Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly
computer systems. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and
software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take
actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.[1] Such machines may be called AIs.

High-profile applications of AI include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search);
recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix); virtual assistants (e.g., Google
Assistant, Siri, and Alexa); autonomous vehicles (e.g., Waymo); generative and creative tools (e.g.,
ChatGPT and AI art); and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (e.g., chess and Go). However,
many AI applications are not perceived as AI: "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general
applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common
enough it's not labeled AI anymore."[2][3]

Various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The
traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural
language processing, perception, and support for robotics.[a] General intelligence—the ability to complete
any task performed by a human on an at least equal level—is among the field's long-term goals.[4] To
reach these goals, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of techniques, including
search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on
statistics, operations research, and economics.[b] AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy,
neuroscience, and other fields.[5]

Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956,[6] and the field went through
multiple cycles of optimism throughout its history,[7][8] followed by periods of disappointment and loss of
funding, known as AI winters.[9][10] Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning
outperformed previous AI techniques.[11] This growth accelerated further after 2017 with the transformer
architecture,[12] and by the early 2020s many billions of dollars were being invested in AI and the field
experienced rapid ongoing progress in what has become known as the AI boom. The emergence of
advanced generative AI in the midst of the AI boom and its ability to create and modify content exposed
several unintended consequences and harms in the present and raised concerns about the risks of AI and
its long-term effects in the future, prompting discussions about regulatory policies to ensure the safety
and benefits of the technology.

Goals
The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into subproblems. These
consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits
described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.[a]
Reasoning and problem-solving
Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they
solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[13] By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for
dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and
economics.[14]

Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a
"combinatorial explosion": They become exponentially slower as the problems grow.[15] Even humans
rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their
problems using fast, intuitive judgments.[16] Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.

Knowledge representation
Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering[17]
allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and
make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge
representations are used in content-based indexing and
retrieval,[18] scene interpretation,[19] clinical decision
support,[20] knowledge discovery (mining "interesting" and
actionable inferences from large databases),[21] and other
areas.[22]

A knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a

form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set
of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a
particular domain of knowledge.[23] Knowledge bases need
to represent things such as objects, properties, categories, An ontology represents knowledge as a set
of concepts within a domain and the
and relations between objects;[24] situations, events, states,
relationships between those concepts.
and time;[25] causes and effects;[26] knowledge about
knowledge (what we know about what other people
know);[27] default reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will
remain true even when other facts are changing);[28] and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.

Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are the breadth of commonsense
knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);[29] and the sub-symbolic
form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as "facts" or
"statements" that they could express verbally).[16] There is also the difficulty of knowledge acquisition,
the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.[c]

Planning and decision-making

An "agent" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or
preferences and takes actions to make them happen.[d][32] In automated planning, the agent has a specific
goal.[33] In automated decision-making, the agent has preferences—there are some situations it would
prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision-making agent assigns a number to
each situation (called the "utility") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action,
it can calculate the "expected utility": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the
probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected
utility.[34]

In classical planning, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.[35] In most real-world
problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is "unknown" or
"unobservable") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not
"deterministic"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation
to see if the action worked.[36]

In some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or
humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning), or the agent can seek
information to improve its preferences.[37] Information value theory can be used to weigh the value of
exploratory or experimental actions.[38] The space of possible future actions and situations is typically
intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain of what the
outcome will be.

A Markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action
will change the state in a particular way and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and
the cost of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be
calculated (e.g., by iteration), be heuristic, or it can be learned.[39]

Game theory describes the rational behavior of multiple interacting agents and is used in AI programs that
make decisions that involve other agents.[40]

Learning
Machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task
automatically.[41] It has been a part of AI from the beginning.[e]

There are several kinds of machine learning.

Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and
finds patterns and makes predictions without any other
guidance.[44] Supervised learning requires labeling the
training data with the expected answers, and comes in
two main varieties: classification (where the program
must learn to predict what category the input belongs
in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).[45]

In reinforcement learning, the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent
learns to choose responses that are classified as "good".[46] Transfer learning is when the knowledge
gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.[47] Deep learning is a type of machine learning
that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of
learning.[48]

Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity
(how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[49]
Natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP)[50] allows programs to read, write and communicate in human
languages such as English. Specific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine
translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.[51]

Early work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar and semantic networks, had difficulty with
word-sense disambiguation[f] unless restricted to small domains called "micro-worlds" (due to the
common sense knowledge problem[29]). Margaret Masterman believed that it was meaning and not
grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that thesauri and not dictionaries should be the
basis of computational language structure.

Modern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as
vectors encoding their meaning),[52] transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention
mechanism),[53] and others.[54] In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or "GPT") language models
began to generate coherent text,[55][56] and by 2023, these models were able to get human-level scores on
the bar exam, SAT test, GRE test, and many other real-world applications.[57]

Perception
Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless
signals, active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is
the ability to analyze visual input.[58]

The field includes speech recognition,[59] image classification,[60] facial recognition, object
recognition,[61]object tracking,[62] and robotic perception.[63]

Social intelligence
Affective computing is a field that comprises systems that
recognize, interpret, process, or simulate human feeling, emotion,
and mood.[65] For example, some virtual assistants are
programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter
humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional
dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–
computer interaction.
Kismet, a robot head which was
However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception made in the 1990s; it is a machine
of the intelligence of existing computer agents.[66] Moderate that can recognize and simulate
successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment emotions.[64]
analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis,
wherein AI classifies the effects displayed by a videotaped
subject.[67]

General intelligence
A machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with
breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.[4]
Techniques
AI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.[b]

Search and optimization

AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.[68] There are
two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.

State space search

State space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.[69] For example,
planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal,
a process called means-ends analysis.[70]

Simple exhaustive searches[71] are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the
number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow
or never completes.[15] "Heuristics" or "rules of thumb" can help prioritize choices that are more likely to
reach a goal.[72]

Adversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of
possible moves and countermoves, looking for a winning position.[73]

Local search
Local search uses mathematical optimization to find a solution to a
problem. It begins with some form of guess and refines it
incrementally.[74]

Gradient descent is a type of local search that optimizes a set of

numerical parameters by incrementally adjusting them to
minimize a loss function. Variants of gradient descent are
commonly used to train neural networks,[75] through the
backpropagation algorithm.
Illustration of gradient descent for 3
Another type of local search is evolutionary computation, which different starting points; two
aims to iteratively improve a set of candidate solutions by parameters (represented by the plan
"mutating" and "recombining" them, selecting only the fittest to coordinates) are adjusted in order to
minimize the loss function (the
survive each generation.[76]
height)
Distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm
intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in
search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired
by ant trails).[77]
Logic
Formal logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation.[78] Formal logic comes in two main
forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical
connectives such as "and", "or", "not" and "implies")[79] and predicate logic (which also operates on
objects, predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as "Every X is a Y" and "There are some Xs that
are Ys").[80]

Deductive reasoning in logic is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other
statements that are given and assumed to be true (the premises).[81] Proofs can be structured as proof
trees, in which nodes are labelled by sentences, and children nodes are connected to parent nodes by
inference rules.

Given a problem and a set of premises, problem-solving reduces to searching for a proof tree whose root
node is labelled by a solution of the problem and whose leaf nodes are labelled by premises or axioms. In
the case of Horn clauses, problem-solving search can be performed by reasoning forwards from the
premises or backwards from the problem.[82] In the more general case of the clausal form of first-order
logic, resolution is a single, axiom-free rule of inference, in which a problem is solved by proving a
contradiction from premises that include the negation of the problem to be solved.[83]

Inference in both Horn clause logic and first-order logic is undecidable, and therefore intractable.
However, backward reasoning with Horn clauses, which underpins computation in the logic
programming language Prolog, is Turing complete. Moreover, its efficiency is competitive with
computation in other symbolic programming languages.[84]

Fuzzy logic assigns a "degree of truth" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are
vague and partially true.[85]

Non-monotonic logics, including logic programming with negation as failure, are designed to handle
default reasoning.[28] Other specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex
domains.

Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning

Many problems in AI (including in
reasoning, planning, learning, perception,
and robotics) require the agent to operate
with incomplete or uncertain information.
AI researchers have devised a number of
tools to solve these problems using
methods from probability theory and
economics.[86] Precise mathematical tools
have been developed that analyze how an
agent can make choices and plan, using
decision theory, decision analysis,[87] and A simple Bayesian network, with the associated conditional
information value theory.[88] These tools probability tables
include models such as Markov decision processes,[89] dynamic decision networks,[90] game theory and
mechanism design.[91]

Bayesian networks[92] are a tool that can be used for reasoning (using the Bayesian inference
algorithm),[g][94] learning (using the expectation–maximization algorithm),[h][96] planning (using decision
networks)[97] and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[90]

Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing, and finding explanations for
streams of data, thus helping perception systems analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden
Markov models or Kalman filters).[90]

Classifiers and statistical learning methods

The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types:
classifiers (e.g., "if shiny then diamond"), on one hand, and
controllers (e.g., "if diamond then pick up"), on the other
hand. Classifiers[98] are functions that use pattern matching
to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned
based on chosen examples using supervised learning. Each
pattern (also called an "observation") is labeled with a
certain predefined class. All the observations combined with
their class labels are known as a data set. When a new
observation is received, that observation is classified based Expectation–maximization clustering of Old
on previous experience.[45] Faithful eruption data starts from a random
guess but then successfully converges on
There are many kinds of classifiers in use.[99] The decision an accurate clustering of the two physically
distinct modes of eruption.
tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine
learning algorithm.[100] K-nearest neighbor algorithm was
the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector
machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.[101] The naive Bayes classifier is reportedly
the "most widely used learner"[102] at Google, due in part to its scalability.[103] Neural networks are also
used as classifiers.[104]

Artificial neural networks

An artificial neural network is based on a collection of nodes also known as artificial neurons, which
loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns; once trained, it can
recognise those patterns in fresh data. There is an input, at least one hidden layer of nodes and an output.
Each node applies a function and once the weight crosses its specified threshold, the data is transmitted to
the next layer. A network is typically called a deep neural network if it has at least 2 hidden layers.[104]

Learning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right
output for each input during training. The most common training technique is the backpropagation
algorithm.[105] Neural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and
find patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.[106]
In feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one
direction.[107] Recurrent neural networks feed the output signal
back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous
input events. Long short term memory is the most successful
network architecture for recurrent networks.[108] Perceptrons[109]
use only a single layer of neurons; deep learning[110] uses multiple
layers. Convolutional neural networks strengthen the connection
between neurons that are "close" to each other—this is especially
important in image processing, where a local set of neurons must
identify an "edge" before the network can identify an object.[111]
A neural network is an
interconnected group of nodes, akin
to the vast network of neurons in the
human brain.

Deep learning
Deep learning[110] uses several layers of neurons between the network's
inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-
level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower
layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts
relevant to a human such as digits, letters, or faces.[112]

Deep learning has profoundly improved the performance of programs in

many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer
vision, speech recognition, natural language processing, image
classification,[113] and others. The reason that deep learning performs so
well in so many applications is not known as of 2023.[114] The sudden success of deep learning in 2012–
2015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and
backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s)[i] but because of two
factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by
switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant curated
datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.[j]

GPT
Generative pre-trained transformers (GPT) are large language models (LLMs) that generate text based on
the semantic relationships between words in sentences. Text-based GPT models are pretrained on a large
corpus of text that can be from the Internet. The pretraining consists of predicting the next token (a token
being usually a word, subword, or punctuation). Throughout this pretraining, GPT models accumulate
knowledge about the world and can then generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the next
token. Typically, a subsequent training phase makes the model more truthful, useful, and harmless,
usually with a technique called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Current GPT
models are prone to generating falsehoods called "hallucinations", although this can be reduced with
RLHF and quality data. They are used in chatbots, which allow people to ask a question or request a task
in simple text.[122][123]
Current models and services include Gemini (formerly Bard), ChatGPT, Grok, Claude, Copilot, and
LLaMA.[124] Multimodal GPT models can process different types of data (modalities) such as images,
videos, sound, and text.[125]

Hardware and software

In the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific
enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software had replaced previously used central
processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine
learning models' training.[126] Specialized programming languages such as Prolog were used in early AI
research,[127] but general-purpose programming languages like Python have become predominant.[128]

The transistor density in integrated circuits has been observed to roughly double every 18 months—a
trend known as Moore's law, named after the Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, who first identified it.
Improvements in GPUs have been even faster,[129] a trend sometimes called Huang's law,[130] named
after Nvidia co-founder and CEO Jensen Huang.

Applications
AI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including:
search engines (such as Google Search), targeting online advertisements, recommendation systems
(offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon), driving internet traffic, targeted advertising (AdSense,
Facebook), virtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa), autonomous vehicles (including drones, ADAS and
self-driving cars), automatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate), facial
recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace and Google's FaceNet) and image labeling (used
by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok). The deployment of AI may be overseen by a Chief automation
officer (CAO).

Health and medicine

The application of AI in medicine and medical research has the potential to increase patient care and
quality of life.[131] Through the lens of the Hippocratic Oath, medical professionals are ethically
compelled to use AI, if applications can more accurately diagnose and treat patients.[132][133]

For medical research, AI is an important tool for processing and integrating big data. This is particularly
important for organoid and tissue engineering development which use microscopy imaging as a key
technique in fabrication.[134] It has been suggested that AI can overcome discrepancies in funding
allocated to different fields of research.[134] New AI tools can deepen the understanding of biomedically
relevant pathways. For example, AlphaFold 2 (2021) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours
rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.[135] In 2023, it was reported that AI-guided drug
discovery helped find a class of antibiotics capable of killing two different types of drug-resistant
bacteria.[136] In 2024, researchers used machine learning to accelerate the search for Parkinson's disease
drug treatments. Their aim was to identify compounds that block the clumping, or aggregation, of alpha-
synuclein (the protein that characterises Parkinson's disease). They were able to speed up the initial
screening process ten-fold and reduce the cost by a thousand-fold.[137][138]
Games
Game playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced
techniques.[139] Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess
champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.[140] In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match,
IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter
and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.[141] In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a
match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a
professional Go player without handicaps. Then, in 2017, it defeated Ke Jie, who was the best Go player
in the world.[142] Other programs handle imperfect-information games, such as the poker-playing
program Pluribus.[143] DeepMind developed increasingly generalistic reinforcement learning models,
such as with MuZero, which could be trained to play chess, Go, or Atari games.[144] In 2019, DeepMind's
AlphaStar achieved grandmaster level in StarCraft II, a particularly challenging real-time strategy game
that involves incomplete knowledge of what happens on the map.[145] In 2021, an AI agent competed in a
PlayStation Gran Turismo competition, winning against four of the world's best Gran Turismo drivers
using deep reinforcement learning.[146] In 2024, Google DeepMind introduced SIMA, a type of AI
capable of autonomously playing nine previously unseen open-world video games by observing screen
output, as well as executing short, specific tasks in response to natural language instructions.[147]

Mathematics
Large language models, such as GPT-4, Gemini, Claude, LLaMa or Mistral, are increasingly used in
mathematics. These probabilistic models are versatile, but can also produce wrong answers in the form of
hallucinations. They sometimes need a large database of mathematical problems to learn from, but also
methods such as supervised fine-tuning[148] or trained classifiers with human-annotated data to improve
answers for new problems and learn from corrections.[149] A February 2024 study showed that the
performance of some language models for reasoning capabilities in solving math problems not included
in their training data was low, even for problems with only minor deviations from trained data.[150] One
technique to improve their performance involves training the models to produce correct reasoning steps,
rather than just the correct result.[151] The Alibaba Group developed a version of its Qwen models called
Qwen2-Math, that achieved state-of-the-art performance on several mathematical benchmarks, including
84% accuracy on the MATH dataset of competition mathematics problems.[152] In January 2025,
Microsoft proposed the technique rStar-Math that leverages Monte Carlo tree search and step-by-step
reasoning, enabling a relatively small language model like Qwen-7B to solve 53% of the AIME 2024 and
90% of the MATH benchmark problems.[153]

Alternatively, dedicated models for mathematical problem solving with higher precision for the outcome
including proof of theorems have been developed such as AlphaTensor, AlphaGeometry and AlphaProof
all from Google DeepMind,[154] Llemma from EleutherAI[155] or Julius.[156]

When natural language is used to describe mathematical problems, converters can transform such
prompts into a formal language such as Lean to define mathematical tasks.

Some models have been developed to solve challenging problems and reach good results in benchmark
tests, others to serve as educational tools in mathematics.[157]

Topological deep learning integrates various topological approaches.

Finance
Finance is one of the fastest growing sectors where applied AI tools are being deployed: from retail
online banking to investment advice and insurance, where automated "robot advisers" have been in use
for some years.[158]

World Pensions experts like Nicolas Firzli insist it may be too early to see the emergence of highly
innovative AI-informed financial products and services: "the deployment of AI tools will simply further
automatise things: destroying tens of thousands of jobs in banking, financial planning, and pension advice
in the process, but I'm not sure it will unleash a new wave of [e.g., sophisticated] pension
innovation."[159]

Military
Various countries are deploying AI military applications.[160] The main applications enhance command
and control, communications, sensors, integration and interoperability.[161] Research is targeting
intelligence collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, and
semiautonomous and autonomous vehicles.[160] AI technologies enable coordination of sensors and
effectors, threat detection and identification, marking of enemy positions, target acquisition, coordination
and deconfliction of distributed Joint Fires between networked combat vehicles involving manned and
unmanned teams.[161]

AI has been used in military operations in Iraq, Syria, Israel and Ukraine.[160][162][163][164]

Generative AI
Generative artificial intelligence (generative AI, GenAI,[165] or
GAI) is a subset of artificial intelligence that uses generative
models to produce text, images, videos, or other forms of
data.[166][167][168] These models learn the underlying patterns and
structures of their training data and use them to produce new
data[169][170] based on the input, which often comes in the form of
natural language prompts.[171][172]

Improvements in transformer-based deep neural networks,

particularly large language models (LLMs), enabled an AI boom
of generative AI systems in the 2020s. These include chatbots such
as ChatGPT, Copilot, Gemini, and LLaMA; text-to-image Vincent van Gogh in watercolour
artificial intelligence image generation systems such as Stable created by generative AI software

Diffusion, Midjourney, and DALL-E; and text-to-video AI

generators such as Sora.[173][174][175][176] Companies such as
OpenAI, Anthropic, Microsoft, Google, and Baidu as well as numerous smaller firms have developed
generative AI models.[171][177][178]

Generative AI has uses across a wide range of industries, including software development, healthcare,
finance, entertainment, customer service,[179] sales and marketing,[180] art, writing,[181] fashion,[182] and
product design.[183] However, concerns have been raised about the potential misuse of generative AI such
as cybercrime, the use of fake news or deepfakes to deceive or manipulate people, and the mass
replacement of human jobs.[184][185] Intellectual property law concerns also exist around generative
models that are trained on and emulate copyrighted works of art.[186]

Agents
Artificial intelligent (AI) agents are software entities designed to perceive their environment, make
decisions, and take actions autonomously to achieve specific goals. These agents can interact with users,
their environment, or other agents. AI agents are used in various applications, including virtual assistants,
chatbots, autonomous vehicles, game-playing systems, and industrial robotics. AI agents operate within
the constraints of their programming, available computational resources, and hardware limitations. This
means they are restricted to performing tasks within their defined scope and have finite memory and
processing capabilities. In real-world applications, AI agents often face time constraints for decision-
making and action execution. Many AI agents incorporate learning algorithms, enabling them to improve
their performance over time through experience or training. Using machine learning, AI agents can adapt
to new situations and optimise their behaviour for their designated tasks.[187][188][189]

Sexuality
Applications of AI in this domain include AI-enabled menstruation and fertility trackers that analyze user
data to offer prediction,[190] AI-integrated sex toys (e.g., teledildonics),[191] AI-generated sexual
education content,[192] and AI agents that simulate sexual and romantic partners (e.g., Replika).[193] AI is
also used for the production of non-consensual deepfake pornography, raising significant ethical and legal
concerns.[194]

AI technologies have also been used to attempt to identify online gender-based violence and online
sexual grooming of minors.[195][196]

Other industry-specific tasks

There are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific
industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported having incorporated "AI" in
some offerings or processes.[197] A few examples are energy storage, medical diagnosis, military
logistics, applications that predict the result of judicial decisions, foreign policy, or supply chain
management.

AI applications for evacuation and disaster management are growing. AI has been used to investigate if
and how people evacuated in large scale and small scale evacuations using historical data from GPS,
videos or social media. Further, AI can provide real time information on the real time evacuation
conditions.[198][199][200]

In agriculture, AI has helped farmers identify areas that need irrigation, fertilization, pesticide treatments
or increasing yield. Agronomists use AI to conduct research and development. AI has been used to predict
the ripening time for crops such as tomatoes, monitor soil moisture, operate agricultural robots, conduct
predictive analytics, classify livestock pig call emotions, automate greenhouses, detect diseases and pests,
and save water.
Artificial intelligence is used in astronomy to analyze increasing amounts of available data and
applications, mainly for "classification, regression, clustering, forecasting, generation, discovery, and the
development of new scientific insights." For example, it is used for discovering exoplanets, forecasting
solar activity, and distinguishing between signals and instrumental effects in gravitational wave
astronomy. Additionally, it could be used for activities in space, such as space exploration, including the
analysis of data from space missions, real-time science decisions of spacecraft, space debris avoidance,
and more autonomous operation.

During the 2024 Indian elections, US$50 million was spent on authorized AI-generated content, notably
by creating deepfakes of allied (including sometimes deceased) politicians to better engage with voters,
and by translating speeches to various local languages.[201]

Ethics
AI has potential benefits and potential risks.[202] AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for
serious problems: Demis Hassabis of DeepMind hopes to "solve intelligence, and then use that to solve
everything else".[203] However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended
consequences and risks have been identified.[204] In-production systems can sometimes not factor ethics
and bias into their AI training processes, especially when the AI algorithms are inherently unexplainable
in deep learning.[205]

Risks and harm

Privacy and copyright

Machine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have
raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright.

AI-powered devices and services, such as virtual assistants and IoT products, continuously collect
personal information, raising concerns about intrusive data gathering and unauthorized access by third
parties. The loss of privacy is further exacerbated by AI's ability to process and combine vast amounts of
data, potentially leading to a surveillance society where individual activities are constantly monitored and
analyzed without adequate safeguards or transparency.

Sensitive user data collected may include online activity records, geolocation data, video, or audio.[206]
For example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon has recorded millions of private
conversations and allowed temporary workers to listen to and transcribe some of them.[207] Opinions
about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is
clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy.[208]

AI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications and have developed several
techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-
identification and differential privacy.[209] Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork,
have begun to view privacy in terms of fairness. Brian Christian wrote that experts have pivoted "from
the question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'."[210]
Generative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or
computer code; the output is then used under the rationale of "fair use". Experts disagree about how well
and under what circumstances this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include
"the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work" and "the effect upon the potential market
for the copyrighted work".[211][212] Website owners who do not wish to have their content scraped can
indicate it in a "robots.txt" file.[213] In 2023, leading authors (including John Grisham and Jonathan
Franzen) sued AI companies for using their work to train generative AI.[214][215] Another discussed
approach is to envision a separate sui generis system of protection for creations generated by AI to ensure
fair attribution and compensation for human authors.[216]

Dominance by tech giants

The commercial AI scene is dominated by Big Tech companies such as Alphabet Inc., Amazon, Apple
Inc., Meta Platforms, and Microsoft.[217][218][219] Some of these players already own the vast majority of
existing cloud infrastructure and computing power from data centers, allowing them to entrench further in
the marketplace.[220][221]

Power needs and environmental impacts

In January 2024, the International Energy Agency (IEA) released Electricity 2024, Analysis and Forecast
to 2026, forecasting electric power use.[222] This is the first IEA report to make projections for data
centers and power consumption for artificial intelligence and cryptocurrency. The report states that power
demand for these uses might double by 2026, with additional electric power usage equal to electricity
used by the whole Japanese nation.[223]

Prodigious power consumption by AI is responsible for the growth of fossil fuels use, and might delay
closings of obsolete, carbon-emitting coal energy facilities. There is a feverish rise in the construction of
data centers throughout the US, making large technology firms (e.g., Microsoft, Meta, Google, Amazon)
into voracious consumers of electric power. Projected electric consumption is so immense that there is
concern that it will be fulfilled no matter the source. A ChatGPT search involves the use of 10 times the
electrical energy as a Google search. The large firms are in haste to find power sources – from nuclear
energy to geothermal to fusion. The tech firms argue that – in the long view – AI will be eventually
kinder to the environment, but they need the energy now. AI makes the power grid more efficient and
"intelligent", will assist in the growth of nuclear power, and track overall carbon emissions, according to
technology firms.[224]

A 2024 Goldman Sachs Research Paper, AI Data Centers and the Coming US Power Demand Surge,
found "US power demand (is) likely to experience growth not seen in a generation...." and forecasts that,
by 2030, US data centers will consume 8% of US power, as opposed to 3% in 2022, presaging growth for
the electrical power generation industry by a variety of means.[225] Data centers' need for more and more
electrical power is such that they might max out the electrical grid. The Big Tech companies counter that
AI can be used to maximize the utilization of the grid by all.[226]

In 2024, the Wall Street Journal reported that big AI companies have begun negotiations with the US
nuclear power providers to provide electricity to the data centers. In March 2024 Amazon purchased a
Pennsylvania nuclear-powered data center for $650 Million (US).[227] Nvidia CEO Jen-Hsun Huang said
nuclear power is a good option for the data centers.[228]
In September 2024, Microsoft announced an agreement with Constellation Energy to re-open the Three
Mile Island nuclear power plant to provide Microsoft with 100% of all electric power produced by the
plant for 20 years. Reopening the plant, which suffered a partial nuclear meltdown of its Unit 2 reactor in
1979, will require Constellation to get through strict regulatory processes which will include extensive
safety scrutiny from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. If approved (this will be the first ever US
re-commissioning of a nuclear plant), over 835 megawatts of power – enough for 800,000 homes – of
energy will be produced. The cost for re-opening and upgrading is estimated at $1.6 billion (US) and is
dependent on tax breaks for nuclear power contained in the 2022 US Inflation Reduction Act.[229] The
US government and the state of Michigan are investing almost $2 billion (US) to reopen the Palisades
Nuclear reactor on Lake Michigan. Closed since 2022, the plant is planned to be reopened in October
2025. The Three Mile Island facility will be renamed the Crane Clean Energy Center after Chris Crane, a
nuclear proponent and former CEO of Exelon who was responsible for Exelon spinoff of
Constellation.[230]

After the last approval in September 2023, Taiwan suspended the approval of data centers north of
Taoyuan with a capacity of more than 5 MW in 2024, due to power supply shortages.[231] Taiwan aims to
phase out nuclear power by 2025.[231] On the other hand, Singapore imposed a ban on the opening of
data centers in 2019 due to electric power, but in 2022, lifted this ban.[231]

Although most nuclear plants in Japan have been shut down after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident,
according to an October 2024 Bloomberg article in Japanese, cloud gaming services company Ubitus, in
which Nvidia has a stake, is looking for land in Japan near nuclear power plant for a new data center for
generative AI.[232] Ubitus CEO Wesley Kuo said nuclear power plants are the most efficient, cheap and
stable power for AI.[232]

On 1 November 2024, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) rejected an application
submitted by Talen Energy for approval to supply some electricity from the nuclear power station
Susquehanna to Amazon's data center.[233] According to the Commission Chairman Willie L. Phillips, it
is a burden on the electricity grid as well as a significant cost shifting concern to households and other
business sectors.[233]

Misinformation
YouTube, Facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content. These AI
programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people
watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extreme
partisan content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch
more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple
versions of the same misinformation.[234] This convinced many users that the misinformation was true,
and ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.[235] The AI program had
correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in
2016, major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem .

In 2022, generative AI began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real
photographs, recordings, films, or human writing. It is possible for bad actors to use this technology to
create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.[236] AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton expressed
concern about AI enabling "authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates" on a large scale, among
other risks.[237]
Algorithmic bias and fairness
Machine learning applications will be biased[k] if they learn from biased data.[239] The developers may
not be aware that the bias exists.[240] Bias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by
the way a model is deployed.[241][239] If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously
harm people (as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may
cause discrimination.[242] The field of fairness studies how to prevent harms from algorithmic biases.

On June 28, 2015, Google Photos's new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a
friend as "gorillas" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few
images of black people,[243] a problem called "sample size disparity".[244] Google "fixed" this problem by
preventing the system from labelling anything as a "gorilla". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos
still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and
Amazon.[245]

COMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant
becoming a recidivist. In 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial
bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for
both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different—the
system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would
underestimate the chance that a white person would not re-offend.[246] In 2017, several researchers[l]
showed that it was mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of
fairness when the base rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.[248]

A program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature
(such as "race" or "gender"). The feature will correlate with other features (like "address", "shopping
history" or "first name"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it
would on "race" or "gender".[249] Moritz Hardt said "the most robust fact in this research area is that
fairness through blindness doesn't work."[250]

Criticism of COMPAS highlighted that machine learning models are designed to make "predictions" that
are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes
the results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will
be made in the future. If an application then uses these predictions as recommendations, some of these
"recommendations" will likely be racist.[251] Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make
decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past. It is descriptive rather
than prescriptive.[m]

Bias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male:
among AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.[244]

There are various conflicting definitions and mathematical models of fairness. These notions depend on
ethical assumptions, and are influenced by beliefs about society. One broad category is distributive
fairness, which focuses on the outcomes, often identifying groups and seeking to compensate for
statistical disparities. Representational fairness tries to ensure that AI systems do not reinforce negative
stereotypes or render certain groups invisible. Procedural fairness focuses on the decision process rather
than the outcome. The most relevant notions of fairness may depend on the context, notably the type of
AI application and the stakeholders. The subjectivity in the notions of bias and fairness makes it difficult
for companies to operationalize them. Having access to sensitive attributes such as race or gender is also
considered by many AI ethicists to be necessary in order to compensate for biases, but it may conflict
with anti-discrimination laws.[238]

At its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022), the
Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings that
recommend that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are
unsafe, and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed
internet data should be curtailed.[253]

Lack of transparency
Many AI systems are so complex that their designers cannot explain how they reach their decisions.[254]
Particularly with deep neural networks, in which there are a large amount of non-linear relationships
between inputs and outputs. But some popular explainability techniques exist.[255]

It is impossible to be certain that a program is operating correctly if no one knows how exactly it works.
There have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests, but nevertheless
learned something different than what the programmers intended. For example, a system that could
identify skin diseases better than medical professionals was found to actually have a strong tendency to
classify images with a ruler as "cancerous", because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to
show the scale.[256] Another machine learning system designed to help effectively allocate medical
resources was found to classify patients with asthma as being at "low risk" of dying from pneumonia.
Having asthma is actually a severe risk factor, but since the patients having asthma would usually get
much more medical care, they were relatively unlikely to die according to the training data. The
correlation between asthma and low risk of dying from pneumonia was real, but misleading.[257]

People who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a right to an explanation.[258] Doctors, for
example, are expected to clearly and completely explain to their colleagues the reasoning behind any
decision they make. Early drafts of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation in 2016
included an explicit statement that this right exists.[n] Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved
problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has
no solution, the tools should not be used.[259]

DARPA established the XAI ("Explainable Artificial Intelligence") program in 2014 to try to solve these
problems.[260]

Several approaches aim to address the transparency problem. SHAP enables to visualise the contribution
of each feature to the output.[261] LIME can locally approximate a model's outputs with a simpler,
interpretable model.[262] Multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target
classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned.[263]
Deconvolution, DeepDream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what different
layers of a deep network for computer vision have learned, and produce output that can suggest what the
network is learning.[264] For generative pre-trained transformers, Anthropic developed a technique based
on dictionary learning that associates patterns of neuron activations with human-understandable
concepts.[265]
Bad actors and weaponized AI
Artificial intelligence provides a number of tools that are useful to bad actors, such as authoritarian
governments, terrorists, criminals or rogue states.

A lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human
supervision.[o] Widely available AI tools can be used by bad actors to develop inexpensive autonomous
weapons and, if produced at scale, they are potentially weapons of mass destruction.[267] Even when used
in conventional warfare, they currently cannot reliably choose targets and could potentially kill an
innocent person.[267] In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on autonomous weapons
under the United Nations' Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, however the United States and
others disagreed.[268] By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.[269]

AI tools make it easier for authoritarian governments to efficiently control their citizens in several ways.
Face and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance. Machine learning, operating this data, can
classify potential enemies of the state and prevent them from hiding. Recommendation systems can
precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect. Deepfakes and generative AI aid in
producing misinformation. Advanced AI can make authoritarian centralized decision making more
competitive than liberal and decentralized systems such as markets. It lowers the cost and difficulty of
digital warfare and advanced spyware.[270] All these technologies have been available since 2020 or
earlier—AI facial recognition systems are already being used for mass surveillance in China.[271][272]

There many other ways that AI is expected to help bad actors, some of which can not be foreseen. For
example, machine-learning AI is able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of
hours.[273]

Technological unemployment
Economists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about
unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.[274]

In the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists
acknowledge that "we're in uncharted territory" with AI.[275] A survey of economists showed
disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-
term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are
redistributed.[276] Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt
Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at "high risk" of potential automation, while an OECD report
classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as "high risk".[p][278] The methodology of speculating about future
employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology,
rather than social policy, creates unemployment, as opposed to redundancies.[274] In April 2023, it was
reported that 70% of the jobs for Chinese video game illustrators had been eliminated by generative
artificial intelligence.[279][280]

Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial
intelligence; The Economist stated in 2015 that "the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what
steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution" is "worth taking seriously".[281]
Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for
care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[282]
From the early days of the development of artificial intelligence, there have been arguments, for example,
those put forward by Joseph Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually
should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative
calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.[283]

Existential risk
It has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This
could, as physicist Stephen Hawking stated, "spell the end of the human race".[284] This scenario has been
common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like "self-awareness"
(or "sentience" or "consciousness") and becomes a malevolent character.[q] These sci-fi scenarios are
misleading in several ways.

First, AI does not require human-like sentience to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given
specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher Nick Bostrom argued that if
one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it
(he used the example of a paperclip factory manager).[286] Stuart Russell gives the example of household
robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that "you
can't fetch the coffee if you're dead."[287] In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have
to be genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is "fundamentally on our side".[288]

Second, Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an
existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like ideologies, law,
government, money and the economy are built on language; they exist because there are stories that
billions of people believe. The current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an AI could use
language to convince people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.[289]

The opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and
unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.[290] Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill
Gates, and Elon Musk,[291] as well as AI pioneers such as Yoshua Bengio, Stuart Russell, Demis
Hassabis, and Sam Altman, have expressed concerns about existential risk from AI.

In May 2023, Geoffrey Hinton announced his resignation from Google in order to be able to "freely speak
out about the risks of AI" without "considering how this impacts Google".[292] He notably mentioned
risks of an AI takeover,[293] and stressed that in order to avoid the worst outcomes, establishing safety
guidelines will require cooperation among those competing in use of AI.[294]

In 2023, many leading AI experts endorsed the joint statement that "Mitigating the risk of extinction from
AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear
war".[295]

Some other researchers were more optimistic. AI pioneer Jürgen Schmidhuber did not sign the joint
statement, emphasising that in 95% of all cases, AI research is about making "human lives longer and
healthier and easier."[296] While the tools that are now being used to improve lives can also be used by
bad actors, "they can also be used against the bad actors."[297][298] Andrew Ng also argued that "it's a
mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI—and that regulators who do will only benefit vested
interests."[299] Yann LeCun "scoffs at his peers' dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and
even, eventually, human extinction."[300] In the early 2010s, experts argued that the risks are too distant in
the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent
machine.[301] However, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a
serious area of research.[302]

Ethical machines and alignment

Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make
choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI
should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI
becomes an existential risk.[303]

Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field
of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical
dilemmas.[304] The field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,[304] and was founded at
an AAAI symposium in 2005.[305]

Other approaches include Wendell Wallach's "artificial moral agents"[306] and Stuart J. Russell's three
principles for developing provably beneficial machines.[307]

Open source
Active organizations in the AI open-source community include Hugging Face,[308] Google,[309]
EleutherAI and Meta.[310] Various AI models, such as Llama 2, Mistral or Stable Diffusion, have been
made open-weight,[311][312] meaning that their architecture and trained parameters (the "weights") are
publicly available. Open-weight models can be freely fine-tuned, which allows companies to specialize
them with their own data and for their own use-case.[313] Open-weight models are useful for research and
innovation but can also be misused. Since they can be fine-tuned, any built-in security measure, such as
objecting to harmful requests, can be trained away until it becomes ineffective. Some researchers warn
that future AI models may develop dangerous capabilities (such as the potential to drastically facilitate
bioterrorism) and that once released on the Internet, they cannot be deleted everywhere if needed. They
recommend pre-release audits and cost-benefit analyses.[314]

Frameworks
Artificial Intelligence projects can have their ethical permissibility tested while designing, developing,
and implementing an AI system. An AI framework such as the Care and Act Framework containing the
SUM values—developed by the Alan Turing Institute tests projects in four main areas:[315][316]

Respect the dignity of individual people

Connect with other people sincerely, openly, and inclusively
Care for the wellbeing of everyone
Protect social values, justice, and the public interest
Other developments in ethical frameworks include those decided upon during the Asilomar Conference,
the Montreal Declaration for Responsible AI, and the IEEE's Ethics of Autonomous Systems initiative,
among others;[317] however, these principles do not go without their criticisms, especially regards to the
people chosen contributes to these frameworks.[318]
Promotion of the wellbeing of the people and communities that these technologies affect requires
consideration of the social and ethical implications at all stages of AI system design, development and
implementation, and collaboration between job roles such as data scientists, product managers, data
engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers.[319]

The UK AI Safety Institute released in 2024 a testing toolset called 'Inspect' for AI safety evaluations
available under a MIT open-source licence which is freely available on GitHub and can be improved with
third-party packages. It can be used to evaluate AI models in a range of areas including core knowledge,
ability to reason, and autonomous capabilities.[320]

Regulation
The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development
of public sector policies and laws for promoting and
regulating AI; it is therefore related to the broader regulation
of algorithms.[321] The regulatory and policy landscape for
AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.[322]
According to AI Index at Stanford, the annual number of
AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped
from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022
alone.[323][324] Between 2016 and 2020, more than 30
The first global AI Safety Summit was held
countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.[325] Most EU in 2023 with a declaration calling for
member states had released national AI strategies, as had international cooperation.
Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian
Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, U.S., and
Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia
and Tunisia.[325] The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a
need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public
confidence and trust in the technology.[325] Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher
published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.[326]
In 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they
believe may happen in less than 10 years.[327] In 2023, the United Nations also launched an advisory
body to provide recommendations on AI governance; the body comprises technology company
executives, governments officials and academics.[328] In 2024, the Council of Europe created the first
international legally binding treaty on AI, called the "Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence
and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law". It was adopted by the European Union, the United
States, the United Kingdom, and other signatories.[329]

In a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only
35% of Americans, agreed that "products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks".[323]
A 2023 Reuters/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to
humanity.[330] In a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it "very important", and an additional
41% thought it "somewhat important", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding
"not very important" and 8% responding "not at all important".[331][332]
In November 2023, the first global AI Safety Summit was held in Bletchley Park in the UK to discuss the
near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.[333]
28 countries including the United States, China, and the European Union issued a declaration at the start
of the summit, calling for international co-operation to manage the challenges and risks of artificial
intelligence.[334][335] In May 2024 at the AI Seoul Summit, 16 global AI tech companies agreed to safety
commitments on the development of AI.[336][337]

History
The study of mechanical or "formal" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity.
The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine,
by shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1", could simulate any conceivable form of mathematical
reasoning.[338][339] This, along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics, information theory and
neurobiology, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an "electronic brain".[r] They
developed several areas of research that would become part of AI,[341] such as McCullouch and Pitts
design for "artificial neurons" in 1943,[115] and Turing's influential 1950 paper 'Computing Machinery
and Intelligence', which introduced the Turing test and showed that "machine intelligence" was
plausible.[342][339]

The field of AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[s][6] The attendees
became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.[t] They and their students produced programs that the
press described as "astonishing":[u] computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems
in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[v][7] Artificial intelligence laboratories were
set up at a number of British and U.S. universities in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.[339]

Researchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that their methods would eventually succeed in
creating a machine with general intelligence and considered this the goal of their field.[346] In 1965
Herbert Simon predicted, "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can
do".[347] In 1967 Marvin Minsky agreed, writing that "within a generation ... the problem of creating
'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved".[348] They had, however, underestimated the difficulty
of the problem.[w] In 1974, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in
response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill[350] and ongoing pressure from the U.S. Congress to fund
more productive projects.[351] Minsky's and Papert's book Perceptrons was understood as proving that
artificial neural networks would never be useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the
approach altogether.[352] The "AI winter", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult,
followed.[9]

In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[353] a form of
AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for
AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired
the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[8] However, beginning with
the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-
lasting winter began.[10]
Up to this point, most of AI's funding had gone to projects that used high-level symbols to represent
mental objects like plans, goals, beliefs, and known facts. In the 1980s, some researchers began to doubt
that this approach would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception,
robotics, learning and pattern recognition,[354] and began to look into "sub-symbolic" approaches.[355]
Rodney Brooks rejected "representation" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that
move and survive.[x] Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh, and others developed methods that handled incomplete
and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.[86][360] But the most
important development was the revival of "connectionism", including neural network research, by
Geoffrey Hinton and others.[361] In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that convolutional neural
networks can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural
networks.[362]

AI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal
mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This "narrow" and "formal"
focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics,
economics and mathematics).[363] By 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely
used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as "artificial intelligence" (a tendency known as
the AI effect).[364] However, several academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer
pursuing its original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they
founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or "AGI"), which had several well-funded
institutions by the 2010s.[4]

Deep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.[11]
For many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.[y] Deep learning's success was based on both
hardware improvements (faster computers,[366] graphics processing units, cloud computing[367]) and
access to large amounts of data[368] (including curated datasets,[367] such as ImageNet). Deep learning's
success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.[z] The amount of machine learning
research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015–2019.[325]

In 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were

catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences,
publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many
researchers re-focussed their careers on these issues. The
alignment problem became a serious field of academic study.[302]

In the late 2010s and early 2020s, AGI companies began to deliver
programs that created enormous interest. In 2015, AlphaGo,
developed by DeepMind, beat the world champion Go player. The
The number of Google searches for
program taught only the game's rules and developed a strategy by
the term "AI" began to increase in
itself. GPT-3 is a large language model that was released in 2020 about 2022.
by OpenAI and is capable of generating high-quality human-like
text.[369] ChatGPT, launched on November 30, 2022, became the
fastest-growing consumer software application in history, gaining over 100 million users in two
months.[370] It marked what is widely regarded as AI's breakout year, bringing it into the public
consciousness.[371] These programs, and others, inspired an aggressive AI boom, where large companies
began investing billions of dollars in AI research. According to AI Impacts, about $50 billion annually
was invested in "AI" around 2022 in the U.S. alone and about 20% of the new U.S. Computer Science
PhD graduates have specialized in "AI".[372] About 800,000 "AI"-related U.S. job openings existed in
2022.[373] According to PitchBook research, 22% of newly funded startups in 2024 claimed to be AI
companies.[374]

Philosophy
Philosophical debates have historically sought to determine the nature of intelligence and how to make
intelligent machines.[375] Another major focus has been whether machines can be conscious, and the
associated ethical implications.[376] Many other topics in philosophy are relevant to AI, such as
epistemology and free will.[377] Rapid advancements have intensified public discussions on the
philosophy and ethics of AI.[376]

Defining artificial intelligence

Alan Turing wrote in 1950 "I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?"[378] He advised
changing the question from whether a machine "thinks", to "whether or not it is possible for machinery to
show intelligent behaviour".[378] He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to
simulate human conversation.[342] Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not
matter if it is "actually" thinking or literally has a "mind". Turing notes that we can not determine these
things about other people but "it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks."[379]

Russell and Norvig agree with Turing that intelligence must be

defined in terms of external behavior, not internal structure.[1]
However, they are critical that the test requires the machine to
imitate humans. "Aeronautical engineering texts", they wrote, "do
not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so
exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.' "[381] AI
founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that "Artificial
intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human
intelligence".[382] The Turing test can provide some
evidence of intelligence, but it
McCarthy defines intelligence as "the computational part of the penalizes non-human intelligent
ability to achieve goals in the world".[383] Another AI founder, behavior.[380]
Marvin Minsky, similarly describes it as "the ability to solve hard
problems".[384] The leading AI textbook defines it as the study of
agents that perceive their environment and take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined
goals.[1] These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-defined
solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct
measures of the "intelligence" of the machine—and no other philosophical discussion is required, or may
not even be possible.

Another definition has been adopted by Google,[385] a major practitioner in the field of AI. This definition
stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to
the way it is defined in biological intelligence.
Some authors have suggested in practice, that the definition of AI is vague and difficult to define, with
contention as to whether classical algorithms should be categorised as AI,[386] with many companies
during the early 2020s AI boom using the term as a marketing buzzword, often even if they did "not
actually use AI in a material way".[387]

Evaluating approaches to AI
No established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.[aa] The
unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much
so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term "artificial intelligence" to mean
"machine learning with neural networks"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and narrow. Critics
argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.

Symbolic AI and its limits

Symbolic AI (or "GOFAI")[389] simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they
solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at "intelligent"
tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems
hypothesis: "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent
action."[390]

However, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning,
recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level
"intelligent" tasks were easy for AI, but low level "instinctive" tasks were extremely difficult.[391]
Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious
instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a "feel" for the situation, rather than
explicit symbolic knowledge.[392] Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they
were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree with him.[ab][16]

The issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that
human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research
into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,[394][395] in part because sub-
symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a
modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-symbolic artificial
intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.

Neat vs. scruffy

"Neats" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic,
optimization, or neural networks). "Scruffies" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of
unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on
incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 1970s and 1980s,[396] but
eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.
Soft vs. hard computing
Finding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.[15] Soft
computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are
tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in
the late 1980s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with
neural networks.

Narrow vs. general AI

AI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and
superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these
solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.[397][398] General intelligence is difficult to
define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific
problems with specific solutions. The sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area
exclusively.

Machine consciousness, sentience, and mind

The philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental
states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the
machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because
it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence.
Russell and Norvig add that "[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way
humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on."[399] However, the question has become central to
the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.

Consciousness
David Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the "hard" and
"easy" problems of consciousness.[400] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes
signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it
should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something
(Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). While human information processing is easy
to explain, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-
blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear
what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.[401]

Computationalism and functionalism

Computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information
processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the
relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and
hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind–body problem. This philosophical position was inspired
by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by
philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.[402]
Philosopher John Searle characterized this position as "strong AI": "The appropriately programmed
computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human
beings have minds."[ac] Searle challenges this claim with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to
show that even a computer capable of perfectly simulating human behavior would not have a mind.[406]

AI welfare and rights

It is difficult or impossible to reliably evaluate whether an advanced AI is sentient (has the ability to feel),
and if so, to what degree.[407] But if there is a significant chance that a given machine can feel and suffer,
then it may be entitled to certain rights or welfare protection measures, similarly to animals.[408][409]
Sapience (a set of capacities related to high intelligence, such as discernment or self-awareness) may
provide another moral basis for AI rights.[408] Robot rights are also sometimes proposed as a practical
way to integrate autonomous agents into society.[410]

In 2017, the European Union considered granting "electronic personhood" to some of the most capable AI
systems. Similarly to the legal status of companies, it would have conferred rights but also
responsibilities.[411] Critics argued in 2018 that granting rights to AI systems would downplay the
importance of human rights, and that legislation should focus on user needs rather than speculative
futuristic scenarios. They also noted that robots lacked the autonomy to take part to society on their
own.[412][413]

Progress in AI increased interest in the topic. Proponents of AI welfare and rights often argue that AI
sentience, if it emerges, would be particularly easy to deny. They warn that this may be a moral blind spot
analogous to slavery or factory farming, which could lead to large-scale suffering if sentient AI is created
and carelessly exploited.[409][408]

Future

Superintelligence and the singularity

A superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the
brightest and most gifted human mind.[398] If research into artificial general intelligence produced
sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software
would be even better at improving itself, leading to what I. J. Good called an "intelligence explosion" and
Vernor Vinge called a "singularity".[414]

However, technologies cannot improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an S-shaped
curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.[415]

Transhumanism
Robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted
that humans and machines may merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than
either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in the writings of Aldous Huxley and Robert
Ettinger.[416]
Edward Fredkin argues that "artificial intelligence is the next step in evolution", an idea first proposed by
Samuel Butler's "Darwin among the Machines" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George
Dyson in his 1998 book Darwin Among the Machines: The Evolution of Global Intelligence.[417]

Decomputing
Arguments for decomputing have been raised by Dan McQuillan (Resisting AI: An Anti-fascist Approach
to Artificial Intelligence, 2022), meaning an opposition to the sweeping application and expansion of
artificial intelligence. Similar to degrowth the approach criticizes AI as an outgrowth of the systemic
issues and capitalist world we live in. Arguing that a different future is possible, in which distance
between people is reduced and not increased to AI intermediaries.[418]

In fiction
Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as
storytelling devices since antiquity,[419] and have been a
persistent theme in science fiction.[420]

A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's

Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to
its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's
and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968),
The word "robot" itself was coined by Karel
with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the
Čapek in his 1921 play R.U.R., the title
Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) standing for "Rossum's Universal Robots".
and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots
such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and
Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[421]

Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many stories, most notably with the "Multivac"
super-intelligent computer. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine
ethics;[422] while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through
popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their
ambiguity.[423]

Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing
us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel Čapek's R.U.R.,
the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric
Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered
by technology created with artificial intelligence.[424]

See also
Artificial intelligence and elections – Use and impact of AI on political elections
Artificial intelligence content detection – Software to detect AI-generated content
Behavior selection algorithm – Algorithm that selects actions for intelligent agents
 Business process automation – Automation of business processes
Case-based reasoning – Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar
past problems
Computational intelligence – Ability of a computer to learn a specific task from data or
experimental observation
Digital immortality – Hypothetical concept of storing a personality in digital form
Emergent algorithm – Algorithm exhibiting emergent behavior
Female gendering of AI technologies – Gender biases in digital technology
Glossary of artificial intelligence – List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used
in the study of artificial intelligence
Intelligence amplification – Use of information technology to augment human intelligence
Intelligent agent – Software agent which acts autonomously
Mind uploading – Hypothetical process of digitally emulating a brain
Organoid intelligence – Use of brain cells and brain organoids for intelligent computing
Robotic process automation – Form of business process automation technology
Wetware computer – Computer composed of organic material

Explanatory notes
a. This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks,
including: Russell & Norvig (2021), Luger & Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel
(1998) and Nilsson (1998)
b. This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell
& Norvig (2021), Luger & Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998) and
Nilsson (1998)
c. It is among the reasons that expert systems proved to be inefficient for capturing
knowledge.[30][31]
d. "Rational agent" is general term used in economics, philosophy and theoretical artificial
intelligence. It can refer to anything that directs its behavior to accomplish goals, such as a
person, an animal, a corporation, a nation, or in the case of AI, a computer program.
e. Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper
"Computing Machinery and Intelligence".[42] In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer
conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning:
"An Inductive Inference Machine".[43]
f. See AI winter § Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966
g. Compared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For
inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one
another. AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300 million edges to learn which ads
to serve.[93]
h. Expectation–maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows
clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables.[95]
 i. Some form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described
by: Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943)[115] Alan Turing (1948);[116] Karl Steinbuch
and Roger David Joseph (1961).[117] Deep or recurrent networks that learned (or used
gradient descent) were developed by: Frank Rosenblatt(1957);[116] Oliver Selfridge
(1959);[117] Alexey Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa (1965);[118] Kaoru Nakano (1971);[119]
Shun-Ichi Amari (1972);[119] John Joseph Hopfield (1982).[119] Precursors to
backpropagation were developed by: Henry J. Kelley (1960);[116] Arthur E. Bryson
(1962);[116] Stuart Dreyfus (1962);[116] Arthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho (1969);[116]
Backpropagation was independently developed by: Seppo Linnainmaa (1970);[120] Paul
Werbos (1974).[116]
j. Geoffrey Hinton said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, "our labeled datasets
were thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow."[121]
k. In statistics, a bias is a systematic error or deviation from the correct value. But in the
context of fairness, it refers to a tendency in favor or against a certain group or individual
characteristic, usually in a way that is considered unfair or harmful. A statistically unbiased
AI system that produces disparate outcomes for different demographic groups may thus be
viewed as biased in the ethical sense.[238]
l. Including Jon Kleinberg (Cornell University), Sendhil Mullainathan (University of Chicago),
Cynthia Chouldechova (Carnegie Mellon) and Sam Corbett-Davis (Stanford)[247]
m. Moritz Hardt (a director at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems) argues that
machine learning "is fundamentally the wrong tool for a lot of domains, where you're trying
to design interventions and mechanisms that change the world."[252]
n. When the law was passed in 2018, it still contained a form of this provision.
o. This is the United Nations' definition, and includes things like land mines as well.[266]
p. See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the U.S. average.[277]
q. Sometimes called a "robopocalypse"[285]
r. "Electronic brain" was the term used by the press around this time.[338][340]
s. Daniel Crevier wrote, "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the
new science."[343] Russell and Norvig called the conference "the inception of artificial
intelligence."[115]
t. Russell and Norvig wrote "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these
people and their students."[344]
u. Russell and Norvig wrote, "it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of
smartish".[345]
v. The programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel
Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU.
w. Russell and Norvig write: "in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult
problems"[349]
x. Embodied approaches to AI[356] were championed by Hans Moravec[357] and Rodney
Brooks[358] and went by many names: Nouvelle AI.[358] Developmental robotics.[359]
y. Matteo Wong wrote in The Atlantic: "Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as
natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different
methods, now they all use a programming method called "deep learning". As a result, their
code and approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate
into one another."[365]
 z. Jack Clark wrote in Bloomberg: "After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial
intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster
than ever", and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at
Google increased from a "sporadic usage" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.[367]
aa. Nils Nilsson wrote in 1983: "Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI
is all about."[388]
ab. Daniel Crevier wrote that "time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of
Dreyfus's comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they
suggested might have been taken much earlier."[393]
ac. Searle presented this definition of "Strong AI" in 1999.[403] Searle's original formulation was
"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers
given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive
states."[404] Strong AI is defined similarly by Russell and Norvig: "Stong AI – the assertion
that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking)."[405]

References
1. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 1–4.
2. AI set to exceed human brain power (http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostr
om/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080219001624/http://www.cnn.com/2006/TEC
H/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/) 2008-02-19 at the Wayback Machine CNN.com (July 26, 2006)
3. Kaplan, Andreas; Haenlein, Michael (2019). "Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the
land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence". Business
Horizons. 62: 15–25. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bushor.
2018.08.004). ISSN 0007-6813 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-6813).
S2CID 158433736 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158433736).
4. Artificial general intelligence: Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 32–33, 1020–1021)
Proposal for the modern version: Pennachin & Goertzel (2007)
Warnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers: Nilsson (1995), McCarthy
(2007), Beal & Winston (2009)
5. Russell & Norvig (2021, §1.2).
6. Dartmouth workshop: Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 18), McCorduck (2004, pp. 111–136), NRC
(1999, pp. 200–201)
The proposal: McCarthy et al. (1955)
7. Successful programs of the 1960s: McCorduck (2004, pp. 243–252), Crevier (1993, pp. 52–
107), Moravec (1988, p. 9), Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 19–21)
8. Funding initiatives in the early 1980s: Fifth Generation Project (Japan), Alvey (UK),
Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (US), Strategic Computing Initiative
(US): McCorduck (2004, pp. 426–441), Crevier (1993, pp. 161–162, 197–203, 211, 240),
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 23), NRC (1999, pp. 210–211), Newquist (1994, pp. 235–248)
9. First AI Winter, Lighthill report, Mansfield Amendment: Crevier (1993, pp. 115–117), Russell
& Norvig (2021, pp. 21–22), NRC (1999, pp. 212–213), Howe (1994), Newquist (1994,
pp. 189–201)
10. Second AI Winter: Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 24), McCorduck (2004, pp. 430–435), Crevier
(1993, pp. 209–210), NRC (1999, pp. 214–216), Newquist (1994, pp. 301–318)
11. Deep learning revolution, AlexNet: Goldman (2022), Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 26),
McKinsey (2018)
12. Toews (2023).
13. Problem-solving, puzzle solving, game playing, and deduction: Russell & Norvig (2021,
chpt. 3–5), Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 6) (constraint satisfaction), Poole, Mackworth &
Goebel (1998, chpt. 2, 3, 7, 9), Luger & Stubblefield (2004, chpt. 3, 4, 6, 8), Nilsson (1998,
chpt. 7–12)
14. Uncertain reasoning: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 12–18), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel
(1998, pp. 345–395), Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 333–381), Nilsson (1998, chpt. 7–12)
15. Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion: Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 21)
16. Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge:
Kahneman (2011), Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986), Wason & Shapiro (1966), Kahneman, Slovic
& Tversky (1982)
17. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 10),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 23–46, 69–81, 169–233, 235–277, 281–298, 319–
345), Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 227–243), Nilsson (1998, chpt. 17.1–17.4, 18)
18. Smoliar & Zhang (1994).
19. Neumann & Möller (2008).
20. Kuperman, Reichley & Bailey (2006).
21. McGarry (2005).
22. Bertini, Del Bimbo & Torniai (2006).
23. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 272.
24. Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance
(including frames, and scripts): Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.2 & 10.5), Poole, Mackworth &
Goebel (1998, pp. 174–177), Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 248–258), Nilsson (1998, chpt.
18.3)
25. Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including
solving the frame problem): Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.3), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel
(1998, pp. 281–298), Nilsson (1998, chpt. 18.2)
26. Causal calculus: Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 335–337)
27. Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics: Russell & Norvig
(2021, §10.4), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 275–277)
28. Default reasoning, Frame problem, default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription,
closed world assumption, abduction: Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.6), Poole, Mackworth &
Goebel (1998, pp. 248–256, 323–335), Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 335–363), Nilsson
(1998, ~18.3.3) (Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places
this under "uncertain reasoning").
29. Breadth of commonsense knowledge: Lenat & Guha (1989, Introduction), Crevier (1993,
pp. 113–114), Moravec (1988, p. 13), Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 241, 385, 982)
(qualification problem)
30. Newquist (1994), p. 296.
31. Crevier (1993), pp. 204–208.
32. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 528.
33. Automated planning: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 11).
34. Automated decision making, Decision theory: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 16–18).
35. Classical planning: Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 11.2).
36. Sensorless or "conformant" planning, contingent planning, replanning (a.k.a online
planning): Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 11.5).
37. Uncertain preferences: Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 16.7) Inverse reinforcement
learning: Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 22.6)
38. Information value theory: Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 16.6).
39. Markov decision process: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 17).
40. Game theory and multi-agent decision theory: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 18).
41. Learning: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 19–22), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998,
pp. 397–438), Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 385–542), Nilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3, 10.3,
17.5, 20)
42. Turing (1950).
43. Solomonoff (1956).
44. Unsupervised learning: Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 653) (definition), Russell & Norvig
(2021, pp. 738–740) (cluster analysis), Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 846–860) (word
embedding)
45. Supervised learning: Russell & Norvig (2021, §19.2) (Definition), Russell & Norvig (2021,
Chpt. 19–20) (Techniques)
46. Reinforcement learning: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 22), Luger & Stubblefield (2004,
pp. 442–449)
47. Transfer learning: Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 281), The Economist (2016)
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73. Adversarial search: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 5)
74. Local or "optimization" search: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 4)
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80. First-order logic and features such as equality: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 7), Poole,
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81. Logical inference: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)
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86. Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 12–18, 20),
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87. decision theory and decision analysis: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 16–18), Poole,
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88. Information value theory: Russell & Norvig (2021, sect. 16.6)
89. Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt.
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90. Stochastic temporal models: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 14) Hidden Markov model:
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91. Game theory and mechanism design: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 18)
92. Bayesian networks: Russell & Norvig (2021, sects. 12.5–12.6, 13.4–13.5, 14.3–14.5, 16.5,
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95. Domingos (2015), p. 210.
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102. Domingos (2015), p. 152.
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104. Neural networks: Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 21), Domingos (2015, Chapter 4)
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AI textbooks
The two most widely used textbooks in 2023 (see the Open Syllabus (https://explorer.opensyllabus.org/re
sult/field?id=Computer+Science)):

Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.).
Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-1346-1099-3. LCCN 20190474 (https://lccn.loc.gov/201904
74).
Rich, Elaine; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar B (2010). Artificial Intelligence (3rd ed.).
New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. ISBN 978-0-0700-8770-5.
The four most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:
Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for
Complex Problem Solving (https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) (5th ed.).
Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2020
0726220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) from the original on 26 July
2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
Nilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis (https://archive.org/details/artificialin
tell0000nils). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-5586-0467-4. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20200726131654/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils) from the original on
26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (http://aima.c
s.berkeley.edu/) (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-
790395-2.
Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical
Approach (https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool). New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-1951-0270-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131436/ht
tps://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved
22 August 2020. Later edition: Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan (2017). Artificial Intelligence:
Foundations of Computational Agents (http://artint.info/index.html) (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-1-1071-9539-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017120
7013855/http://artint.info/index.html) from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved
6 December 2017.
Other textbooks:

Ertel, Wolfgang (2017). Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-
3195-8486-7.
Ciaramella, Alberto; Ciaramella, Marco (2024). Introduction to Artificial Intelligence: from
data analysis to generative AI (1st ed.). Intellisemantic Editions. ISBN 978-8-8947-8760-3.

History of AI
Crevier, Daniel (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY:
BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3.
McCorduck, Pamela (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, Massachusetts: A. K.
Peters, ISBN 1-5688-1205-1
Newquist, H. P. (1994). The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines
That Think. New York: Macmillan/SAMS. ISBN 978-0-6723-0412-5.
Harmon, Paul; Sawyer, Brian (1990). Creating Expert Systems for Business and Industry. New
York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471614963.

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Further reading
Autor, David H., "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace
Automation" (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.
Berlinski, David (2000). The Advent of the Algorithm (https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith
0000berl). Harcourt Books. ISBN 978-0-1560-1391-8. OCLC 46890682 (https://search.world
cat.org/oclc/46890682). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200726215744/https://arch
ive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved
22 August 2020.
Boyle, James, The Line: AI and the Future of Personhood (https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/585
9/The-LineAI-and-the-Future-of-Personhood), MIT Press, 2024.
Cukier, Kenneth, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI", Foreign Affairs, vol.
98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–198. George Dyson, historian of computing, writes (in
what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable
will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated
enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.) Computer
scientist Alex Pentland writes: "Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at their core,
dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)
Evans, Woody (2015). "Posthuman Rights: Dimensions of Transhuman Worlds" (https://doi.org/
10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072). Teknokultura. 12 (2).
doi:10.5209/rev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072 (https://doi.org/10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49
072). S2CID 147612763 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147612763).
Frank, Michael (22 September 2023). "US Leadership in Artificial Intelligence Can Shape the
21st Century Global Order" (https://thediplomat.com/2023/09/us-leadership-in-artificial-intelli
gence-can-shape-the-21st-century-global-order). The Diplomat. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20240916014433/https://thediplomat.com/2023/09/us-leadership-in-artificial-intelli
gence-can-shape-the-21st-century-global-order/) from the original on 16 September 2024.
Retrieved 8 December 2023. "Instead, the United States has developed a new area of
dominance that the rest of the world views with a mixture of awe, envy, and resentment:
artificial intelligence... From AI models and research to cloud computing and venture capital,
U.S. companies, universities, and research labs – and their affiliates in allied countries –
appear to have an enormous lead in both developing cutting-edge AI and commercializing it.
The value of U.S. venture capital investments in AI start-ups exceeds that of the rest of the
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External links
"Artificial Intelligence" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/art-inte). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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