Real Numbers

The set of real numbers is the union of sets of rational and irrational numbers. It is denoted by
R. Thus, R = Q U Qʹ. Where Q denotes the set of rational numbers and Qʹ denotes the set of irrational
numbers.
. . . . -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 . . . .
Note: All the numbers on the number line are real numbers.
Properties of Real Numbers
1) Addition Property:
a) Closure Property of Addition: If a, b R then a + b R. i.e the sum of two real numbers is
again a real number.
For example, 2, 3 R then 2 + 3 = 5 R
b) Commutative Property w.r.t Addition: If a, b R then a + b = b + a
For example, 3, 5 R then 3 + 5 = 5 + 3
c) Associative Property w.r.t Addition: If a, b , c R then (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
For example, 2, 3 , 4 R then (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4)
d) Additive Identity: If a R then there exist 0 R such that a + 0 = 0 + a = a . Where 0 is called
additive identity.
For example, 3 R, 3 + 0 = 0 + 3 = 0
e) Additive Inverse: For all a R then there exist an element aʹ R such that a + aʹ = aʹ + a = 0 .
Where aʹ is called additive inverse of a & is denoted by - a. Thus a + (- a) = - a + a = 0
For example, 3 + (- 3) = - 3 + 3 = 0

2) Multiplication Property:
a) Closure Property of Multiplication: If a, b R then ab R. i.e the product of two real numbers
is again a real number.
For example, 2, 3 R then 2 x 3 = 6 R
b) Commutative Property w.r.t Multiplication: If a, b R then ab = ba
For example, 3, 5 R then 3 x 5 = 5 x 3
c) Associative Property w.r.t Multiplication: If a, b , c R then (ab)c = a (bc)
For example, 2, 3 , 4 R then (2 x 3) x 4 = 2 x (3 x 4)
d) Multiplicative Identity: If a R then there exist 1 R such that a x 1 = 1 x a = a . Where 1 is
called multiplicative identity.
For example, 3 R, 3 x 1 = 1 x 3 = 1
e) Multiplicative Inverse: For all a R, a 0 then there exist a -1 R such that a x a-1 = a-1 x a =
1 . Where a-1 is called multiplicative inverse of a.
For example, 3 x 1/3 = 1/3 x 3 = 1
Properties of Equality of Real Numbers
1) Reflexive Property: If a R, a = a
2) Symmetric Property: If a, b R, if a = b then b = a
3) Transitive Property: For all a, b, c R, if a = b & b = c then a = c
Properties of Inequality of Real Numbers
1) Trichotomy Property: If a, b R, exactly one of the following is true.
a b or a b or a = b
 2) Transitive Property: For all a, b, c R, if a b &b c then a c
Or, if a b & b c then a c
Base, Exponent and Value
If n is a positive integer, an represents the product of n factors, each of which is a. Thus, a 4 = a.a.a.a
In an, a is called base and n is called exponent or index or power of a.

Laws of Exponents
If a, b R and m, n N, the following laws hold,
1) Multiplication Law of Indicies:
To multiply powers of the same base, keep the base the same and add the exponents. i.e
am . an = a m+n .
For example, 35 . 32 = 3 5+2 = 37

2) Division Law of Indicies:

To divide two expressions with the same base and different exponents, keep the base the same
and subtract the exponents. i.e
= a m - n . Where m n and a 0.

For example, = 4 7-2 = 4 5 & = 5 6-3 = 5 3

3) Power Law of Indicies:

To raise an exponential expression to a power, keep the base the same and multiply the
exponents. i.e
(a m) n = a mn .
For example, (32)3 = 32x3 = 36 & (45)2 = 45x2 = 410

4) Zero Indix:
Any non-zero number is raised to the zero power equals one. i.e
If a 0 , a0 = 1.
For example, 50 = 1 , 20 = 1 , (100)0 = 1
Assignments
Simplify (1) a3 x a5 (2) (a2b) (ab2) (3) (4) ( - 3 a2 b2 )3 (5)
Percent
Percent means out of 100. % is the symbol for percent i.e % = 1/100
Example 39 employees out of 65 use bus as conveynce. Express them as a percentage and find what
percent of total employees use bus.
Solution: First we write it in the form of a fraction,
39 out of 65 =
Now we multiply the fraction by 100 and put the % symbol,
x 100 % = x 100 % = 60 %
60 % of total employees use bus.

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 Assignments
(1) Find 8 % of 25 (2) Find 90 % of 1000 (3) Find 0.5 % of 50 (4) Find 87 % of 200
Example 18 out of 90 boxes in a shop are blue. Express the number of blue boxes as a percentage.
Solution: First we write it in the form of a fraction,
18 out of 90 =
Now we multiply the fraction by 100 and put the % symbol,
x 100 % = x 100 % = 20 %
20 % of total employees use bus.
Assignments
(1) 11 students out of 25 students of a college played cricket. Express this as a percentage.
(2) Out of 180 eggs, 25% are broken. How many eggs are broken.
(3) Aslam donated 12% of his salary as a donation. If his salary is Rs. 45000, find the amount he
donated.
Dimension
Dimension is the measurement of length in one direction.

Note: A point has no dimension. It has only its position. It has no length, width or height. We can
see a combination of points as lines, but on its own a point has no direction.

Definition: A line segment has one dimension and that is its length.
It is made up by a combination of points.

Definition: Two dimension shape has length and width. Square, rectangle, triangle are the examples of two
dimension shapes.

Definition: A solid shape or 3D shape:- 3D shape has three dimensions. The three dimension of a solid
are its length, width and height.
For example, a) cube b) cuboid c) space
Perimeter
Definition: Perimeter of a shape is measured by adding the length of all its sides.
It is always measured in single units i.e. centimeters, meters etc.

Perimeter of Square
A square has a four sided having all sides equal in length and all the angles are right.
Its perimeter can be measured by adding all four sides. If L is the length of a side of the
square, we can write the perimeter as; L

Perimeter of square = L + L + L + L = 4 L L L

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Example: Find the perimeter of a square, if the length of one side is 13 cm.
Solution: Here
Length of one side, L = 13 cm
The perimeter of the square = ?
As we know that
The perimeter of the square = 4 L
= 4 (13 cm)
= 52 cm
So, the perimeter of the square is 52 cm.
Example Find the length of a side of the square, if the perimeter of the square is 40 cm.
Solution: Here
The perimeter of the square = 40 cm
Length of one side, L = ?
As we know that
The perimeter of a square = 4 L
40 cm = 4 L
4 L = 40 cm
L = 40/4 cm
L = 10 cm
So, the length of one side of the square is 10 cm.
Perimeter of a Rectangle
We know that lengths of opposite sides of a rectangle are same. So, its perimeter can be
measured by adding all four sides.
If L is the length of the rectangle and W is its width, we can write the perimeter as;

Perimeter of the rectangle = 2 (L + W)

Example Find the perimeter of the rectangle, if its length is 15 cm and width is 12 cm.
Solution: Here
L = 15 cm
W = 12 cm
The perimeter of the rectangle = ?
As we know that
The perimeter of the rectangle = 2 (L + W)
= 2 (15 cm + 12 cm)
= 2 ( 27 cm)
= 54 cm
So, the perimeter of the rectangle is 54 cm
Example Find the length of a rectangle, if its perimeter is 96 m and its width is 14 m.
Solution: Here
The perimeter of the rectangle = 96 m
W = 14 m
L= ?
As we know that

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 The perimeter of the rectangle = 2 (L + W)
96 m = 2 (L + 14 m )
96/2 m = L + 14 m
48 m = L + 14 m
48 m – 14 m = L
34 m = L
L = 34 m
So, the length of the rectangle is 34 m.
Assignment
1. Find the width of a rectangle park, if the length of the park is 250 m and perimeter is 900 m.
2. Find the length of a square, if its perimeter is 48 m.
3. Find the perimeter of the square whose length are given below:
a) 4 cm b) 7.2 cm c) 10.5 cm d) 6.2 m
Area of a Square
We can find the area of the square by multiplying its length and length.
Area of the square = length  length
= L L
= L2
Example Find the area of the square whose length of one side is 20 m.
Solution: Here
Length of the square, L = 20 m
Area of the square = ?
As we know that
Area of the square = L2
= (20 m )2
= 400 m2
So, the area of the square is 400 m2
Example Find the length of a square, if the area of the square is 144 m 2 .
Solution: Here
Area of the square = 144 m2
As we know that
Area of the square = L2
144 m2 = L2
12 m = L
So, the length of the square is 12 m.
Assignment
1. If the length of the side of a square is 3 m. Find the area of the square.
Area of Rectangle
The total surface covered by the rectangle is called its area. The area of the rectangle is the
product of its length and width.
Area of the rectangle = Length x Width
= LxW

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Example If a length of a rectangle is 20 m and width is 12 m. Find the area of the rectangle.
Solution: Here
Length of the rectangle, L = 20 m
Width of the rectangle, W = 12 m
Area of the rectangle = ?
As we know that
Area of the rectangle = L  W
= 20 m  12 m = 240 m2
So, the area of the rectangle is 240 m2.
Example Find the length of the rectangle, if its area is 4800 m 2 and width is 60 m.
Solution: Here
Area of the rectangle = 4800 m2
Width of the rectangle, W = 60 m
Length of the rectangle, L = ?
As we know that
Area of the rectangle = L  W
4800 m2 = L  60 m
=L
80 m = L
L = 80 m
So, the length of the rectangle is 80 m.
Volume
The amount of space which is a three dimension shape occupies is called its volume, denoted
by V. i.e
Volume of the cube = length  Width  Height
Volume of the cube = length  length  length
V = L L  L
V = L3
Volume of solids is always measured in cubic units.
Example Find the volume of the cube if edge of the cube is 3 m long.
Solution: Here
Length of the cube, L = 3 m
Volume of the cube, V = ?
As we know that
V = L3
V = (3 m)3
V = 27 m 3
So, the volume of the cube is 27 m3.
Note: To find the volume, length, width and height of the cube must be in same unit.

Example Find the volume of cuboid if it is 3 m long, 2 m wide and 4 m high.

Solution: Here
Length of the cuboid, L = 3 m
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 Width of the cuboid, W = 2 m
Height of the cuboid, H = 4 m
Volume of the cuboid, V = ?
As we know that
Volume of the cuboid = length  Width  Height
V=LxWxH
V = 3 m 2 m  4 m
V = 24 m 3
So, the volume of the cuboid is 24 m 3 .
Rate
A rate is a ratio that compares two quantities with different units of measure.
Rates are used almost every day.
For example, unit price of items, speed, service charges etc are often given as rates.
For example, the price of 1 kilogram of sugar is Rs. 90. Here we compare the price in "Rs" with
weight in "kg" (two different units).
Example Rabia covered 6 kilometers in 3 hours. What is her per hour speed?
Solution: In 3 hours = 6 km
1 hour = 6/3 km = 2 km
So, Rabia covered 2 kilometers in one hour.
Assignments
i. The price of 10 kg is Rs. 2200. Find the rate of 1 kg.
ii. The entry ticket for 8 persons in the measure costs Rs. 1760. What is the rate per ticket?
Data
The information collected in the form of numbers, words, figures, facts or any other form is
called data.
For example, population of Peshawar, number of students in BS political science,
All the information we show through, tally charts, pie charts etc is based on data.

Data Collection
The process of collecting information from any source related to problem is known as data
collection.
This information can be anything which we want to know about. For example,
(1) The favorite game of BS 1st semester students.
(2) The numbers of students offering Isha prayer in a local Masjid.
(3) The daily temperature of a city in a week.
Note: Data collection must be done carefully or any mistake data may lead to incorrect results.
Types of Data
There are four basic types of data,
1. Discrete data
2. Continuous data
3. Un-grouped data
4. Grouped data

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1. Discrete data: The value or quantities that are in whole number form are fall
under discrete data. The values in discrete data are countable.
They cannot be subdivided into further parts. For example,
i) The number of students in G.D.C Serai Naurang,
ii) The number of players in cricket match,
iii) The number of fans in a school.
Note: The term “discrete” means distinct or separate.
2. Continuous data: The value that can be presented in fraction or decimal fall under continuous
data.
The value in continuous data are not countable. They can take any value within a range. For
example,
i) The volume of a liquid,
ii) The temperature of a city.
3. Un-grouped data: When data is collected from any source it does not convey to us any
meaningful information to understand. This data is called ungrouped data.
For example, the temperature in ( C ) of a specific city in two weeks is shown below
32 C 31 16 17 C 34 C 26
23 C 33 C 24 C 25 C 35 C 29 C
We can observing that we cannot come to a quick result after observing this data. This data is
called ungrouped data.
4. Grouped data: When collected data from any source is organized in groups to show some
meaning, this data is called grouped data.
For example,
The marks obtained by students out of 75 in math test are given below,

45 32 32 67 45 67 40 45
67 34 32 71 71 67 60 55
55 15 71 67 67 55 18 28
28 67 55 14 29 34 27 40
60 51 51 51 52 51 14 ___

Marks Tally marks Number of students

1-15 ||| 3
16-30 |||| 5
31-45 |||| |||| 10
46-60 |||| |||| | 11
61-75 |||| |||| 10

The maximum marks obtained by the students lies between the groups of 46 – 60.
The minimum marks obtained by the students lies between 1 – 15.

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 Ratio
A term that is used to compare two or more quantities of the same kind is called ratio,
denoted by colon (:)
In general, if a and b are any two quantities of the same kind then a : b is called the ratio
between a and b.
Note:
i. The two quantities must be of the same kind.
ii. Ratio has no unit.
Example The number of girls in a college is 340 and number of boys are 430. Find the ratio of boys
to girls.
Solution:
Number of boys : Number of girls
430 : 340
43 : 34
The ratio of boys to grils is 43:34.
Example In a bus, there are 20 men and 14 women. Find the ratio of men to women.
Solution:
Number of men to Number of women
20 : 14
10 : 7
So, 20 : 14 = 10 : 7.
Continued Ratio
When two ratios x : y and y : z are expressed in the form of x : y : z, the ratio is called a continued
ratio.
A continued ratio is a comparison of three or more quantities in a certain order.
In x : y and y : z, we can see that y is common in both ratios, so we can write it one time. Thus, the
continued ratio will be x : y : z.
We write the continued ratio as
x:y
y:z
x:y:z
Example The ratio of Abbas saving to Asad saving is 5 : 3 while the ratio of Asad saving to Aqib
saving is 1 : 4. Find the continued ratio between their savings.
Solution:
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 Abbas : Asad : Aqib
5 : 3
1 : 4
5 : 3 : 12
So, 5 : 3 : 12 is the required continued ratio.
Example Adnan distributed 87000 rupees among A, B, C. He shared this amount in the following
ratio.
A:B= 4:3 B:C = 2:3. Find the share of each.
Solution:
Total amount = 87000 rupees.
First we find the continued ratio,
A : B : C

4 : 3 :
: 2 : 5

8 : 6 : 15
Sum = 8 + 6 + 15 = 29.
Now

Share of A = x 87000 = 24000 rupees

Share of B= x 87000 = 18000 rupees

Share of C= x 87000 = 45000 rupees

So, the share of A, B, C is 24000 rupees, 18000 rupees and 45000 rupees respectively.

Assignment
i. The measurement of three angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2 : 2 : 5. Find the measure of
each angle.
ii. Divide 7500 into the ratio 4 : 6 : 5.
iii. Divide 3416 among three persons a, b, c such that the ratio between their share is
a : b = 4 : 5 and b : c = 8:10
iv. Divide Rs. 5376 among Ayesha , Sadia and Madiha in the ratio 8 : 7 : 6.

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Proportion
Equality of two ratios is called proportion. We use the double colon (: :) to show equality of ratio.
For any four quantities a, b, c & d, if a : b = c : d then a : b is proportion to c : d i.e a : b : : c : d.
Direct proportion:
Two quantities will be called directly proportional to each other when ,
i. With the increase of one quantity, the other quantity is also increase.
ii. With the decrease of one quantity, the other quantity is also decrease.

Inverse proportion:
Two quantities will be called inverse proportional to each other if,
i. With the increase of one quantity, the other quantity decrease.
ii. With the decrease of one quantity, the other quantity increase.

Example A worker earns Rs. 43000 in 25 days. How much does he earn in 4 days.
Solution: Here the days are directly proportional to the amount earn,
Rupees : Days
43000 : 25
x : 4

Hence, 43000 : 25 :: :4
=
=
= 6880
Hence, the worker will earn Rs 6880 in 4 days.
Assignments
1) 5 men complete a task in 2 days. How many days are required to complete the same task by 1 man?
2) 9 foot balls costs Rs 3500. How much will 4 footballs cost =?
3) What is the missing term in the proportional 8 : 11 : : 16 : ?
Example If 12 men complete the construction of a wall in 6 days, in how many days will 18 men construct
the same wall?
Solution: We know that number of men is inversely proportional to time. So,
Days : Men
6 : 12
: 18
Hence,
= (inverse)
=
= 6 x
= 4
Thus, 18 men will construct the same wall in 4 days.

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Example In a library, 11 persons arranged 319 books. How many persons are required to arrange 725
books in the same time duration?
Solution: Here the number of persons is directly proportional to the number of books arranged,
Parsons : Books arranged
11 : 319
: 725
So,
=
=
= 25
Hence, 25 persons are required to arrange 725 books.
Assignments
1) Find the value of y in the following,
(i) y : 32 : : 8 : 16 (ii) 125 : 15 : : y : 60
2) If 21 : 28, if we change the 1 term of the ratio to 70, what will be the 2nd term?
st

3) A man cleans 1450 clothes in 90 minutes. How many clothes will he wash in 18 more minutes?
4) 14 tube wells can fill a water tank in 45 minutes. If 4 tube wells are out of order, how long will the
remaining tube well take to fill the tank?
Line and Line Segment
A line is a combination of points. We cannot measure the length of a line. It continues in both
directions and does not end.
A line segment is a part of the line. It has two end points. We read it as „AB‟.
Line A Line Segment B

The concept of Geometry is used in various daily life situation such as construction of building
bridges etc. In Geometry, the concept of the line is one of the basic concepts.

Distance Formula
Let P1 ( 1, y1) and P2 ( 2, y2) be two points in the plane. The distance between P 1 ( 1, y1) and P2
( 2, y2) denoted by d (P1, P2) = | P1 P2| is given by the formula,
d (P1, P2) = | P1 P2| = √

Note: Yaqub – Ibn – Ishaq Al-Kindi (801 AD - 873 AD) Muslim Mathematition whose worked on
Geometry, particularly on line.

Important Note
i. The distance is always taken to be position number.
ii. The distance between two points is zero only when the points coincide.
iii. d (P1, P2) = d (P2, P1) or | P1 P2| = | P2 P1| i.e the distance from P1 to P2 is the same as from P2 to
P1.

12
Example Find the distance between points P1 (3, -2) and P2 (-1, -5).
Solution: Here
P1 ( 1, y1) = P1 (3, -2)
P2 ( 2, y2) = P2 (-1, -5)
By the distance formulae,
d (P1, P2) = | P1 P2| = √
=√
=√
=√
=√
=√
=5
Hence, the distance between points P1 (3, -2) and P2 (-1, -5) is 5.
Example Show that the triangle with vertices A (- 2, - 3), B (2, 1) and C (- 2, 5) is a right angled
triangle.
Solution: Here
The vertices of the triangle are A (- 2, - 3), B (2, 1) and C (- 2, 5)
Now
By the distance formula, length of the sides of the triangle are,
|AB| = √
|AB| = √
|AB| = √
|AB| = √
|AB| = √ ,

|BC| = √
|BC| = √
|BC| = √
|BC| = √ &
|AC| = √
|AC| = √
|AC| = √
|AC| = √
|AC| = √
|AC| = 8
Since
+ = 32 + 32 = 64 = i.e we can see that + =
Therefore, the triangle ABC is right angled triangle with right angle at B and |AC| as hypotenuse.

13
 Assignments
1. Find the distance between AB in the following,
i. A ( 3, - 4) and B(- 3, 1)
ii. A ( 4, -3) and B ( - 2, - 5)
iii. A ( - , - 3) and B ( - 1, - )
iv. A (4, - 3) and B (- 1, 9)

2. Use the distance formula to show that the points A (3, 1), B (6, 2) and C (9, 3) are collinear.
3. Find q such that the points A (2, q), B (5, 5) and C (- 6, 0) are vertices of a triangle with right
angle at the vertex A.
Slope of a line
Let be any non-vertical line in the plane.
Let P1 ( 1, y1) and P2 ( 2, y2) be any two distant points on the line as shown in fig.
If we move along from P1 to P2, we move y2 - y1 units in the Y-direction and 2 - 1 units in the X-
direction.
Thus, the slop of the line is define as,
Slope =

Slope is denoted by m,
m = (ratio rise to sum)

Example Find the slope of a line containing points P1 (2, -1) and P2 (- 5, 3).
Solution: Here
P1 (2, -1)
P2 (- 5, 3)
m=?
As we know that the slope is given by,
m =

m=

m=

m=

m= -

Note: If and be two lines with slopes m1 and m2 respectively,

i. and are parallel if m1 = m2.
ii. and are perpendicular if m1m2 = - 1.
iii. Three points A, B and C are collinear if the lines AB and BC has the same slope.

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Example Show that the two lines determined by the following pairs of points are parallel.
(9, 15) , (- 7, 12) and (- 4, 8) , (- 20, 5)
Solution: Let A (9, 15) and B (-7, 12),
Slope of AB, m1 = = =
And
Let C (- 4, 8) and D (- 20, 5),
Slope of CD, m2 = = = =
Since m1 = m2
Therefore, the lines AB and CD are parallel.
Example Show that the two lines determined by the following pairs of points are perpendicular.
A (2, - 3) , B (5, - 4) and C (5, - 4) , D (7, 2)
Solution: Here
A (2, - 3) and B (5, - 4),
Slope of AB, m1 = = = =-
And
C (5, - 4) and D (7, 2),
Slope of CD, m2 = = = =3
Since m1 m2 = ( ) (3) = - 1
Therefore, the lines AB and CD are perpendicular.
Assignments
1) Find k so that the line joining (4, 3) , (- 2, 5) and the line joining (6, k) , (- 3, 7) are (a) parallel
(b) perpendicular.
2) By means of slopes, show that the triangle whose vertices are (- 1, - 2), (2, 0), (- 3, 1) is a right
angled triangle.
X-intercept:
If a line intersects the x-axis at a point a, the point A (a, 0) is called X-intercept of the line.
Y-intercept:
If a line intersects the y-axis at a point B (0, b), the number b is called Y-intercept
of the line.

Derivation of Statement Forms of Equation of Straight Lines.

(a) Slope Intercept Form:
An equation of a non-vertical line with slope m and Y-intercept b is given by,
y=m +b

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Example Find an equation of the line with slope and Y-intercept - 5.
Solution: Here
Slope, m =
Y-intercept, b = - 5
As we know that
y=m +b
y= –5
y+5=
2(y + 5) =
2y + 10 =
– 2y – 10 = 0
Which is the required equation of line.
Point Slop Form: An equation of a non-vertical line with slope m and that passes through the point P( 1,
y1) is given by,
y – y1 = m( – 1)
Example Find an equation of the line with slope and passes through the point (- 4, 3).
Solution: Here
Point, P( 1, y1) = P (- 4, 3)
Slope, m =
As we know that the point slope form is,
y – y1 = m( – 1)
y – 3 = ( – (- 4))
y – 3 = ( + 4)
2 (y – 3) = ( + 4)
2y – 6 = + 4
– 2y + 4 + 6 = 0
– 2y + 10 = 0
Which is the required line equation.
Assignment
 Find the equation of a line passing through (- 2, 3) having slope 2.
Two points form
An equation of a non-vertical line passing through two points P1( 1, y1) and P2( 2, y2) is given by
– –
=
–
Example Find an equation of the line that passes through the points (-1, -2) and (-5, 0).
Solution: Let P1( 1, y1) = (-1, -2)
P2( 2, y2) = (-5, 0)
We know that the two points form is as
– –
=
–
16
 – –
=
–

=
- 4 (y + 2) = 2 ( + 1)
-4y-8=2 +2
2 + 2 + 4y + 8 = 0
2 + 4y + 10 = 0
+ 2y + 5 = 0
Which is the required equation.
Assignment
 Find the equation of the line passing through (0, -2) and (3, 0)
Measurement of Central Tendency
When the data have been arranged into frequency distribution, the information contained in the data
is easily understood. We can also find a single value which will represent all the values of the distribution in
some definite way.
“A central value that represents all the values of a distribution is called an average”.
The most commonly used averages are,
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Median
3. Mode

1. Arithmetic mean
The sum of all values divided by the number of values is called arithmetic mean.
Sum of all values
i.e A.M =
Number of values
If “X” represents the value, “  ” represents the sum, “n” represents the total number of values
“ X ” represents the A.M then we can write,

X =
X
n
Example Find the mean of the following,
2, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Solution: Here
n=5
X =?
As we know that

X=
X
n

17
 25678 28
X = = = 5.6
5 5
X = 5.6
Example The monthly income of five families is Rs 5000, Rs 8200, Rs 9500, Rs 9530 and Rs 10000.
Calculate these mean.
Solution: Here
n=5
X =?
As we know that

X=
X
n
5000  8200  9500  9530  10000
X =
5
X =
X = Rs 8446
Assignments
 Calculate the mean of the following data:
1) 46, 50, 39, 50, 38 2) 108, 115, 138, 190
 The monthly income of 10 employee of a factory is Rs 6000, Rs 65230, Rs 78600, Rs 8000, Rs 9350,
Rs 9680, Rs1030, Rs 1236, Rs 14340 and Rs 15000. Find the average of their monthly income.
2. Median
The median is the value which divide the values into two equal parts arranged either in
ascending or descending order.
To find the median,
i) Arrange the values in ascending order.
ii) If we have odd numbers of values, the median is the middle value.
iii) If we have even numbers of values, the median is the arithmetic mean of the two middle values.
Example Find the median for the following observations,
i) 5, 2, 7, 13, 8, 11, 9 ii) 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14
i) Solution: As 5, 2, 7, 13, 8, 11, 9
Re-arrange
2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13
Here n = 7
 n+1 
Median =   th term
 2 
 7+1 
Median =   th term
 2 
= 4th term
Since 4th term is 8.
Therefore, median is 8.

18
 ii) Solution: As 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14
Here n = 6
Since there are two middle terms 8 and 10, so median is mean value of 8 and 10. i.e
8 + 10 18
Median = = = 9
2 2
Assignments
 Find the median of the following sets of observations:
i) 15, 12, 13, 10, 8
ii) 100, 106, 101, 108, 98, 93
iii) 84, 72, 95, 90, 65, 68, 69, 70
3. Mode
The frequency occurring value (values) in the data denoted by X is called mode.
To find the mode,
i. Calculate the frequencies for all values in the data.
ii. The mode is the value with greatest frequency.

Example Find the mode of the following,

i) 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5 ii) 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 13
i) Solution: As 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5
Here frequency of 5 is 4 which is the greatest frequency.
Hence, Mode, X = 5
ii) Solution: As 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 13
Here frequency of 8 and 11 is 2.
Hence, there are two modes, Mode, X = 8, 11
Assignments
 Find out the mode for each of the following,
i) 7, 8, 8, 13, 15, 15, 16 ii) 100, 120, 120, 120, 120, 150
Circle
The set of points P( , y) are so placed that their distance from a fixed point C (a, b) remain always
the same, the set of points is called a circle.
The constant distance is called the radius and the fixed point is called the centre of the circle.
Note: Radius is denoted by r. d = 2r is called diameter of the circle.

Equation of circle whose center is origion and radius r

Co-ordinate of the origion are C (0, 0). Let P( , y) be any point on the circle, the distance between
center C (0, 0) and P( , y) is r.
d (C, P) = r Where C(0,0) and P( , y)
r= √ (distance formula)
r=√
19
 Or, = + which is the equation of the circle.
Example Find the equation of the circle whose centre is origion and radius is 3 unit.
Solution: Here
C (0, 0)
r=3
Let P( , y) be any point on the circle,
+( = ( )
+ = 9 which is the required equation of circle.
To find equation of a circle whose centre is C (h, k) and radius r
Let C (h, k) be the centre of a circle, r is a radius and P( , y) be any point on the circle, according to
definition of the circle,
r =√
Or ( +( = Which is also the equation of a circle.
Note: If h = k = 0, it becomes + = .
Example Find the equation of a circle whose centre is C(- 2, 3) and radius is 5 unit.
Solution: Here
C (- 2, 3)
r=5
Let P( , y) be any point on the circle,
|PC| = 5 = r
Hence, ( +( =
( +( =(
+ 4 +4 + + 9 - 6y = 25
+ +4 - 6y + 13 = 25
+ +4 - 6y + 13 – 25 = 0
+ +4 - 6y – 12 = 0
Which is required equation of the circle.
General Form of a Circle
We know that the equation of a circle of centre C (h, k) and radius r is,
( =
+ 2 h+ + 2ky=
+ –2 h–2ky+ + = 0 ---------- (1)
Put =c , -h=g & -k =f
So, equation (1) becomes
+ +2g +2fy+c=0
Which is called general equation of a circle with C (- g , - f ) and radius r = √
Important Properties of the Equation of the Circle
 There is no term containing y.
 Co-efficient of = co-efficient of
 The equation of the circle is a 2nd degree equation in and y.

20
 Assignments
 Find the equation of the following circles whose centres and radii are given.
i. Centre, C(0, 0) and radius, r = 4
ii. Centre, C (3, 2) and r =1
iii. Centre, C (- 4, 3) and r=4
iv. Centre, C (- 2 , - 2) and r=2
 Find the equation of the circle whose centre C (0,0) and which contains the point (1,2).
 Find the equation of the circle whose centre is (8, 6) and which contains the origion.
 Show that the points A (1 , 1) , B(2 , - 1) and C (3 , - 2) lie on the circle, + - 13 - 5y + 16 = 0
Example: Find the centre and radius of the circle, + + 2 - 9y – 12 = 0
Solution: The given circle equation is,
+ + 2 - 9y – 12 = 0 ---------------- (1)
And the general equation of the circle is,
+ + 2 g + 2 f y + c = 0 ----------------(2)
Comparing eq (1) and eq (2), we get
2g= 2 2 f = -9 c = - 12
g=1 f = -9/2
So,
Centre, C (- g , - f) = C (-1, 9/2) and r = √
r = √

r = √

r =√

r =√

Example: Find the centre and radius of the circle, + +3 +6y–5=0

Solution: The given circle equation is,
+ + 3 + 6 y – 5 = 0 ---------------- (1)
And the general equation of the circle is,
+ + 2 g + 2 f y + c = 0 ----------------(2)
Comparing eq (1) and eq (2), we get
2g= 3 2f= 6 c= -5
g = 3/2 f=3
So,
Centre, C (- g , - f) = C (- 3/2 , - 3) and r = √
r = √

r = √

r = √

r = √

21
 r =√ or r =√ /2

Zohan Conceptual and Easy Notes of Maths for BS Classes

Written by Prof: Dil Jan and Composed by Abdul Qudus Lecturer in Phyisics
GDC Serai Naurang (Lakki Marwat)

22
 Algebraic Expressions
When variable and constants are connected by the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, root extraction, the result is expression so obtained is called an algebraic
expression.
For example
3x2 + 5x - 7, √ + where x > 0
√
4x + 3y + , z 0 x2 - 4xy + 6 are all algebraic equation
Polynomial:- An expression of the form
anxn+an-1 xn-1 + an-2 xn-2 + ............................ a1x+a0, an 0
Where n is a non-negative integer, x is a variable and the co-efficient an ,an-1 ,...........a1,a0
are real numbers, is called the polynomial is called the degree of the polynomial.
2x+3, 3x2+5 and 5x3+6x2+3x+8 are of degree one, two, three respectively.
Important Note: Every polynomial is a rational expression but every rational expression need not be a
polynomial.
For example 2x2 + 7x + , x 0 is obviously an algebraic expression but it is not a polynomial.
________________________________________________________________________
Add the following
(i) and (ii) and (iii) and
(iv) and
Solution:
(i) +
= =
( ) ( )
(ii) + = ( )(
= =
)
please try yourself to solve III & IV

Factorization
Example: Factorize
a2-ab-3a+3b
Solution: Here a2-ab-3a+3b
= (a2 - ab) + (-3a + 3b)
= a(a - b) - 3 (a - b)
= (a - b) (a - 3)
Assignment
Factorize the following
(i) ax-a-x+1 (ii) x2-2y3-2xy2+xy
Example: Factorize
x2-16
Solution: We have given that
x2-16
= (x)2 - (4)2 Note: a2-b2=(a+b) (a-4)
= (x+4) (x-4)
Assignment
Factorize the following
(i) 9a2-25 (ii) 6x4-6y4 (iii) -
Example: Factorize
a +4ab+4b2-c2
2

Solution: Here a2+4ab+4b2-c2

= (a)2+2(a) (2b)+(2b)2-c2
= (a+2b)2-c2
= (a+2b+c) (a+2b-c)
 Assignment
Factorize the following.
(i) a2-b2+2b-1 (ii) 1+2ab-a2-b2
4 4
Example: Factorize a +4b
Solution: We have a4+4b4 adding and subtract is 4a2b2
we get
a4+4b4+4a2b2-4a2b2
= (a2)2+(2b2)2+2(a2) (2b2)-(2ab)2
= (a2+2b2)2 - (2ab)2
= (a2+2b2+2ab) (a2+2b2-2ab)
Example: Factorize a4+a2b2+b4
Solution: a +a b +b4
4 2 2

= Adding & Subtract is a2b2

we get
a4+a2b2+b4+a2b2-a2b2
= a4+b4+2a2b2-a2b2
= (a2+b2)2-(ab)2
= (a2+b2+ab) (a2+b2-ab)
Example: Factorize
4 2
x -7x +1
Solution: Here x4-7x2+1 Add & Subtract x
x +1-7x2
4

Add & Subtract is 2x2

x4+1+2x2-7x2-2x2
= (x2+1)2-9x2
= (x2+1)2-(3x)2
= (x2+1+3x) (x2+1-3x)
Assignment
Factorize:
(i) x4+ --7 (ii) x8+x4+1 (iii) x4+x2+1
Example: Factorize
2x2-7x-4
Solution: Here 2x2-7x-4
= 2x2-8x+x-4
= 2x(x-4)+1(x-4)
= (x-4) (2x+1)
Example: Factorize x2-7x+12
Solution: Here x2-7x+12
2
= x -4x-3x+12
= x(x-4)-3(x-4)
= (x-4) (x-3)
Assignment
Factorize
(i) 2+5x-12x2 (ii) 4x2+8x+3 (iii) 6x3-15x2-9x iv) 2xy2+8xy-24x

Example: Factorize (x2+7x+10) (x2+7x+12)+1

Solution: Here (x2+7x+10) (x2+7x+12)+1
2
Let x +7x=y, then we have (y+10) (y+12)+1
= y2+12y+10y+120+1
= y2+22y+121
= y2+11y+11y+121
= Y(y+11) (y+11)
= (y+11) (y+11)
Put the value of y
(x2+7x+11) (x2+7x+11)
Assignment
Factorize
(i) (3x2+11x+2) (3x2+11x+3)-12 (ii) (4x2-16x+7) (4x2-16x+15)+16
Mathematics Notes
Permutation, Combination and Probability:
Introduction:
Since counting plays a major role in many diverse areas, such as probability, statistics
and computer science.
Now we develop techniques and formulas for counting the number of objects in a set.
These formulas are used in computer science to analyze algorithms. They are also
used to determine probabilities, the likelihood that a certain outcome of a random
experiment will occur.
Factorial of a Natural Number:
The factorial sequence can be defined inductively as:
( )( )( )
For example if we have
( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )

We can write Important Note:

( )
( )( ) Prove that
( )( )( ) Proof:
For example: As we know that
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 )
Put 𝑛 both side
( )
And so on. Proof Complete:

Example: Evaluate the following.

(i). (ii). (iii).
Solution:
(i).

(ii).

(iii).

1
Mathematics Notes
Example: Evaluate the following.
( )
(i). )ii). (iii). ( )
(iv). ( )

Solution:
(i).

(ii).

( )
(iii). ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )

(iv). ( )

( )

Example: prove that

L.H.S

Example: Write the following in terms of factorial.

( )( )
(i). 18.17.16.15.14 (ii). ( ) (iii).

2
Mathematics Notes
Solution:
(i). 18.17.16.15.14
Multiplying & dividing by we get

(ii). ( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )( )
Multiplying & dividing by ( ) we get
( )( )( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
(iii).
( )( ) ( )( )( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )
Example: Prove that ( )
.
( )
Solution: L.H.S ( )

( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )
( ) ( )

Example: Find the value of n when.

( ) ( ) ( )
(i). ( ) ( )
(ii). ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Solution: (i). ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )

3
Mathematics Notes
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )

( )
(ii). ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

( )
( )
( )

Permutation:
An order arrangement of finite number of elements taken some or all at a time is
called permutation.

We use the notation symbol to denote the number of permutation of n elements

taken r at a time, where r is positive integer such that 𝑛

𝑛
Note: 𝑃 (𝑛 𝑟 )
𝑟
Evaluate (i). (ii). (iii).

(iv). (v).

Solution: (i).

4
Mathematics Notes

( )

(ii).

( )

(iii).

( )

(iv).

Here as which is not possible.

(v).

( )

Assignment:

Evaluate (i). (ii). (iii).

(iv).

5
 Mathematics Notes

Solution: (i).

( ) ( )

(ii).

( )

(iii).

( )

(iv).

( )

Example: Solve for n.

(i). ( ) (ii). ( ) (iii).

Solution: (i). ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )( )( )

( )( )
( )( )

6
Mathematics Notes

( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )

So which is required.

(ii). ( )

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Hence which is required.

(iii).

( )
( )( )( )
( )
( )( )

( ) ( )
( )( )

7
Mathematics Notes

Hence which is required.

Example: How many different words can be made out of the letters of the word
“Triangle”.
Solution: There are 8 different letters in the word “Triangle”. Therefore the number

of different words ( )

Example: In how many ways can a police department arrange eight suspects in
a line up.
Solution: The total number of suspects are eight so
So, the total number of arrangements are

( )

Probability:
Probability originated in problems related to games of chance and was developed
mathematically by Pascal (1623-1662) and Permit (1601-1665). Today probability has
grown far be yond the areas of games of chance and has applications in genetics,
insurance, physics, social science, engineering and medicine.
Before defining probability, we define and explain certain forms which are used
in its definition:
Statistical experiment:
Intuitively by an experiment one picture a procedure being carried out under a certain
set of conditions. The procedure can be repeated any numbers of times under the same
set of conditions and upon completion of the procedure certain results are observed.
The experiments are of two types.
(i). Deterministic experiment (ii). Random experiment
(i). Deterministic experiment:
An experiment is deterministic if given the conditions under which the experiment is
carried out, the outcome is completely determined.
For Example if pure water is brought to a temperature of and 760mm Hg of
atmospheric pressure the outcome is that the water will boil.
(ii). Random experiment:
An experiment for which the outcome cannot be predicted except that it is known to
be one of a set of possible outcomes, is called a random experiment.
For example (i). Tossing a coin (ii). Rolling a die.
In probability we use only random experiment.

8
Mathematics Notes
Sample Space:
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called a sample space and
is denoted by S.
For example (i). Tossing a coin, then * +
(ii). Rolling a die, then * +
Event:
Let S be the sample space of an experiment. Any subset E of S is called an event
associated with the experiment.
For example:
Let * + be the sample space of rolling a die.
The * + is an event of S.
Definition:
Let S be the sample space of an experiment and E be an event. The probability that an
event E will occur, denoted by P(E) is given by.
( )
( )
( )
Since E is the subset of S, then obviously
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Hence the probability of an event is always a number from 0 to 1.
Example: It a coin is flipped, find the probability that a head will turn up.
Solution:
Here * + ( )
Let A be the event that head will turn up
Then * + ( )
( )
( )
( )

Example: It a fair die is tossed, find the probability that an even number has
shown up.
Solution:
Here * + ( )
Let A be the event to show even number
* + ( )

9
Mathematics Notes
( )
Now ( ) ( )

Example: In a three child family what is the probability of having (i). Three
boys (ii). At most one boy (iii). At least one boy (iv). Exactly one boy.
Solution:
Here sample space is:
* +
( )
(i). Let A be the event having three boys
* + ( )
( )
Then ( ) ( )

(ii). Let B be the event that has at most one boy

* + ( )
( )
Thus ( ) ( )

(iii). Let C be the event that at least one boy.

* +
( )
( )
The ( ) ( )

(iv). Let D be the event exactly one boy.

* + ( )
( )
( )
( )

( )

Example: Let * + be the sample space of rolling a die what is

the probability of (a). rolling a 5. (b). rolling a number less than 1.
(c). rolling a number greater than 0. (d). rolling a number greater
than or equal to 4.
Solution: Here * + ( )
(a). Let A be the event rolling a 5.

10
Mathematics Notes
Then * + ( )
( )
( )
( )
(b). Let be the event rolling a number less than 1, then *+ ( )
( )
( )
( )
(c). Let C be the event rolling a number greater then 0, then * + ( )
( )
( )
( )
(d). Let D be the event which rolling a number greater than or equal to 4; then
* +
( )
( )
( )
Example: Give the sample space of rolling a pair of dice. (a). what is the
probability of
(i). rolling a total of 7. (ii). Rolling a total of 11.
Solution: Here ( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
S=
( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
(S)=36
(i) rolling a total of 7.
Let A be the event rolling total of 7.
={( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), ( )+
( )
( )
Thus ( ) ( )
(ii) Let B be the event that rolling total of 11.
Then *( ) ( )+
( )
( )
( )
( )
Example: A golf ball is selected at random from a container if the container has
9 white 8 green and 3 orange balls. Find the probability that golf ball
is: (i). white (ii). Green (iii). White or green (iv). Not white.
Solution: here
(i) Let a be the event that white ball is selected the ( )
( )
Thus ( ) ( )
( )
(ii) Let B be the event that green ball is selected the ( ) ( )

11
Mathematics Notes
(iii) Let C be the event that white or green ball is selected. The ( )

( )
( )
( )
(iv) Let D be the event that not a white ball is selected ( )
( )
( )
( )
Example: A committee of 5 is to be selected at random from 6 men and 4
women. Find the probability that the committee will consists of (i). 3
Men and 2 Women. (ii). 2 man and 3 women.
Solution: Total number of person 6+4=10
Total numbers of ways to select 5 out of these 10 are

( )

Thus ( )
(i) 3 men and 2 women
By multiplication principle the total number of ways, selecting 3 men and 2 women
are:

( ) ( )

Hence the probability of getting 3 men and 2 women in committee is

(ii) 2 men and 3 women

By multiplication principal the total number of ways, selects 2 men and 3 women are

( ) ( )

Hence the probability of getting 2 men and 3 women committing is

Laws of Probability:
Theorem:
If A and B are any two events in a sample space S, then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Proof: From the Venn diagram it is obvious that.

12
Mathematics Notes

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
And ( ) has been subtracted simply because it has been considered twice.
Now by definition we have
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) Note: If A and B are mutually exclusive
( ) events then 𝑃(𝐴 𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴) 𝑃(𝐵)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Example: One integer is choose at random from the number what

is the probability that the choose number is divisible by or
Solution: Here * + ( )
Let * +
* + ( )
Let * +
* + ( )
Now * + ( )
( )
Now ( ) ( )

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

13
Mathematics Notes
Example: If two dice are rolled find the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11.
Solution: Here ( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
S= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( )( )
( )
Let * +
*( )( )( )( )( )( )+ ( )
* +
*( )( )+ ( )
The * + ( )
( )
Now ( ) ( )

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Complementary Events:
Suppose we divide a sample space S into two subsets (Events) E and ́ , such that
(i). ́ (ii). ́

The ́ is called the complement of E relative to S while E and ́ are called

complimentary events.
Theorem: If E and ́ are complementary events
The ́ and ́ Note: (i) The probability of
sample space is 1.
The ( ́) ( ) (ii) The probability of empty set
( ) ( ́) ( ́) is zero.

( ) ( ́)
( ́) ( ). Which is required.

14
 Mathematics Notes
Example: A coin is tossed 6 times in succession what is the probability that at least
one head occurs.
Solution: Tossing a coin 6 times in succession we have ( )
Let * +
The ́ * +

The ( ́ )

( ) ( ́)

Assignment:
1. A student figure that probability of passing an algebra test is . What is the
probability of failing the test.
2. Suppose Events A and B are such that ( ) ( ) ( )
Find ( )
3. If ( ) ( ) ( ) .
Find ( )
4. A sample space
( ) ( ) . Find ( )
5. Give ( ) ( )
Find ( ) if and are mutually exclusive.
6. A bag contains 30 tickets numbered from 1 to 30 one ticket is reelected at
random. Find the probability that its number is either odd or the square of an
integer.
7. PIA is playing a football match against Railway. It the probability that PIA will is
and the probability that reliably will win is Find the probability that the
match will be draw.
8. A coin is tossed 3 times in succession what is the probability that at least one head
Occurs.

Solution: (i) A student figure that probability of passing an algebra test is .

What is the probability of failing the test.

Let ( )
Probability of failing a study.
( )

15
Mathematics Notes

Solution: (ii). Suppose Events A and B are such that ( ) ( )

( ) Find ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( )

( )

( )

( )
Solution: (iii). If ( ) ( ) ( ) .
Find ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

16
Mathematics Notes

Combination:
Let S be a set contains n element and suppose r is a positive integer such that
Than any subset of S contains r distinct element is called combination of n elements
taken r at a time.
The notation, we use for the number of combinations of n elements taken r at a time.

Is or ( ) ( )

For example, suppose * + now the subsets of S taken three elements at a

time are:
* +* +* +* +
𝐶
Therefor ( )

Further the distinction between permutation and combination is that changing the
order of a set of elements gives a different permutation but the same combination.
In combination we have the following results.

(i). (ii). (iii).

(iv). (v).

Solve for n the following.

(i). (ii). (iii).

Solution: (i).

( )
( )( )
( )
( )

( ) ( )

17
Mathematics Notes
( )( )

as n will be
Hence

(ii).

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )

( ) ( )

So

(iii).

( ) ( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )

( )
( )

18
Mathematics Notes

( ) ( )
( )( )

So

Example: Find n and r if

Solution: Here

( )
() ( )
( )

Dividing ( ) by ( ) we get.

( ) ( )

( )
𝑎𝑠
( )

Put in ( ) we get.

( )
( )( )( )( )
( )
( )( )( )

Because ( )( )( )( )

19
Mathematics Notes

Example: Find

Solution:

( ) ( )
( )( )( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )

( )( ) ( )
( )
( )

Assignment:
Example: From 12 books in how many ways can be a selection of 5 be made;
(i). When one specified book is always included.
(ii). When one specified book is always excluded.

Example: A company has seven senior and five junior offices. In how many ways
can a four-officer committee be formed so that it is composed of:
(i). any four officers.
(ii). Four senior officers.
(iii). Three senior officer and one junior officer.
(iv). Two senior and two junior officer.

20
Mathematics Notes
Inverse Function:
Let be a one-to-one function and onto. Then for each element in the domain
of and for each element in the domain of in this case the correspondence.
is also a function which is called an inverse function of
Example: If ( ) find ( )
Solution: Given that ( ) we have required ( )
Let ( ) ( ) ()
Hence

()

( )

Replace by we get ( )

Example: If ( ) find ( )
Solution: Given that ( ) ___________ (i)
We have to find ( )
Let ( ) ( )________________ (ii)
Hence (i) be comes

Put in (ii) we get

( )

Replace by

( )

21
Mathematics Notes
Assignment:
Find the inverse of the following functions:
(i). ( )

(ii). ( )

(iii). ( )
Graph of Linear Function:
Note: Graph of linear function is always a straight line.
Example: Sketch the graph of the function ( )
Solution: For graph we will give value to and the
value of ( ) will become as:

Plotting the points ( )( )( )( )( ) in the

Cartesian plane and joing then, we get a straight line.

Example: Sketch the graph of ( )

Solution: We have ( )
So we have:

So we plot ( )( )( )( ) and ( ) in Cartesian plan and join

then to become a straight line.
Assignment:
Draw the graph of ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

22
Mathematics Notes
Composite Function:
If g is a function with domain x and range y, and f is a function with a domain contain
y and range Z. Then the composition of f and g denoted by fog or by f(g) is defined on
domain x and given by ( ) ( ( )).
Example: If ( ) ( )
Find ( ) ( )
Solution: Given that ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Example: If ( ) ( )
Find and .
Solution: Here ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Example: If ( ) find
Solution: Here ( ) Note: 𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝑓 and 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑓

( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( )

Assigment:
(i). If ( ) and ( ) find and
(ii). If ( ) and ( ) find and

23
Mathematics Notes
Set:
The collection of well defined distinct objects is called a set

For example (i) The set of days of a week.

(ii) The set of vowels in English alphabets.

Sets are generally denoted by capital letters of English alphabets A, B, C, ……….Z. the object of a
set are called elements of a set and denoted by small letters a, b, c, ………… z.

Operation on sets

(a) Union of two sets: If A and B are two sets then union of set A and set B consists of all
elements in set A or in set B or in both A and B. and it is denoted by A  B

Example: A = {1, 2, 3}  B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then A  B = {1, 2, 3}  {3, 4, 5, 6}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

(b) Intersection of two sets: if A and B are two sets then intersection of set A and set B
consists of all those elements which are common to both A and B and it is denoted by A  B .

For example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, then A  B = {3, 4}

(c). Disjoint sets: Two sets A and B are disjoint if A  B  

For example: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5}

Clearly A  B  { }. Hence A and B are disjoint.

(d). Difference of two sets: If A and B are two sets then their difference consists of all
those elements of A which are not in B and it is denoted by A/B or A – B.

For example: A = {5, 6, 7, 8}, B = {7, 8, 9, 10},

Then A – B = {5, 6}, B – A = {9, 10}

(e). Complement of a sets: If U is a universal set and A is a subset of U then U  A is

called complement of the set A and it is denoted by Ac .

Example: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {1, 2, 3}

The Ac = U –A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} - {1, 2, 3}

Ac = {4, 5, 6}

Example: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2} show that

(i) ( Ac )c = A (ii) A  Ac   (iii) A  Ac  

24
Mathematics Notes
1. A  U  A  {1, 2,3, 4}  {1, 2}  {3, 4}
c

( Ac )c  U  Ac  {1, 2,3, 4}  {3, 4}  {1, 2}  A

c c
Hence ( A ) =A

2. A  A  {1, 2}  {3, 4}  {1, 2,3, 4}  

c

3. A  A  {1, 2}  {3, 4}  
c

De- Morgan’s laws.

If U is universal set and A and B ar any Two subsets of U then (i)  A  B   A  B

(ii).  A  B   A  B

Example: if   {1, 2,3,......10}

A  {2, 4, 6,8,10}, B  {1,3,5, 7,9}

Verify De- Morgan’s Laws

Solution: We know that De- Morgan’s Law as ( A  B)  A  B

So L.H.S ( A  B)

A  B  {2, 4, 6,8,10} {1,3,5, 7,9}  {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9,10}

 A  B     ( A  B)  {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8,9,10}  {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8,9,10}

 A  B    _______________ (1)

R.H.S A  B
A    A  {1, 2,3........10}  {2, 4,6,8,10}  {1,3,5,7,9}

B    B  {1, 2,3........10}  {1,3,5,7,9}  {2, 4,6,8,10}

A  B  {1,3,5, 7,9} {2, 4, 6,8,10}   ___________ (2)

Hence From 1 and 2 we get

 A  B   A  B Note: Try your self to prove that

25
Mathematics Notes
Ordered Paris and Cartesian product

(a, b) is called ordered pair of two elements a and b of a set a or of different sets.

Note: (a, b)  (b, a)

Cartesian product: If A and B are two non-empty sets, Than A ×B is called Cartesian
product, which is set of all ordered pairs such that the 1st element of each ordered pair
belongs to set A and 2nd element of each ordered pair belongs to set B.

Symbolically we write as A × B = {(x , y) / x ϵ A ^ y ϵ B}

Note: If A ≠ B then A × B ≠ B × A

Note: If a set A has m elements and a set B has n elements then number of elements in
A × B is m × n

Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}, find A × B

Solution: A × B = {1, 2, 3} × {a, b}

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} Please try yourself to find B × A.

Binary Relation

If A and B are any two non empty sets then any subset of A × B is called binary
relation.
Example: If A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b} then A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}
Then R1 = {(1, a), (2, a)} is a binary relation.
Domain and range of binary relation if R is a binary relation from a set A to a set B
then 1st element of ordered pair is called domain and the 2nd element of ordered pair
called range.
For example if R1 ={(1, a), (2, a)}is a relation, then
Domain of R1 = {1, 2}
Range of R1 = {a}

Functions:

Let A and B are two non empty sets. Then a binary relation f is said to be a function
from A to B if

(i) Domain f = A

26
Mathematics Notes
(ii) There should be no repetition in domain symbolically f : A B i.e. f is
a function from A to B.

Functions:

A function from a set A to a set B is a rule or correspondence that assigns to each

element a in A to unique element b in B.

Symbolically f : A B

Example: Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {1, 2, 3}. State whether or not the rules indicated
by the following figures are function from A to B.

A f B A f B A f B

a 1 a 1 a 1

b 2 b 2 b 2

c 3 c 3 c 3

Solution: (a) The figure (a) does not define a function because the element C of
the set A has not been assigned any element of B i.e. Domain = {a, b} ≠ A.

(b) The figure (b) does not define a function because the element b of A has been
assigned two elements i.e. there is repetition in domain.

(c) The figure (c) is a function because every element of A has been assigned a
unique element to B.

Example: f (x) = 2x – 1 find (i) f (3), (ii) f (0), (iii) f (- 4)

Solution: As f (x) = 2x -1 So f(3) = 2 (3) – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5

(ii) F (0) = 2 (0) – 1 = 0 – 1

(iii) F (- 4) = 2 ( - 4) – 1 = - 8 – 1 = - 9

Kinds of Function

One-to-one Function

A function f: X Y is said to be one-to-one if distinct element of X has distinct

images in Y

27
Mathematics Notes
For Example:

Let X = {1,2,3}, Y= {a,b,c,d}

X f Y

1 a
2 b
3 c
d
The above figure represent Function which is one-to-one.
Onto Function

A Function f: X Y is said to be onto if each element if Y is the image of some

element in X (i.e The range of is the whole set y)

Let X ={1,2,3}, Y= {a,b}

f y

1 a
2
3 b

The above figure represent a function which is onto because Range = {a, b} = Y
Bijective Function

A function which is both one- to-one and onto is called bisective function.

Let x= {1,2,3}, Y= {a,b,c}

X f y

1 a
2 b
3 c

The above figure represents a function which is bisective.

Into Function

A function is nether onto nor one-to-one called into function

Let x = {1, 2, 3}, Y= {a, b, c} then

X f y

28
Mathematics Notes

1 a
2
3 b
c

The figure represent a function which is into function.

Assignment

Let X= {1,2,3,4}, Y ={ 5,6,7,8} Then write ,

i. A function from x to y.
ii. A one-one Function from x to y which is not onto.
iii. A function is onto but not one –one
iv. A function which is neither one- one nor onto from x to y.

Example: Given that f(x) x3  ax2  bx  1

If f (2) = -2 and f(-1) = o Find the value of a and b.

Solution: f (x) = x3  ax2  bx  1

f (2) = (2)3  a(2)2  b(2)  1
f (2) = 8 -4a+2b+1
f (2) = 9 -4a+2b Put f (2) = -3 we get
-3 = 9-4a+2b
-3 -9 = -4a+2b
-12 = -4a +2b
÷ both sides by -2
6 = 2a –b ________ (1)
Also f (-1) = ( 1)3 a(1) 2 +6( -1) + 1
f ( -1) =  1 -a-b  1 put f ( -1) = 0

0 = -a-b ______________ (2)

Subtracting (2) from (1) we get

2a –b = 6
-a –b = 0 ASSIGNMENT
+ + -
_________
3a=6 a =2 If f (x) =

Put a = 2 in (1) we get Find (i) f (3) (ii) f (2)

(iii) f (9) (iv) f (10)

29
Mathematics Notes
6 = 2(2) –b
6 =4 –b -b = 6 -4
-6 = 2
B= -2
Hence a =2, b = -2 which is required.
f ( x)  f (2)
Example: if f(x) = 7x +3 find
x2
Solution: Given that f(x) = 7x + 3
f(2) = 7(2) + 3 = 14 + 3 = 17
f ( x)  f (2) 7 x  3  17
Now 
x2 x2
7 x  14 ( x  2)
 7  7ans
x2 x2

Example: Given that f ( x)  2 x3  ax 2  4 x  5

If f(2) = 3 find the value of a
f ( x )  2 x 3  ax 2  4 x  5
Solution:
f (2)  2(2)3  a (2)  4(2) 2  5

f(2) = 16 + 4a + 8 – 5
f(2) = 4a + 19
put f(2) = 3 we get
3 = 4a + 19
3 – 19 = 4a
- 16 = 4a
16
 a
4
- 4=a
Hence a = - 4 which is required.

𝜸
Area of a Triangle:
Let ABC is a triangle with usual notation as shown in fig:
Let a,b,c be the side of a triangle.
𝜶 𝜷
Suppose ( ) be the half perimeter of
triangle.
The by hero formula the area of a triangle is

30
Mathematics Notes
√ ( )( )( )
Where a,b,c be the sides of a triangle while ( ) is a half perimeter.
Example: Find the area of a triangle having sides of 43ft, 89ft, and 120ft,
Solution: Here

( ) ( )

√ ( )( )( ) √ ( )( )( )

Example: Find the area of a triangle whose sides are

Solution: Here

( ) ( )

√ ( )( )( ) √ ( )( )( )

√ ( )( )( ) √

Example: Find the area of triangular region with the length of its sides are

Solution: Here

( ) ( )

√ ( )( )( ) √ ( )( )( )

√ √

Assignment:
Find the area of a triangle whose sides are given below.
(i). (ii).
(iii). (iv). 101.

31