Well Design – Spring 2013

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

Well Design – Spring 2013

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

Well Design – Spring 2013

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

Well Design – Spring 2013

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

Well Design – Spring 2013

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

 Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)

The effective density exerted by a circulating fluid against the formation that takes
into account the pressure drop in the annulus above the point being considered.

The ECD is calculated as:

r – mud density, ppg

P – Sum of the hydrostatic pressure and the frictional pressure drop in the annulus
between the depth D and surface, Psig

D – the true vertical depth, ft

 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquid Column

Example: Calculate the static mud density required to prevent flow from a
permeable stratum at 12,200ft if the pore pressure of the formation fluid is
8500psig.

Solution:

p 8500
r   13.4lbm / gal
0.052 D 0.052 12,200

The mud density must be at least 13.4 lbm/gal

Well Design – Spring 2013

Flow regime

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

Well Design – Spring 2013

Types of flow

Laminar Turbulent

Fig. 4-30. Laminar and turbulent flow patterns in a circular pipe: (a) laminar
flow, (b) transition between laminar and turbulent flow and (c) turbulent flow

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

Well Design – Spring 2013

_
Turbulent Flow - 928 ρ v
Newtonian Fluid N Re 
d µ

where ρ  fluid density, lbm/gal

_
v  avg. fluid velocity, ft/s
d  pipe I.D., in
µ  viscosity of fluid, cp.

We often assume that fluid flow is

turbulent if Nre > 2100

Prepared by: Tan Nguyen

 Formation Pressure
Definition – Normal Pressure

During a period of erosion and sedimentation, grains of sediment are continuously

building up on top of each other, generally in a water filled environment. As the
thickness of the layer of sediment increases, the grains of the sediment are packed
closer together, and some of the water is expelled from the pore spaces. However, if
the pore throats through the sediment are interconnecting all the way to surface the
pressure of the fluid at any depth in the sediment will be same as that which would
be found in a simple colom of fluid. This pressure is called NORMAL PRESSURE
and only dependents on the density of the fluid in the pore space and the depth of
the pressure measurement (equal to the height of the colom of liquid). it will be
independent of the pore size or pore throat geometry.
 Overburden Pressure

The vertical pressure at any point in the earth is known as the overburden
pressure or geostatic pressure. The overburden pressure at any point is a
function of the mass of rock and fluid above the point of interest. In order to
calculate the overburden pressure at any point, the average density of the material
(rock and fluids) above the point of interest must be determined. The average
density of the rock and fluid in the pore space is known as the bulk density of the
rock
Overburden Pressure
 Formation Pressure
Definition – Normal Pressure
 Formation Pressure
Definition – Normal Pressure

The datum which is generally used during drilling operations is the drillfloor
elevation but a more general datum level, used almost universally, is Mean Sea
Level, MSL. When the pore throats through the sediment are interconnecting, the
pressure of the fluid at any depth in the sediment will be same as that which would
be found in a simple column of fluid and therefore the pore pressure gradient is a
straight line. The gradient of the line is a representation of the density of the fluid.
Hence the density of the fluid in the pore space is often expressed in units of psi/ft.
 Formation Pressure
Definition – Abnormal Pressure

Pore pressures which are found to lie above or below the “normal” pore pressure
gradient line are called abnormal pore pressures. These formation pressures may
be either Subnormal (i.e. less than 0.465 psi/ft) or Overpressured (i.e. greater than
0.465 psi/ft). The mechanisms which generate these abnormal pore pressures can
be quite complex and vary from region to region. However, the most common
mechanism for generating overpressures is called Undercompaction and can be
best described by the undercompaction model.
 Formation Pressure
Definition – Abnormal Pressure

Underpressured
formation
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Subnormal Formation Pressure

(a) Formation Foreshortening

During a compression process there is some bending of strata. The upper beds can
bend upwards, while the lower beds can bend downwards. The intermediate beds
must expand to fill the void and so create a subnormally pressured zone. This is
thought to apply to some subnormal zones in Indonesia and the US. Notice that this
may also cause overpressures in the top and bottom beds.
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Subnormal Formation Pressure
(b) Thermal Expansion

As sediments and pore fluids are buried the temperature rises. If the fluid is allowed
to expand the density will decrease, and the pressure will reduce.

(c) Depletion

When hydrocarbons or water are produced from a competent formation in which no

subsidence occurs a subnormally pressured zone may result. This will be important
when drilling development wells through a reservoir which has already been
producing for some time. Some pressure gradients in Texas aquifers have been as
low as 0.36 psi/ft.
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Subnormal Formation Pressure

(d) Potentiometric Surface: This mechanism refers to the structural relief of a formation and
can result in both subnormal and overpressured zones. The potentiometric surface is defined
by the eight to which confined water will rise in wells drilled into the same aquifer. The
potentiometric surface can therefore be thousands of feet above or below ground level
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Overpressured Formation

(a) Incomplete sediment compaction or undercompaction:

is the most common mechanism causing overpressures. In the rapid burial of low
permeability clays or shales there is little time for fluids to escape. The formation
pressure will build up and becomes overpressured formtion. In other words, If the
burial is rapid and the sand is enclosed by impermeable barriers, there is no time
for this process to take place, and the trapped fluid will help to support the
overburden.
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Overpressured Formation

(b) Faulting

Faults may redistribute sediments, and place permeable zones opposite

impermeable zones, thus creating barriers to fluid movement. This may prevent
water being expelled from a shale, which will cause high porosity and pressure
within that shale under compaction.

(c) Massive Rock Salt Deposition

Deposition of salt can occur over wide areas. Since salt is impermeable to fluids,
the underlying formations become overpressured. Abnormal pressures are
frequently found in zones directly below a salt layer.
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Overpressured Formation

(d) Phase Changes during Compaction

Minerals may change phase under increasing pressure, e.g. gypsum (CaSO4.H2O)
converts to anhydrite plus free water. It has been estimated that a phase change in
gypsum will result in the release of water. The volume of water released is
approximately 40% of the volume of the gypsum. If the water cannot escape then
overpressures will be generated. Conversely, when anhydrite is hydrated at depth it
will yield gypsum and result in a 40% increase in rock volume. The transformation
of montmorillonite to illite also releases large amounts of water.
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Overpressured Formation
(e) Repressuring from Deeper Levels

This is caused by the migration of fluid from a high to a low presssure zone at
shallower depth. This may be due to faulting or from a poor casing/cement job.
The unexpectedly high pressure could cause a kick, since no lithology change
would be apparent. High pressures can occur in shallow sands if they are
charged by gas from lower formations.

(f) Generation of Hydrocarbons

Shales which are deposited with a large content of organic material will produce
gas as the organic material degrades under compaction. If it is not allowed to
escape the gas will cause overpressures to develop. The organic by-products will
also form salts which will be precipitated in the pore space, thus helping to reduce
porosity and create a seal.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure

The predictive techniques are based on measurements that can be made:

1. Geophysical measurements: identify geological conditions which might indicate

the potential for overpressures such as salt domes

2. Analyzing data from wells that have been drilled in nearby locations (offset wells).

3. Seismic data has been used successfully to identify transition zones

4. Offset well histories may contain information on mud weights used, problems with
stuck pipe, lost circulation or kicks.

5. Wireline logs or mudlogging information is also valuable when attempting to

predict overpressures.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Based on Drilling Parameters

The theory behind using drilling parameters to detect overpressured zones is based
on the fact that:

1. Compaction of formations increases with depth. ROP will therefore, all other
things being constant, decrease with depth

2. In the transition zone the rock will be more porous (less compacted) than that in
a normally compacted formation and this will result in an increase in ROP. Also,
as drilling proceeds, the differential pressure between the mud hydrostatic and
formation pore pressure in the transition zone will reduce, resulting in a much
greater ROP.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Based on Drilling Parameters

Torque can be useful for identifying overpressured zones. An increase in torque may
occur of the decrease in overbalance results in the physical breakdown of the
borehole wall and more material, than the drilled cuttings is accumulating in the
annulus. There is also the suggestion that the walls of the borehole may squeeze
into the open hole as a result of the reduction in differential pressure. Drag may also
increase as a result of these effects, although increases in drag are more difficult to
identify.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Based on Drilling Parameters

The use of the ROP to detect transition and therefore overpressured zones is a
simple concept, but difficult to apply in practice. This is due to the fact that many
factors affect the ROP, apart from formation pressure (e.g. rotary speed and WOB).
Since these other effects cannot be held constant, they must be considered so that a
direct relationship between ROP and formation pressure can be established. This is
achieved by applying empirical equations to produce a “normalised” ROP, which can
then be used as a detection tool.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Based on Drilling Parameters

The ROP usually changes significantly with formation type. Therefore, the
ROP log is one of the important factors to predict formation pressure.

The ROP is a function of many factors other than the formation type and
formation pressure including: bit size, bit diameter, bit nozzle sizes, WOB,
RPM, mud type, mud density, rheology of mud, pump pressure, pump rate.
Therefore, it is difficult to detect formation pressure changes using only
ROP
 Based on Drilling Parameters

Estimation of Abnormal
Formation Pressure
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Based on Drilling Parameters

Based on the considerable laboratory and field data, Bingham suggested

an equation to calculate the ROP
a5
W 
R  K   N
 db 

where W is the bit weight, db is the bit diameter, N is the rotary speed, a5 is
the bit weight exponent and K is the constant of proportionality that
includes the effect of rock strength
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Jorden and Shirley Model

Jorden and Shirley proposed using the Bingham model to normalize

penetration rate R through the calculation of a d-exponent defined by

 R 
log  
d exp   60 N 
 12W 
log  
 1,000 d b 

The dexp can be used to detect the transition form normal to abnormal
pressure if the drilling fluid density is held constant.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Rehm and Mcclendon Model

Rehm and Mcclendon proposed modifying the dexp to correct for the effect
of mud density changes as well as changes in WOB, bit diameter, and
rotary speed.

rn
d mod  d exp
re

where rn is the mud density equivalent to a normal pore pressure gradient

and re is the equivalent mud density at the bit while circulating
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure

Modified d-exponent
data in U.S. Gulft
Coast shales
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Rehm and Mcclendon Model

Example 4: A penetration rate of 23 ft/hr was observed while drilling in shale

at a depth of 9,515 ft using a 9.875-in bit in the U.S. gulf coast area. The
WOB was 25,500 lbf and the rotary speed was 113 RPM. The equivalent
circulating density at the bit was 9.5 lbm/gal. Compute the dexp and the
dmod. The normal pressure gradient in the U.S. gulf coast is 0.465 psi/ft.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Rehm and Mcclendon Model

 R   23 
log  log 
 60 N    60  113   1.64
d exp 
 12W   12  25,500 
log  log 
 1,000 d b   1,000  9.875 

0.465
rn   8.94 lbm / gal
0.052

rn 8.94
d mod  d exp  1.64  1.54
re 9.5
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Rehm and Mcclendon Model

The modified dexp often is used for estimating the formation pressure gradient as
well as the abnormal formation pressure. Rehm and McClendon suggested the
following empirical equation to calculate the equivalent mud density

r e  7.65 logd mod n  d mod abn   16.5

Formation pressure: Pf  0.052  r e

 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Zamora Model

Zamora also introduced another empirical equation to calculate the formation

pressure gradient

d mod n
g f a  g f n
d mod abn
Where (gf )a and (gf)n – abnormal formation pressure gradient and normal formation
pressure gradient, psi/ft

The abnormal formation pressure: Pf = (gf)a x D

 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Example: Given dexp
vs. depth as shown in
the Figure. Estimate
the formation
pressure at 13,000 ft
using Rehm and
McClendon and the
Zamora correlation.
 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure
Rehm and McClendon Method

Equivalent density

r e  7.65 logd mod n  d mod abn   16.5

re  7.65 log1.64  1.17  16.5  14 lbm / gal

Formation pressure gradient
Pf  0.052  r e

Pf  0.052  re  0.052 14  0.728 psi / ft

Formation pressure at 13,000 ft

Pf (13,000ft) = 9,464 psi

 Estimation of Abnormal Formation Pressure

Zamora method

g   g  d  mod n
f a f n
d mod abn

g 
f a  0.465
1.64
 0.652 psi / ft
1.17

Pf(13,000) = 0.652 x 13,000 = 8476 psi