the
compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel
simultaneously.
In reinforced concrete, the components work together to resist many
types of loading. Concrete resists compression and steel reinforcement
resists tension forces.
Reinforced concrete, as an economic building material, is very popular
nowadays. It is widely used in many types building around the world.
Along with many advantages, reinforced concrete also poses some
disadvantages also.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

 1. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared
to other building materials.
2. Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also
withstand a good amount of tensile stress.
3. Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
4. The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any
other building system.
5. Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be
economically molded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
6. The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
7. In structures like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is
the most economical construction material.
8. It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
9. As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is
widely used in precast structural components. It yields rigid
members with minimum apparent deflection.
10. Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced
concrete requires less skilled labor for the erection of the
structure.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

 1. The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of
its compressive strength.
2. The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting,
and curing. All of this affects the final strength.
3. The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.
4. For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger
than steel section as the compressive strength is lower in the
case of RCC.
5. Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.

Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.

1. Water Cement ratio

2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors

i. Cement content
Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent
segregation and bleeding. If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c
ratio the workability will be reduced leading to inadequate
compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability,
 water / cement ratio increases and resulting in highly permeable
material.
ii. Compaction
The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by
inadequate compaction. Usually it is being governed by the
compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density of
the steelwork
iii. Curing
It is very important to permit proper strength development aid
moisture retention and to ensure hydration process occur
completely
iv. Cover
Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes
v. Permeability
It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be
noticed that higher permeability is usually caused by higher
porosity. Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient cement, proper
compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low
permeability concrete

Types of Durability

There are many types but the major ones are:

1. Physical durability of concrete

2. Chemical durability of concrete

Physical Durability

Physical durability is against the following actions

1. Freezing and thawing action

2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration

Chemical Durability

Chemical durability is against the following actions

1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction

2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation
 5. Corrosion of reinforcement

Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete

1. External Causes:

1. Extreme Weathering Conditions

2. Extreme Temperature
3. Extreme Humidity
4. Abrasion
5. Electrolytic Action
6. Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases

2. Internal Causes

a) Physical

 Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of

aggregates and cement paste
 Frost Action

b) Chemical

 Alkali Aggregate Reactions

i. Alkali Silica Reaction

ii. Alkali Silicate Reaction

iii. Alkali Carbonate Reaction

 Corrosion of Steel
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT CONCRETE
The cement concrete possesses the following important properties:

1. It possesses a high compressive strength.

2. It is a corrosion resistance material and atmospheric agent has no
appreciable effect on it.
3. It hardens with age the process of hardening continues for a long
time after the concrete has attained sufficient strength. It is this
property of cement concrete which gives it a distinct place among
building materials.
4. It is more economical than steel.
5. It binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak in tension, the steel
reinforcement is placed in cement concrete at suitable places to
take up the tensile stresses. This is termed as the reinforced
cement concrete or simply as R.C.C.
6. Under the following two conditions, it has a tendency to shrink:

 There is initial shrinkage of cement concrete which is mainly

due to the loss of water through forms, absorption by
surfaces of forms etc.
 The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens. This
tendency of cement concrete can be minimized by proper
curing of concrete.

7. It has a tendency to be porous. This is due to the presence of voids

which are formed during and after its placing. The two precautions
necessary to avoid this tendency are as follows:

 There should be proper grading and consolidating of the

aggregates.
 The minimum water-cement ratio should be adopted.

8. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.

9. It should be remembered that apart from other materials, the
concrete comes to the site in the form of raw materials only. Its
final strength and quality depend entirely on local conditions and
persons handling it. However the materials which concrete is
composed may be subjected to rigid specifications.

Types of Concrete

Some common and main types of concrete are:

1. Normal concrete
2. High Strength Concrete
3. High Performance Concrete
4. Air Entrained Concrete
5. Light Weight Concrete
6. Self-Compacting Concrete
7. Shotcrete
8. Pervious Concrete
9. Roller Compacted Concrete
Vacuum Concrete | Definition, Procedure and Advantages

What is Vacuum Concrete?

All the water used in mixing concrete is not required for hydration.
Therefore, removal of excess water before hardening take place
improves concretestrength.
Vacuum concrete is the type of concrete in which the excess water is
removed for improving concrete strength. The water is removed by use
of vacuum mats connected to a vacuum pump.

Procedure

In the usual manner, a concrete mix with good workability is pace in

the form-works. As fresh concrete contains continues the system of
water-filled channels, the application of a vacuum to the surface
concrete results in a large amount of a vacuum to the surface of the
concrete. This results in a large amount of water being extracted from
a certain depth of the concrete. The vacuum is applied through porous
mats connected to a vacuum pump. The final water cement ratio
before setting is thus reduced and as this ration largely controls the
strength, vacuum concrete has a higher strength and also density a
lower permeability and a greater durability.
Advantages of Vacuum Concrete
Vacuum Concrete has several advantages over normal concrete. Some
of the advantages are given below.

 The final strength of concrete is increased by about 25%.

 Sufficient decrease in The permeability of concrete is sufficiently
decreased.
 Vacuum concrete stiffens very rapidly so that the form-works can
be removed within 30 minutes of casting even on columns of 20
ft. high.
 This is of considerable economic value, particularly in a precast
factory as the forms can be reused at frequent intervals.
 The bond strength of vacuum concrete is about 20% higher.
 The density of vacuum concrete is higher.
 The surface of vacuum concrete is entirely free from pitting and
the uppermost 1/16 inch is highly resistant to abrasion. These
characteristics are of special importance in the construction of
concrete structures which are to be in contact with flowing water
at a high velocity.
 It bonds well to old concrete and can, therefore, be used for
resurfacing road slabs and other repair works.
What is Workability of Concrete? Types, Mechanism

Workability is a property of raw or fresh concrete mixture. In simple

words, workability means the ease of placement and workable
concrete means the concrete which can be placed and can be
compacted easily without any segregation.
Workability is a vital property of concrete and related with compaction
as well as strength. The desired workability is not same for all types of
concrete. More workability is required for a thin inaccessible section or
heavily reinforced section rather than a mass concrete body. Hence,
we can’t set a standard workability for all casting works.
Compaction and workability are very close to each other. Workability
can also be defined as the amount of useful internal work necessary to
produce full compaction.
Workability is the property determining the effort required to
manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of concrete with minimum loss of
homogeneity
ASTM C 125-93
Workability is that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which
determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed,
placed, consolidated and finished
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Standard 116R-90 (ACI 1990b)
Reason for Different types of definition
A variety is seen between definitions of workability because it is not
very accurate scientific term like specific gravity or weight. All
definitions are qualitative in nature and personal viewpoint is reflected
instead of scientific precision. There are some other terms used to
describe concrete as cohesiveness, consistency, flowability, mobility,
pump-ability etc. These terms have their specific meaning but they
cannot be determined inaccurate number or unit.

Types of Workability of Concrete

Workability of concrete can be classified into following three types:

1. Unworkable Concrete: An unworkable concrete also known as

harsh concrete, is a concrete with a very little amount of water.
The hand mixing of such concrete is difficult. Such type of
concrete has high segregation of aggregates. and it is very
difficult to maintain the homogeneity of concrete mix.
2. Medium Workable concrete: Medium workable concrete is
used in most of the construction works. This concrete is relatively
easy to mix, transport, place, and compact without much
segregation and loss of homogeneity.
3. Highly Workable Concrete: This type of concrete is very easy
to mix, transport, place and compact. It is used where effective
compaction of concrete is not possible. The problem is that there
are high chances of segregation and loss of homogeneity in
highly workable concrete.

Desirable Workability for Construction

Desirable workability depends on two factors which are:

1. Section size, amount and spacing of reinforcement: When

a section is narrow, complicated, several narrow corners,
inaccessible parts; a highly workable concrete is desirable to
obtain full compaction through a reasonable amount of effort.
When the section is crowded with steel reinforcement and
spacing of bars is relatively small, compaction can be difficult and
hence highly workable concrete is recommended in such cases. If
there are no limitations of the critical section or heavy
reinforcement, we can get a wide range of workability for
concrete casting.
 2. Method of compaction: If concrete is compacted manually,
more workability is recommended because hand compaction is
not very much uniform and effective. If there is a scope of the
vibrator or machine compaction, we can choose workability from
a wide range.

Strength of Concrete & Workability Relationship

The strength of concrete is the most important property for us. It
depends on density ratio or compaction and compaction depend on
sufficient workability. Fresh concrete must have a workability as
compaction to maximum density is possible with a reasonable amount
of work.

Figure: Compressive strength vs w/c

ratio of concrete. Source: theconstructor.org
But excessive workability can lessen compressive strength. From the
above graph, we see that compressive strength of concrete decreases
with increase in w/c ratio. An increase of w/c ratio indicates an increase
of workability. Hence, the strength of concrete inversely proportional to
the workability and too much workability should be avoided.

Methods of Improving Workability of Concrete

To increase workability there are some ways like:

 Increasing water/cement ratio

 Using larger aggregate
 Using well-rounded and smooth aggregate instead of irregular
shape
 Increasing the mixing time and mixing temperature
 Using non-porous and saturated aggregate
  With addition of air-entraining mixtures
 Adding appropriate admixtures

Factors Affecting Workability of Concrete

Workability of concrete is measured in terms of the ease of mixing and

placing of concrete. Highly workable concrete can easily be mixed,
placed and transported. All the materials and processes involved in
producing concrete affect the workability of concrete.

Factors Affecting Workability of Concrete

Followings are the factors affect the workability of concrete.

i. Water Content
ii. Mix Proportions
iii. Size of Aggregates
iv. Shape of Aggregates
v. Grading of Aggregates
vi. Surface Texture of Aggregates
vii. Use of Admixtures
viii. Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials
ix. Time
x. Temperature

These factors are briefly discussed below.

i. Water Content
It is the most important factor of workability. Workability increases with
the increase of water content (measured in kg or liter per cubic meter
of concrete). We can express the relation in terms of water-cement
ratio. If the water-cement ratio is small, it indicates high amount
cement which is helpful for good strength. But the small water-cement
ratio is responsible for lower workability. If proper compaction cannot
be achieved, concrete will not be enough strong as desired. On the
other hand, if the water-cement ratio is increased, workability and
compaction problem will be solved but there may occur some other
problems like bleeding and losing compressive strength. Hence an
optimum water-cement ratio has to be maintained to balance
workability and strength of concrete.

ii. Mix Proportions

Rich concrete mix (cement content is high) is more workable because
due to sufficient cement aggregates will have proper lubrication for
easy movement which means more workability.

iii. Size of Aggregates

Finer particles require more water for a larger surface,
hence aggregate with finer particles need more water to make it
workable. On the other hand, bigger particles have less surface area,
demand less water for wetting surface and require less amount of
paste for lubricating. So bigger particles give higher workability for
fixed water content. But maximum size of aggregate depends on some
practical considerations like handling-mixing and placing equipment,
concrete section, and spacing of reinforcement.

iv. The Shape of Aggregates

Irregular shape and rougher texture of angular aggregate demand
more water than the round shaped aggregate. For fixed volume or
weight, rounded or subrounded particles have less surface area and
less void and they have less friction resistance too. Hence round
shaped aggregates show higher workability than angular, flaky or
elongated aggregates.

v. Grading of Aggregates
Well-graded aggregates tend to fill up voids and easily get workability.
Less amount of water can make it workable. If grading is better, there
will be fewer voids and excess paste will be available to give better
lubricating effect. Due to excess paste, the mixture gets cohesive and
prevent segregation. It also makes it get compacted easily i.e.
increases the workability.

vi. The Surface Texture of Aggregates

Aggregates with smooth surfaces are more workable than roughly
textured aggregates. Roughly textured aggregates show high friction
and segregation tendency. Besides, nonabsorbent aggregates are
more workable because porous and non-saturated aggregates demand
more water than aggregates which are nonabsorbent.

vii. Use of Admixtures

There are some admixtures which can improve workability. Some
admixtures are mixed intentionally to increase workability and some
admixtures increase workability as a side effect of its main purpose.

viii. Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials

There are many supplementary materials used for improving quality of
fresh concrete. Some of these, like fly ash, improve workability and
some of these like steel or synthetic fibers decrease workability.

ix. Time
Fresh concrete stiffens with time and loss workability though it is not
exactly settling or getting strength at all. After mixing concrete, some
water is absorbed by aggregate, some may be lost by evaporation and
some may be spent for initial chemical reactions. The loss in
workability by time depends on various factors like:


a. Initial workability: if initial workability is high, slump loss
will be greater
b. Property of cement: if alkali content is high and sulfate
content is low, sump loss will be greater
c. Moisture content of aggregate: dry aggregate will
absorb more water and workability will decrease

iix. Temperature
High temperature reduces workability and increases slump loss. Slump
loss is less influenced by temperature in stiff mixes because this type
of mix is less affected by a change in water content.
Concrete Slump Test - Step by Step Procedure

What is slump test for concrete?

Concrete slump test is an on-the-spot test to determine the
consistency as well as workability of fresh concrete. This test plays a
vital role in ensuring immediate concrete quality in a construction
project. It is used almost in every construction sites.
Slump test is very simple and easy to handle. It also demands
comparatively less equipment and can be done in a short period of
time. These advantages of slump test have made it very popular all
over the world. In slump test, workability of concrete is not measured
directly. Instead, consistency of concrete is measured which gives a
general idea about the workability condition of concrete mix.

Concrete Slump Test International Standard

Various international codes have specific testing standards for
concrete slump test. These standards specify methods, equipment for
determining the consistency of fresh concrete by the slump test. For
acceptance and reliability, It is essential to maintain strict compliance
with these standards during slump test for concrete. The standards for
concrete slump test are followings.

 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM): ASTM slump

test standards are ASTM C 143, ASTM C143M.
 The American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO): AASHTO slump test standards are AASHTO
T119, AASHTO BS1881.
 British & European standard: British & European slump test
standard is BS EN 12350-2.
 Indian standard: IS 1199 – 1959

Concrete Slump Test Equipment

Slump test requires some equipment to perform the test. One can
easily find these test kit set in the market. The test equipment must
comply the standards mentioned above. Equipment mainly used for
slump test are followings.

Concrete Slump Test Kit

Set. Source: panairsan.com
  Mould: Shape of the mould is a frustum of a cone. The cone is
known as slump cone or Abrams cone. Slump cone is made of
steel, plastic etc. Its height is 12 inches (30 cm). The diameter of
the base opening is 8 inches (20 cm) and top opening is 4 inches
(10 cm).
 Base plate: Base plate may be made of Aluminum, polymer,
steel etc. It may be equipped with a holding attachment.
 Tamping rod: Temping rod used in slump test is made of steel.
Tamping Rod is usually 24" long and has a diameter of 5/8"
diameter.Temping rod used in slump test is made of steel.
Tamping Rod is usually 24" long and has a diameter of 5/8"
diameter.
 Tape measure: Standard tap should be used for measurement.

Concrete Slump Test Procedure

 Firstly, the internal surface of the mould is cleaned carefully. Oil

can be applied on the surface.
 The mould is then placed on a base plate. The base plate should
be clean, smooth, horizontal and non-porous.
 The mould is filled with fresh concrete in three layers. Each layer
is tamped 25 times with a steel rod. The diameter of this steel
rod is 5⁄8 inch. The rod is rounded at the ends. The tamping should
be done uniformly.
 After filling the mould, excess concrete should be removed and
the surface should be levelled. When the mould is filled with fresh
concrete, the base of the mould is held firmly by handles.
 Then the mould is lifted gently in the vertical direction and then
unsupported concrete will slump. The decrease in height at the
centre point is measured to nearest 5mm or 0.25 inch and it is
known as ‘slump’.

Cautions Required During Concrete Slump Test

 Inside of the mould and base should be moistened before every

test. It is necessary to reduce surface friction.
 Prior to lifting mould, the area around the base of the cone should
be cleaned from concrete which may be dropped accidentally.
 The mould and base-plate should be non-porous.
 This test should be performed in a place free of vibration or
shocks.
  The concrete sample should be very fresh, the delay must be
avoided and the test should be done just after mixing.

Measurement of workability from Slump Test

If shear slump or collapse slump occurs, the test should be repeated.
We can get the result from the only true slump. We can classify the
result within some ranges according to the slump value.

1. Very low workability: slump value 0-25mm or 0-1 inch

2. Low workability: slump value 25-50mm or 1-2 inch
3. Medium workability: slump value 50-100mm or 2-4 inch
4. High workability: slump value 100-175mm or 4-7 inch

According to 'Fresh Concrete' by P. Bartos, slump results can be

classified as given below:

1. No slump: slump value 0 mm or 0 inch

2. Very Low: sump value 5-10 mm or 0.25-0.5 inch
3. Low: sump value 15-30 mm or 0.75-1.25 inch
4. Medium: sump value 35-75 mm or 1.5-3 inch
5. High: sump value 80-155 mm or 3.25-6 inch
6. Very High: sump vaue180 mm or 6.25 inch to collapse

According to European Standard ENV 206: 1992, workability is

classified in 4 categories of S1, S2, S3 and S4. Slump ranges are:

 S1: 10-40 mm
 S2: 50-90 mm
 S3: 100-150 mm
 S4: more than 160 mm

Though there are different types of workability classification, the main

rule is that low slump value indicates less workability and high sump
value indicates high workability.
Types of Concrete Slump

The concrete slump can be classified according to the nature of

concrete fall. There are 3 types of the slump. These are:

1. True slump: In a true slump concrete just subsides shortly and

more or less maintain the mould shape. This type of slump is
most desirable.
 2. Shear slump: If one-half of the cone slides down in an inclined
plane, it is called a shear slump. Shear slump indicates lack of
cohesion in the concrete mix. Shear slump may occur in the case
of a harsh mix.
3. Collapse slump: In this case, fresh concrete collapses
completely.

Zero Slump: If concrete maintains the actual shape of the mould, it is

called zero slump which represents stiff, consistent and almost no
workability.
The true slump is the only reliable condition to get an idea about
the workability of concrete. If other types occur, the test should be
repeated.
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

What is Modulus of Elasticity?

Modulus of elasticity (also known as elastic modulus,
the coefficient of elasticity) of a material is a number which is
defined by the ratio of the applied stress to the corresponding strain
within the elastic limit. Physically it indicates a material’s resistance to
being deformed when a stress is applied to it. Modulus of elasticity also
indicates the stiffness of a material. Value of elastic modulus is higher
for the stiffer materials.
Modulus of Elasticity,E=fsModulus of Elasticity,E=fs
Here, f= applied stress on a body
s= strain to correspond to the applied stress
Determination of Modulus of Elasticity Concrete. Source:
http://civilarc.com

Units of Elastic Modulus

Units of elastic modulus are followings:

 In SI unit MPa or N/mm2 or KN/m2.

 In FPS unit psi or ksi or psf or ksf.

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete can be defined as the slope of the line
drawn from a stress of zero to a compressive stress of 0.45f’c. As
concrete is a heterogeneous material. The strength of concrete is
dependent on the relative proportion and modulus of elasticity of the
aggregate.
To know the accurate value of elastic modulus of a concrete batch,
laboratory test can be done. Also, there are some empirical formulas
provided by different code to obtain the elastic modulus of Concrete.
These formulas are based on the relationship between modulus of
elasticity and concrete compressive strength. One can easily obtain an
approximate value of modulus of elasticity of concrete using 28 days
concrete strength (f’c) with these formulas.
Elastic Modulus of Concrete from ACI Code
Different codes have prescribed some empirical relations to determine
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete. Few of them are given below.
According to ACI 318-08 section 8.5,
8 Main Cement Ingredients & Their Functions

Cement, as a binding material, is a very important building material.

Almost every construction work requires cement. Therefore, the
composition of cement is a matter of great interest to engineers. F…
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Sometimes it may be required to perform cement quality tests at a

site within a very short period of time for evaluating the condition of
the supplied cement. In most of the cases, it is not poss…
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It is always desirable to use the best cement in constructions.

Therefore, the properties of a cement must be investigated. Although
desirable cement properties may vary depending on the type of
const…
Uses of Cement

Cement is a very useful binding material in construction. The

applications of cement over various fields of construction have made it
a very important civil engineering material.
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White Portland Cement | Definition & Details

White Portland cement, as the name indicates, is a kind of cement with

white color. It is the same as ordinary gray Portland cement except in
respect to color and fineness.
What is Cement? History- Chemistry- Industries

Syeda Tahsin Hasan

Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding
agent that sets and hardens to adhere to building units such as stones,
bricks, tiles etc. Cement generally refers to a very fine powdery
substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay
(silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells,
chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. The raw
ingredients are processed in cement manufacturing plants and heated
to form a rock-hard substance, which is then ground into a fine powder
to be sold. Cement mixed with water causes a chemical reaction and
forms a paste that sets and hardens to bind individual structures
of building materials.
Cement is an integral part of the urban infrastructure. It is used to
make concrete as well as mortar, and to secure the infrastructure by
binding the building blocks. Concrete is made of cement, water, sand,
and gravel mixed in definite proportions, whereas mortar consists of
cement, water, and lime aggregate. These are both used to bind rocks,
stones, bricks and other building units, fill or seal any gaps, and to
make decorative patterns. Cement mixed with water silicates and
aluminates, making a water repellant hardened mass that is used for
water-proofing.

History of Cement
Cement, though different from the refined product found nowadays,
has been used in many forms since the advent of human civilization.
From volcanic ashes, crushed pottery, burnt gypsum and hydrated lime
to the first hydraulic cement used by the Romans in the middle ages,
the development of cement continued to the 18th century, when James
Parker patented Roman cement, which gained popularity but was
replaced by Portland cement in the 1850s.
In the 19th century, Frenchman Louis Vicat laid the foundation for the
chemical composition of Portland cement and in Russia, Egor
Cheliev published the methods of making cement, uses of cement and
advantages. Joseph Aspdinbrought Portland cement to the market in
England and his son, William Aspdin, developed the “modern” Portland
cement, which was soon in quite high demand. But the real father of
Portland cement is considered to be Isaac Charles Johnson, who
contributed immensely by publishing the process of developing meso-
Portland cement in the kiln.
In the 19th century, Rosendale cement was discovered in New York.
Though its rigidity made it quite popular at first, the market demand
soon declined because of its long curing time and Portland cement was
again the favorite. However, a new blend of Rosendale-Portland
cement, which is both highly durable and needs less curing time, was
synthesized by Catskill Aqueduct and is now often used for highway or
bridge construction.
The cement used today has undergone experimentation, testing and
significant improvements to meet the needs of the present world, such
as developing strong concretes for roads and highways, hydraulic
mortars that endure sea water and stucco for wet climates. Different
kinds of modern cement, most of them known as Portland cement or
blends, including blast furnace cement, Portland fly-ash cement,
Portland pozzolan cement, pozzolan-lime cement, slag-lime cement
etc.

Cement Chemistry
Cement is chiefly of two kinds based on the way it is set and
hardened: hydraulic cement, which hardens due to the addition of
water, and non-hydraulic cement, which is hardened by carbonation
with the carbon present in the air, so it cannot be used underwater.
Non-hydraulic cement is produced through the following steps (lime
cycle):

1. Calcination: Lime is produced from limestone at over 825°C for

about 10 hours. (CaCO3 → CaO + CO2)
2. Slaking: Calcium oxide is mixed with water to make slaked lime.
(CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2)
3. Setting: Water is completely evaporated.
4. The cement is exposed to dry air and it hardens after time-
consuming reactions. (Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O)

On the other hand, hydraulic cement is mainly made up of silicates and

oxides:

1. Belite (2CaO·SiO2);
2. Alite (3CaO·SiO2);
3. Tricalcium aluminate/ Celite (3CaO·Al2O3)
4. Brownmillerite (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3)

The ingredients are processed in the kiln in cement plants. Complete

chemistry of the reactions is still a subject of research.

Portland cement
The most commonly used cement nowadays is a hydraulic cement (i.e.
hardens when water is added) known as Portland cement or Portland
cement blends. These are usually the basic ingredient in making
concrete, which is a construction material used as a load-bearing
element. Portland cement is suitable for wet climates and can be used
underwater. Different types or blends of Portland cement include
Portland blast furnace slag cement, Portland fly-ash cement, Portland
pozzolan cement, Portland-silica fume cement, masonry cement,
expansive cement, white blended cement, colored cement and very
finely ground cement.

Composition of Portland cement

85% Portland cement clinker (37-72% of 3CaO.SiO 2; 6-47% 2CaO.SiO2;
2-20% 2CaO.Al2O3; 2-19% 4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3), 1.5-3.5% gypsum by
SO3 content, up to 15% admixtures. For more information read: 8 Main
Cement Ingredients & Their Functions

How to make Portland cement

In a cement production plant, limestone and other raw materials such
as silicate, bauxite, iron ore etc. are heated so that molecules of
carbon dioxide are liberated from the limestone to form quicklime,
which combines with the other ingredients, resulting in the formation
of calcium silicates and other products. Thus clinker, a rock-hard
substance, is made. Gypsum is added to the clinker and then ground
into a fine powder, which is the final product known as Portland
cement.

Cement Manufacturing Industries in the World

The top three cement producers of the world as recorded in 2010 are
the USA, China, and India. Among these countries, China alone
manufactures about 45% of the total worldwide production of cement.
Global consumption of cement continues to rise since it is a non-
recyclable product and so every new construction or repair needs new
cement. Especially in the economies of Asia and Eastern Europe,
cement production is an important element of progress.
According to the global cement directory, there are about 2273 active
cement production plants in the world. Some of the leading cement
manufacturers are LafargeHolcim, Anhui Conch, China National
Building Materials, HeidelbergCement, Cemex, Italcementi, China
Resources Cement, Taiwan Cement, Eurocement, and Votorantim. The
total global consumption of cement, as indicated by statistics in 2015,
measures up to 18 million metric tons, most of which is attributed to
the rising national economy of North America.
Among the developed capitalist countries, the leading producers of
cement are USA, France, Italy, and Germany. Iran, now the top
producer in the Middle-East, occupies the third position in the world for
cement manufacture. Asian and African countries are also progressive
in the production of cement.
The kiln process in cement plant causes the emission of carbon
dioxide, which is one of major greenhouse gases responsible for global
warming. With a view to reducing, even eliminating, the harmful
environmental impacts of cement usage, leading industries are now
trying to implement technologies that utilize recycled materials and
renewable energy sources. “Green cement” is such a sustainable
construction material that is the result of extensive research related to
the check the effects of global warming.
8 Main Cement Ingredients & Their Functions

Cement, as a binding material, is a very important building material.

Almost every construction work requires cement. Therefore, the
composition of cement is a matter of great interest to engineers. For
understanding cement composition, one must know the functionality of
Cement ingredients. By altering the amount of an ingredient
during cement production, one can achieve the desired cement
quality.

Ingredients of Cement

Composition of Cement
There are eight major ingredients of cement. The general percentage
of these ingredients in cement is given below:

Ingredient Percentage in
cement
Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium 0.1-0.5
 Sulfate
Sulfur 1-3
Trioxide
Alkaline 0-1

Functions of Cement Ingredients

The main features of these cement ingredients along with their
functions and usefulness or harmfulness are given below:

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form

silicates and aluminates of calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the
cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o Excessive presence of lime cause cement to expand and
disintegrate.
2. Silica:Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to
dicalcium and tricalcium silicate.
o Silica imparts strength to cement.
o Silica usually present to the extent of about 30
percent cement.

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is
Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the
requisite quantity of alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.

4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. Chemical formula is MgO.

o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
o It acts as a flux.
 o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical
reaction with calcium and aluminum to form tricalcium
alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to
cement.
6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
.
o This is present in cement in the form of
gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
.
o Should not be present more than 2%.
o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.
8. Alkaline:

o Should not be present more than 1%.

o Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

Summary of the article:

 What are the ingredients of the cement?

 Describe the cement composition.
 What are the functions of different cement ingredients?
 What are the functions of lime in cement?
 What are the functions of Silica in cement?
 What are the functions of alumina in cement?
 What are the functions of Magnesia in cement?
 What are the functions of Iron oxide in cement?

Properties of Cement- Physical & Chemical

Cement, a popular binding material, is a very important civil

engineering material. This article concerns the physical and chemical
properties of cement, as well as the methods to test cement
properties.
Physical Properties of Cement
Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by
their physical properties. Some key parameters control the quality of
cement. The physical properties of good cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

These physical properties are discussed in details in the following

segment. Also, you will find the test names associated with these
physical properties.

Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required
fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the
last step of cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is
directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very
important.

Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening.
Good quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed
expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.
Tests:
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for
ensuring soundness must be able to determine that potential.

 Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the
expansion of cement due to lime. Cement paste (normal
consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in
water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the
distance between the indicators and then returned under water,
brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling
the device, the distance between indicator points is measured
again. In a good quality cement, the distance should not exceed
10 mm.
 Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave
(high-pressure steam vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa,
and then kept there for 3 hours. The change in length of the
specimen (after gradually bringing the autoclave to room
temperature and pressure) is measured and expressed in
percentage. The requirement for good quality cement is a
maximum of 0.80% autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151:
Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement.

Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
It is measured by Vicat Test.
 In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the
Vicat Apparatus. The plunger of the apparatus is brought down to
touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger will penetrate the
cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. A
cement is said to have a normal consistency when the plunger
penetrates 10±1 mm.

Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile
and flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement
ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of
a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and
age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

 Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not

directly related. Cement strength is merely a quality control
measure.
 The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not
on cement paste.
 Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of
performing the test should be mentioned.

Compressive Strength
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken
and subjected to a compressive load until failure. The loading
sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.
Standard tests:

i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of

Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube
Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
(Using Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)

Tensile strength
Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement
production, now it does not offer any useful information about the
properties of cement.
Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is
performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded
at its center point until failure.
Standard test:

i. ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can
vary depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement,
cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in
construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and
a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are
measured:

 Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically

occurs within 30-45 minutes)
 Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some
load (occurs below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Standard Tests:

i. AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic

Cement by Vicat Needle
ii. AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore
Needles
iii. ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by
Gillmore Needles

Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called
hydration. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of
the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature
during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high,
especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat
of hydration is affected most by C 3S and C3A present in cement, and
also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat
of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the
difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement
(obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).
Standard Test:
ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

Loss of Ignition
Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant
weight is obtained) causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon
heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged
storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-
hydration and carbonation, both of which might be indicated by
increased loss of ignition.
Standard Test:
AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic
Cement

Bulk density
When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where
there would normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of
cement is not very important. Cement has a varying range of density
depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of
cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations.
Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of
cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-
pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.
Standard Test:
AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement

Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand
or clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include
shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. Chemical
analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the chemical
properties of cement.
1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum
reduces the hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the
early stages of hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a
little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more
than 8% C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less
than 8% C3A)
2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)
C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is
responsible for the cement’s early strength gain an initial setting.
3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain,
dicalcium silicate in cement helps the strength gain after one
week.
4. Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of
the raw materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it
hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the strength of
the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as
a raw material in dry process plants. An excess amount of
magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a
little amount of it can add strength to the cement. Production of
MgO-based cement also causes less CO2 emission. All cement is
limited to a content of 6% MgO.
6. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
7. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric
oxide is mainly responsible for the color of the cement.
8. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O)
determine the alkali content of the cement. Cement containing
large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in regulating the
setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with
calcium chloride in concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime
cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on
its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an
 optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the
equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
9. Free lime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause
expansion.
10. Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a
variety of properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion
resistance and bond strength. Though setting time is prolonged
by the addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high
strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is
usually produced for Portland cement projects that require high
strength.
11. Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand
frigid temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also
quickens the setting but weakens the cement.

Cement Manufacturing Process

Syeda Tahsin Hasan

Stage of Cement Manufacture

There are six main stages of cement manufacturing process.
Stage 1
Raw Material Extraction/Quarry
The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are
limestone (calcium), sand and clay (silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly
ash, mill scale and bauxite. The ore rocks are quarried and crushed to
smaller pieces of about 6 inches. Secondary crushers or hammer mills
then reduce them to even smaller size of 3 inches. After that, the
ingredients are prepared for pyroprocessing.
Stage 2
Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement making
process in the kiln by combining them with additives and grinding
them to ensure a fine homogenous mixture. The composition of
cement is proportioned here depending on the desired properties of
the cement. Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the
clay. In the cement plant, the raw mix is dried (moisture content
reduced to less than 1%); heavy wheel type rollers and rotating tables
blend the raw mix and then the roller crushes it to a fine powder to be
stored in silos and fed to the kiln.
Stage 3
Pre-Heating Raw Material
A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the
hot gases produced from the kiln in order to reduce energy
consumption and make the cement making process more
environment-friendly. The raw materials are passed through here and
turned into oxides to be burned in the kiln.
Stage 4
Kiln Phase
The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process.
Here, clinker is produced from the raw mix through a series of
chemical reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide compounds.
Though the process is complex, the events of the clinker production
can be written in the following sequence:

1. Evaporation of free water

2. Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components
3. Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide
(CaO)
4. Reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate
5. Reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing constituents
to form the liquid phase
6. Formation of the clinker nodules
7. Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g., sodium, potassium,
chlorides, and sulfates)
8. Reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium silicate to form tricalcium
silicate

The above events can be condensed into four major stages based on
the change of temperature inside the kiln:

1. 100°C (212°F): Evaporation of free water

2. 100°C (212°F)-430°C (800°F): Dehydration and formation of
oxides of silicon, aluminum, and iron
 3. 900°C (1650°F)-982°C (1800°F): CO2 is evolved and CaO is
produced through calcination
4. 1510°C (2750°F): Cement clinker is formed

The kiln is angled by 3 degrees to the horizontal to allow the material

to pass through it, over a period of 20 to 30 minutes. By the time the
raw-mix reaches the lower part of the kiln, clinker forms and comes out
of the kiln in marble-sized nodules.
Stage 5
Cooling and final grinding
After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to
100°C-200°C by passing air over it. At this stage, different additives
are combined with the clinker to be ground in order to produce the
final product, cement. Gypsum, added to and ground with clinker,
regulates the setting time and gives the most important property of
cement, compressive strength. It also prevents agglomeration and
coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill wall. Some
organic substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are
added as grinding aids to avoid powder agglomeration. Other additives
sometimes used are ethylene glycol, oleic acid and dodecyl-benzene
sulphonate.
The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save
energy. The last stage of making cement is the final grinding process.
In the cement plant, there are rotating drums fitted with steel balls.
Clinker, after being cooled, is transferred to these rotating drums and
ground into such a fine powder that each pound of it contains 150
billion grains. This powder is the final product, cement.
Stage 6
Packing and Shipping
Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks)
where it is packed in 20-40 kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in
bulk quantities by trucks, trains or ships, and only a small amount is
packed for customers who need small quantities.

Chemical Reactions during Cement Manufacturing Process

The reactions that take place (after evaporation of free water) between
the reactants in the kiln phase of cement making process are as
follows:
 1. Clay Decomposition:
Si2Al2O5(OH)2 → 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor)
KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 +
0.5 K2SO4
2. Dolomite Decomposition:
CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCO3 + MgO + CO2
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO +
0.5 Al2O3 + 3 SiO2 + H2O (vapor)
3. Low Temperature Calcite Decomposition:
2 CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2
2 MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4
Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25 SiO2 → 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25 Ca2SiO4 + 0.5
H2O (vapour)
4. Alumina and Oxide Reaction:
12 CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2
5. Reaction of Remaining Calcite:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
6. Sintering:
Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5

Cement is a very useful binding material in construction. The

applications of cement over various fields of construction have made it
a very important civil engineering material.

Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing
lintels, beams, stairs, pillars etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of
exposed surfaces of structures against the destructive agents of
the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts
etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures
such as bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
 8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors,
footpaths etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis
courts, lamp posts, telephone cabins, roads etc.

Properties of Good Cement

It is always desirable to use the best cement in constructions.

Therefore, the properties of a cement must be investigated. Although
desirable cement properties may vary depending on the type of
construction, generally a good cement possesses following properties
(which depend upon its composition, thoroughness of burning and
fineness of grinding).

 Provides strength to masonry.

 Stiffens or hardens early.
 Possesses good plasticity.
 An excellent building material.
 Easily workable.
 Good moisture-resistant.

Specific Gravity of Cement - Details & Test Procedure

Toky Siddiquee

What is Specific Gravity of Cement?

Mainly Specific Gravity is the is the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of a reference substance at a fixed
temperature. On the other words, it is the ratio of the mass of a
substance to the mass of a reference substance. And the theme is also
same for cement. Specific Gravity of cement is the ratio of the density
or mass of cement to the density or mass of a reference substance.
But in both of the state's density or mass, the volume should be same.
If the volume does not remain same the specific gravity has no
existence then. Because the mass or density will be changed of the
substance or reference substance.
 Specific Gravity of Cement. Source:
commons.wikimedia.org

Why We Calculate Specific Gravity of Any Substance

We calculate specific gravity of any substance to know the behavior of
the material in water. And we can know the material will sink or floats
in the water. All of the materials in our environment have a fixed
specific gravity. The usual range is 1-100. If the specific gravity is
greater than 1, then it sinks in water. If the specific gravity Is less than
1 it floats in water. So if the specific gravity of any substance is known
to us we can use the materials in suitable place of any work.
Basically, specific gravity defines that the substance is how much
heavier than water or reference substance of the same volume. The
specific gravity of cement ranging from 3.1 to 3.16 g/cc. By this
statement, we can ensure that cement 3.1-3.16 times heavier than
water of the same volume. And it sinks in water. Because the specific
gravity is greater than 1.
Every material consists off so many little pores, which may contain
voids in it. And a material becomes useless when any void present in
the material. If the cement covered by extreme moisture content due
to bad weather conditions, then the specific gravity of cement may go
up to 3.19. If the specific gravity value reaches 3.19, then the pores in
cement are filled with the moisture. Cement undergoes a chemical
reaction when it is reacted with the atmospheric moisture this process
is termed as hydration. Moisture is very harmful to cement. Cement
becomes useless once it is hydrated with water. The presence of
excessive moisture is the reason for finding a lot of lumps in old
cement is due to content in it.

Standard Value of Specific Gravity of Cement

The specific gravity value of portland cement is generally around 3.15
while the specific gravity value of portland-blast-furnace-slag and
portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravities near 2.90.
Portland Cement Association (PCA). (1988). Design and Control of
Concrete Mixtures. Portland Cement Association.

Reference Substances for Specific Gravity

Maximum time water is used as a reference substance. And its
temperature should be near at 4°C. For gases, it is air at room
temperature 25°C. But if “Cement” is used as a sample substance then
kerosine would be the reference substance. Because cement hydrates
and forms calcium oxide when it reacts with water. But kerosene won’t
show any reaction when it mixed with cement.
The specific gravity of kerosine is 0.79 g/cc.

How to Calculate Cement Specific Gravity?

One can easily determine the value of specific gravity of cement using
Le Chatelier Flask method. Determination of specific gravity of cement
at the site level can be easily done using this is an experiment.

Required Materials & Apparatus

Followings are the specific gravity test apparatus and materials:

 Kerosene
 Ordinary Portland Cement
 Le-Chatelier Flask of 250 ml or Specific Gravity Bottle /
Pycnometer of 100 ml
 Weighing balance with 0.1 gm accurate

Specific Gravity Test Procedure for Cement

The specific gravity test procedure contains only four steps. Followings
are the four steps to be followed to perform specific gravity test of
cement:
 1. The Flask should be free from the liquid that means it should be
fully dry. Weigh the empty flask. Which is W1.
2. Next, fill the cement on the bottle up to half of the flask around
50gm and weigh with its stopper. And it is W2.
3. Add Kerosene to the cement up to the top of the bottle. Mix well
to remove the air bubbles in it. Weigh the flask with cement and
kerosene. And it is W3.
4. Empty the flask. Fill the bottle with kerosene up to the top and
weigh the flask for counting W4.

Specific Gravity Calculation

Cement specific gravity formula:
Sg=W2−W1(W2−W1)−(W3−W4)×0.79Sg=W2−W1(W2−W1)−
(W3−W4)×0.79

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Definition:

Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone,

crushed hydraulic-cement concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used
with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either concrete or
mortar.

Coarse Aggregate

Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm (No.

4) sieve and will pass through 3-inch screen, are called coarse
aggregate. The coarser the aggregate, the more economical the mix.
Larger pieces offer less surface area of the particles than an equivalent
volume of small pieces. Use of the largest permissible maximum size
of coarse aggregate permits a reduction in cement and water
requirements. Using aggregates larger than the maximum size of
coarse aggregates permitted can result in interlock and form arches or
obstructions within a concrete form. That allows the area below to
become a void, or at best, to become filled with finer particles of sand
and cement only and results in a weakened area.

Fine Aggregate

Those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost entirely
passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, and predominantly retained on the
75 µm (No. 200) sieve are called fine aggregate. For
increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less
cement, the fine aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose
of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to
act as a workability agent.

Purpose & Uses of Aggregates

In concrete, an aggregate is used for its economy factor, to reduce any

cracks and most importantly to provide strength to the structure. In
roads and railway ballast, it is used to help distribute the load and
assist in ground water running off the road.

1. Increases the volume of concrete, thus reduces the cost

2. Provide dimensional stability
3. Influence hardness, abrasion resistance, elastic modulus and
other properties of concrete to make it more durable, strong and
cheaper.