1. Is multiplexing the process of transmitting multiple signals over multiple channels?

No,
multiplexing is the process of transmitting multiple signals over a single channel.

2. State the primary benefit of multiplexing.

The primary benefit is the efficient utilization of bandwidth, enabling multiple signals to share the same
channel.

3. What is the name of the circuit used at the receiver to recover multiplexed signals? A
demultiplexer.

4. What is the basic principle of FDM?

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) works by assigning unique frequency bands to each signal within
the available bandwidth.

5. What circuit combines the multiple signals in an FDM system? A multiplexer or combiner circuit.

6. What is the name of the circuit to which the signals to be frequency-multiplexed are applied?
A modulator.

7. What kind of modulation do most telemetry multiplex systems use? Frequency modulation (FM)
or phase modulation (PM).

8. Name three places where telemetry is used.

1. Space exploration (satellites).

2. Healthcare (remote patient monitoring).

3. Weather monitoring systems.

9. Define spatial multiplexing. Where is it used?

Spatial multiplexing uses multiple spatial streams for signal transmission and is commonly used in MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output) systems in wireless communication.

10. What is the mathematical designation of the monaural signal in FM stereo multiplexing? The
monaural signal is designated as L+RL + R (Left + Right).

11. Name the four signals transmitted in FM stereo multiplex.

1. Monaural signal (L+RL + R).

2. Stereo difference signal (L−RL - R).

3. Pilot signal (19 kHz).

4. Subcarrier signal.

12. What type of modulation is used on the L−RL - R channel?

Amplitude Modulation (AM).

13. What type of modulation is used by the SCA signals in stereo systems? Frequency Modulation
(FM).
14. What is the basic circuit used for demultiplexing in FDM systems? A bandpass filter.

15. In TDM, how do multiple signals share a channel?

By taking turns to use the channel in separate time slots.

16. What type of modulation is produced when an analog signal is sampled at high speed? Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM).

17. What type of circuit is used to recreate the clock pulses at the receiver in a PAM system? A phase-
locked loop (PLL).

18. In a PAM system, how are the multiplexer and demultiplexer kept in step with each other? By
synchronizing with a common clock signal.

19. What is the time period called in a PAM or PCM system when all channels are sampled once?
A frame.

20. What circuit is used to demodulate a PAM signal? A low-pass filter.

21. What type of switch is used in an electronic multiplexer? An electronic or

transistor-based switch.

22. How is the desired input to a time-division multiplexer selected? By enabling

the corresponding time slot.

23. How is a PAM signal transmitted?

By converting the amplitude of pulses proportional to the sampled signal and transmitting these pulses.

24. What type of clock recovery circuit tracks PAM frequency variations? A phase-
locked loop (PLL).

25. How are analog signals transmitted in a PCM system?

Analog signals are sampled, quantized, and encoded into digital form for transmission.

26. What is the name of the IC that converts A/D and D/A signals in a PCM
telephone system? A codec (coder-decoder).

27. What is the standard audio sampling rate in a PCM telephone system? 8 kHz.

28. What is the standard word size in a PCM telephone system?

8 bits.

29. What is the main benefit of PCM over PAM, FM, and other modulation techniques? PCM offers
higher noise immunity and better signal quality.

30. What is the total number of bits in one T-1 frame?

A T-1 frame contains 193 bits (24 channels × 8 bits + 1 framing bit).

31. Does a T-1 system use baseband or broadband techniques? Explain.

A T-1 system uses baseband techniques, as it transmits digital signals directly over the channel without
modulation.
32. Define half and full duplex.

• Half duplex: Communication occurs in both directions but only one direction at a time (e.g.,
walkie-talkies).

• Full duplex: Communication occurs simultaneously in both directions (e.g., telephones).

33. Explain the difference between FDD and TDD.

• FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing): Uses separate frequency bands for uplink and downlink.

• TDD (Time Division Duplexing): Uses the same frequency band but allocates different time slots
for uplink and downlink.

34. Discuss the pros and cons of FDD versus TDD.

• FDD Pros:

o Low latency.

o Suitable for symmetric traffic.

• FDD Cons:

o Requires more spectrum.

o Higher cost.

• TDD Pros: o Efficient for asymmetric traffic.

o Flexible spectrum utilization.

• TDD Cons:

o Higher latency.

o Requires precise synchronization.

Here is a detailed answer to the questions from the provided image:

Spectral Efficiency Section

1. Which modulation has the greatest spectral efficiency?

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) has the greatest spectral efficiency.

2. What is the second most efficient modulation method?

Phase Shift Keying (PSK), particularly Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), is the second most efficient.

3. What role does noise play in comparing modulation methods?

Noise affects the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), determining how reliably the signal can be demodulated.
Modulation methods with higher spectral efficiency are more sensitive to noise.
4. What types of modulation are best in noisy environments?
Frequency modulation (FM) and Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) are more robust in noisy environments.

5. What types of circuits are used to produce most high-level modulations?

Mixers, oscillators, and modulators such as phase modulators and amplitude modulators are commonly
used.

Questions Section

1. Name the earliest form of binary data communication. Morse Code.

2. What do you call dot-dash code transmission by radio? Continuous Wave (CW) transmission.

3. How do you distinguish between uppercase and lowercase letters in Morse code? Morse code
does not differentiate between uppercase and lowercase; it represents letters and numbers
uniformly.

4. What is Morse code for the characters C, 7, and ?

• C: -.-.

• 7: --...

• ?: ..--..

5. How many bits are in a byte?

8 bits.

6. Name the two ways in which bits are transmitted from one place to another. Serial transmission
and parallel transmission.

7. What is the most widely used binary data code that uses 7 bits to represent characters?
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).

8. What ASCII character is transmitted to ring a bell? The bell character (ASCII code 7, represented as
BEL).

9. For a given data path length, which is faster, serial or parallel transmission? Parallel transmission
is faster but less efficient over long distances.

10. What is used to signal the beginning and end of the transmission of a character in asynchronous
transmissions? Start and stop bits.

11. What is the name given to the number of symbols occurring per second in a data transmission?
Baud rate.

12. How can there be more than 1 bit per baud in data transmissions? By using multi-level encoding
schemes such as QAM or PSK.

13. How many bits per baud (symbol) can be transmitted by a four-level FSK signal? 2 bits per baud.
14. Which is faster, asynchronous transmission or synchronous transmission? Explain. Synchronous
transmission is faster because it uses a continuous stream of data without the overhead of start
and stop bits.

15. How is a message sent using synchronous data transmission?

Messages are sent in blocks, with synchronization achieved using clock signals.

16. In serial data transmission, what are the special names given to a binary 0 and a binary 1?

• Binary 0: Space.

• Binary 1: Mark.

17. What encoding method is used in most standard digital logic signals? Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ).

18. What occurrence in serial data transmission makes it difficult to detect the clock rate when NRZ
is used?
Long sequences of identical bits (e.g., continuous 0s or 1s).

19. What two encoding methods are best for clock recovery? Manchester encoding and Bipolar
encoding.

20. What is a benefit of the RZ-AMI method of encoding? It provides clock recovery and reduces DC
bias.

21. Give two names for the encoding system that makes use of a transition at the center of each bit.
Manchester encoding or Biphase encoding.

22. Explain how GMSK permits higher data rates in a smaller bandwidth.
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) minimizes sideband power and reduces bandwidth usage.

23. What two factors does the amount of information that can be sent in a given transmission
depend on?
Bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

24. True or false? Multilevel or multisymbol binary encoding schemes permit more data to be
transmitted in less time, assuming a constant symbol interval. True.

25. For a given bandwidth system, what is the advantage of using a multisymbol encoding scheme?
It increases the data transmission rate.

26. Name the major components and circuits of a modem.

Modulator, demodulator, analog-to-digital converter, and digital-to-analog converter.

27. What is the function of a modem?

A modem modulates and demodulates signals for data transmission over telephone lines.

28. What is the maximum download speed of a VDSL2 modem? Up to 200 Mbps,
depending on the distance.
29. What kind of modulation is used on an ADSL modem? What is the maximum
download speed?
Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT) modulation; maximum speed is around 24 Mbps.

30. What factor determines the maximum speed of an ADSL or VDSL modem? The
length and quality of the telephone line.

1. What is the basic makeup of a radio wave?

Radio waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space.

2. What is the name of the mathematical expressions that describe the behavior of electromagnetic
waves? Maxwell's equations.

3. Describe the relationship between the types of fields that make up a radio wave. The electric and
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.

4. What part of a radio wave determines its polarization with respect to the Earth's surface? The
orientation of the electric field.

5. What is the polarization of a radio wave with a magnetic field that is horizontal to the Earth?
Vertical polarization.

6. Define what is meant by antenna reciprocity.

Antenna reciprocity means an antenna can transmit and receive signals equally well.

7. What is the name of the antenna type upon which most other antennas are based? The dipole
antenna.

8. What is the length of this antenna in terms of wavelength at the operating frequency? Half of the
wavelength (λ/2).

9. What is the most commonly used medium for connecting an antenna to a transmitter or receiver?
Coaxial cable.

10. What is the length of a dipole?

Half of the wavelength of the operating frequency.

11. State the theoretical radiation resistance or drive impedance of a dipole. Approximately 73 ohms.

12. What factors affect the impedance of a dipole and how?

• Height above the ground: Changes the radiation pattern and impedance.

• Surrounding environment: Nearby objects can cause impedance mismatch.

13. What is the equivalent circuit of a dipole at resonance, above resonance, and below resonance?

• At resonance: Pure resistance.

• Above resonance: Resistance with inductive reactance.

 • Below resonance: Resistance with capacitive reactance.

1. What is the most common coax characteristic impedance? • Answer: 50 ohms is the most
common characteristic impedance for coaxial cables used in RF applications. Other common values are
75 ohms for video and broadband applications.

2. What is rigid coax, and where is it used? • Answer: Rigid coax is a type of coaxial cable with a
solid outer conductor, providing low attenuation and high shielding. It is commonly used in
highfrequency or high-power applications like broadcasting and cellular communication systems.

1. Name the two basic types of transmission lines. Which is more widely used? • Answer: The two types
are balanced lines and unbalanced lines. Unbalanced lines (e.g., coaxial cables) are more widely
used.

2. What is the name for a transmission line that has one of its two conductors connected to the
ground? • Answer: An unbalanced line.

3. Name a popular type of balanced line. • Answer: Twisted pair cables.

4. What is the name given to the distance that a signal travels during one cycle? • Answer: Wavelength.

5. Name a popular UHF connector used for coaxial cable. • Answer: The PL-259 connector.

6. What is the coaxial cable connector commonly used on test equipment and in LANs? • Answer: The
BNC connector.

7. What is the best coaxial cable connector for UHF and microwave applications? • Answer: The N
connector or SMA connector.

8. What type of coaxial connector is widely used for cable TV and VCR connections? • Answer: The F
connector.

9. Describe the equivalent circuit of a transmission line. • Answer: A transmission line can be modeled
as a network of distributed elements, including series resistance, series inductance, shunt
capacitance, and shunt conductance per unit length.

10. What determines the characteristic impedance of a transmission line? • Answer: The characteristic
impedance is determined by the geometry and materials of the line, specifically the ratio of the
inductance per unit length to the capacitance per unit length.

11. What is another name for characteristic impedance? • Answer: Surge impedance.

12. What is the importance of the velocity factor in determining cable lengths? • Answer: The velocity
factor determines the effective speed of signal propagation in the cable, affecting the wavelength
and required length for specific resonances.

13. How does the cutoff frequency of a coaxial cable vary with its length? • Answer: The cutoff frequency
is inversely proportional to the length of the coaxial cable; longer cables have lower cutoff
frequencies.
14. Describe the pattern of the current and voltage along a properly matched transmission line. •
Answer: In a matched transmission line, the current and voltage are constant along the line, with no
reflections.

15. Describe what happens if a transmission line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance. •
Answer: Reflections occur, leading to standing waves and a mismatch, which reduces power transfer
efficiency.

16. What is the effect on transmitted power when load and transmission line impedances are
mismatched? • Answer: Part of the transmitted power is reflected, reducing the amount of power
delivered to the load.

17. Under which two conditions will all incident power on a line be reflected? • Answer: When the line is
terminated with an open circuit or a short circuit.

18. What is the ratio of the reflected voltage to the incident voltage on a transmission line called? •
Answer: The reflection coefficient.

19. What do you call a mismatched transmission line? • Answer: A reactive line or standing wave line.

20. How does the length of a matched transmission line affect the SWR? • Answer: In a matched line, the
SWR remains constant regardless of length.

21. Name two ways to implement a series resonant circuit with a transmission line. • Answer: By using a
stub (open or short-circuited) or a quarter-wavelength section of transmission line.

22. How do transmission lines less than λ/4 or between λ/4 and λ/2 at the operating frequency act? •
Answer: • Less than λ/4: Act as inductive or capacitive reactance. • Between λ/4 and λ/2: Act as
impedance inverters.

23. How many wavelengths does one complete revolution around a Smith chart represent? • Answer:
One complete revolution represents half a wavelength (λ/2).

Transmission Lines • The two primary requirements of a transmission line are that

(1) the line introduce minimum attenuation to the signal and

(2) the line not radiate any of the signal as radio energy. All transmission lines and connectors are
designed with these requirements in mind.

Types of Transmission Lines

• Parallel-Wire Lines - is made of two parallel conductors separated by a space of 1⁄2 in to several inches.
Fig. 13-1(a) shows a two-wire balanced line in which insulating spacers have been used to keep the wires
separated. Such lines are rarely used today. A variation of parallel line is the 300-V twin-lead type shown
in Fig. 13-1(b), where the spacing between the wires is maintained by a continuous plastic insulator.
Parallel-wire lines are rarely used today.
• Coaxial Cable - The most widely used type of transmission line is coaxial cable, which consists of a solid
center conductor surrounded by a dielectric material, usually a plastic insulator such as Tel on. [see Fig.
13 1(c)]. An air or gas dielectric, in which the center conductor is held in place by periodic insulating
spacers, can also be used. Over the insulator is a second conductor, a tubular braid or shield made of i ne
wires. An outer plastic sheath protects and insulates the braid. Coaxial cable comes in a variety of sizes,
from approximately 1⁄4 in to several inches in diameter.

• Twisted-Pair Cable - as the name implies, uses two insulated solid copper wires covered with insulation
and loosely twisted together. See Fig. 13-1 (d). This type of cable was originally used in telephone wiring
and is still used for that today. But it is also used for security system wiring of sensors and other
equipment. And twisted-pair cable, is one of the most widely used types of wiring in local area networks
(LANs). It is generally known as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable. There are many grades of twisted-
pair cable for handling low-frequency audio or high-frequency pulses. The size of wire, type of insulation,
and tightness of the twist (twists per inch) determine its characteristics. It is available with an overall
braid shield and is called shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable. The most common version contains four pairs
within a common insulated tubing.

Balanced vs Unbalanced

• A balanced line is one in which neither wire is connected to ground. Instead, the signal on each wire is
referenced to ground. The same current flows in each wire with respect to ground, although the
direction of current in one wire is 180° out of phase with the current in the other wire.

• In an unbalanced line, one conductor is connected to ground. The twisted-pair line [Fig. 13-1(d)] may
be used in a balanced or an unbalanced arrangement, although the balanced form is more common.

• Balanced-line wires offer significant protection from noise pickup and cross talk. Because of the
identical polarities of the signals on balanced lines, any external signal induced into the cable appears on
both wires simultaneously but cancels at the receiver. This is called common-mode rejection, and noise
reduction can be as great as 60 to 70 dB.

Balun

Wavelength of Cables

• Low Frequency: carrier of the AC voltage

• Conductor size - determines current-carrying capability and voltage drop over long distances. �
�𝑅𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑀𝐼𝑆𝑆𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 ≥ 0.1𝜆

• The line takes on special characteristics and requires a more complex analysis when dealing with: - -
HIGHER FREQUENCY LONGER TRANSMISSION LINES λ_(𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒)>λ_(𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒) � �_(𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒)>𝑣_(𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)

Velocity Factor Calculating Velocity Factor

Time Delay

A signal applied at one end of a line appears sometime later at the other end of the line. This is called the
time delay or transit time for the line. A transmission line used specifically for the purpose of achieving
delay is called a delay line.

Characteristic Impedance

An RF generator connected to such a transmission line sees an impedance that is a function of the
inductance, resistance, and capacitance in the circuit—the characteristic or surge impedance 𝒁𝟎.

Standing Waves

• If a resistive load equal to the characteristic impedance of a line is connected at the end of the line, the
signal is absorbed by the load and power is dissipated as heat.

• If the load is an antenna, the signal is converted to electromagnetic energy and radiated into space.

• If the load at the end of a line is an open circuit or a short circuit or has an impedance other than the
characteristic impedance of the line, the signal is not fully absorbed by the load. When a line is not
terminated properly, some of the energy is reflected from the end of the line and actually moves back up
the line, toward the generator. This reflected voltage adds to the forward or incident generator voltage
and forms a composite voltage that is distributed along the line. This pattern of voltage and its related
current constitute what is called a standing wave.

• Standing wave = signal + reflected signal

The Relationship Between and Standing Waves Reflections

Once the signal reaches the right end of the line, a reverse charging effect takes place on the capacitors
from right to left. The effect is as if a signal were moving from output to input. This moving charge from
right to left is the reflection, or reflected wave, and the input wave from the generator to the end of the
line is the incident wave. Open and shorted transmission lines are sometimes used to create special
effects. In practice, however, the load on a transmission line is neither infinite nor 0 V; rather, it is
typically some value in between. The load may be resistive or may have a reactive component. Antennas
typically do not have a perfect resistance value. Instead, they frequently have a small capacitive or
inductive reactance. Thus, the load impedance is equivalent to a series RC or RL circuit with an
impedance of the form R ± jX. If the load is not exactly resistive and is equal to the characteristic
impedance of the line, a reflection is produced, the exact voltage levels depending on the complex
impedance of the load. Usually some of the power is absorbed by the resistive part of the line; the
mismatch still produces a reflection, but the reflection is not equal to the original signal, as in the case of
a shorted or open load.
Digital Transmission

• Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital signals between two or more points in a
communications system.

• Digital pulses cannot be propagated through a wireless transmission system, such as Earth’s
atmosphere or free space (vacuum).

Advantages of Digital Transmission • The primary advantage of digital transmission over analog
transmission is noise immunity. • Digital signals are also better suited than analog signals for processing
and combining using a technique called multiplexing. • In addition, digital transmission systems are more
resistant to analog systems to additive noise because they use signal regeneration rather than signal
amplification. • Finally, digital signals are simpler to measure and evaluate than analog signals

Disadvantages of Digital Transmission • The transmission of digitally encoded analog signals requires
significantly more bandwidth than simply transmitting the original analog signal. • Also, analog signals
must be converted to digital pulses prior to transmission and converted back to their original analog
form at the receiver, thus necessitating additional encoding and decoding circuitry. • In addition, digital
transmission requires precise time synchronization between the clocks in the transmitters and receivers.
• Finally, digital transmission systems are incompatible with older analog transmission systems.

Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information signals and then converting those
samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical
transmission medium. The four predominant methods of pulse modulation include pulse width
modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), and pulse
code modulation (PCM).

Pulse Width Modulation PWM is sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse length
modulation (PLM), as the width (active portion of the duty cycle) of a constant amplitude pulse is varied
proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is sampled. PWM is shown in
Figure 1c. As the figure shows, the amplitude of sample 1 is lower than the amplitude of sample 2. Thus,
pulse 1 is narrower than pulse 2. The maximum analog signal amplitude produces the widest pulse, and
the minimum analog signal amplitude produces the narrowest pulse. Note, however, that all pulses have
the same amplitude.

Pulse Position Modulation With PPM, the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot
is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. PPM is shown in Figure 1d. As the
figure shows, the higher the amplitude of the sample, the farther to the right the pulse is positioned
within the prescribed time slot. The highest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the far right, and the
lowest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the far left.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation With PAM, the amplitude of a constant width, constant position pulse is
varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. PAM is shown in Figure 1e, where it
can be seen that the amplitude of a pulse coincides with the amplitude of the analog signal. PAM
waveforms resemble the original analog signal more than the waveforms for PWM or PPM.

pulse Code Modulation With PCM, the analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit
binary code for transmission. Each code has the same number of bits and requires the same length of
time for transmission. PCM is shown in Figure 1f.

PCM Alex H. Reeves is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while working for AT&T at its Paris
laboratories. Although the merits of PCM were recognized early in its development, it was not until the
mid-1960s, with the advent of solid-state electronics, that PCM became prevalent. In the United States
today, PCM is the preferred method of communications within the public switched telephone network
because with PCM it is easy to combine digitized voice and digital data into a single, high-speed digital
signal and propagate it over either metallic or optical fiber cables.

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS • the transmission, reception, and processing of information with the
use of electronic circuits.

INFORMATION • defined as knowledge or intelligence that is communicated (i.e., transmitted or

received) between two or more points.

DIGITAL MODULATION • the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers) between two or
more points in a communications system.

DIGITAL RADIO • Another term for digital modulation since digitally modulated signals can be propagated
through Earth’s atmosphere and used

Digital communications include systems where relatively high-frequency analog carriers are modulated
by relatively low-frequency digital information signals (digital radio) and systems involving the
transmission of digital pulses (digital transmission).

Digital transmission systems transport information in digital form and, therefore, require a physical
facility between the transmitter and receiver, such as a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, or an optical
fiber cable.

Both analog and digital modulation systems use analog carriers to transport the information through the
system. However, with analog modulation systems, the information signal is also analog, whereas with
digital modulation, the information signal is digital, which could be computer-generated data or digitally
encoded analog signals.

AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) • Referring to equation above, if the information signal is digital and the
amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal
called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced.
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) • If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal,
frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced.

PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK) • If the phase of the carrier (θ) is varied proportional to the information
signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced.

QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) • If both the amplitude and the phase are varied
proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results.

Applications of digital modulation includes: • Relatively low-speed voice-band data communications

modems, such as those found in most personal computers. • High-speed data transmission systems, such
as broadband digital subscriber lines (DSL). • Digital microwave and satellite communications systems. •
Cellular telephone Personal Communications Systems (PCS).

TRANSMITTER • In the transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and then encodes the
incoming data into groups of bits that modulate an analog carrier. The modulated carrier is shaped
(filtered), amplified, and then transmitted through the transmission medium to the receiver.

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM • The transmission medium can be a metallic cable, optical fiber cable, Earth’s
atmosphere, or a combination of two or more types of transmission systems. RECEIVER • In the receiver,
the incoming signals are filtered, amplified, and then applied to the demodulator and decoder circuits,
which extracts the original source information from the modulated carrier. The clock and carrier recovery
circuits recover the analog carrier and digital timing (clock) signals from the incoming modulated wave
since they are necessary to perform the demodulation process.

Information Theory • a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate
information through electronic communications systems.

Information Capacity • a measure of how much information can be propagated through a

communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time. • represents the number
of independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a given unit of time.

Binary Digit or Bit • the most basic digital symbol used to represent information

Bit Rate • is simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second
(bps).

From the equation, it can be seen that information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and
transmission time and is directly proportional to both. If either the bandwidth or the transmission time
changes, a directly proportional change occurs in the information capacity

In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone Laboratories) published a paper in the
Bell System Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a communications channel to
bandwidth and signal-to noise ratio. The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the performance and
the higher the information capacity.

M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the
number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables. It is often
advantageous to encode at a level higher than binary (sometimes referred to as beyond binary or higher-
than-binary encoding) where there are more than two conditions possible.

Baud, like bit rate (which it is sometimes confused with), is also a rate of change; however, baud refers to
the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.

Hence, baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate and, therefore, the terms
symbols per second and baud are often used interchangeably.

A signaling element is sometimes called a symbol and could be encoded as a change in the amplitude,
frequency, or phase.

According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal noiseless
transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium. The minimum
theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or
sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, fb=2B, where fb is the bit rate in bps and B is the
ideal Nyquist bandwidth.

The actual bandwidth necessary to propagate a given bit rate depends on several factors, including the
type of encoding and modulation used, the types of filters used, system noise, and desired error
performance. The ideal bandwidth is generally used for comparison purposes only.

y comparing the two equations, it can be seen that with digital modulation, the baud and the ideal
minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the same value and are equal to the bit rate divided by the number
of bits encoded. This statement holds true for all forms of digital modulation except frequency shift
keying.

PCM Sampling The function of a sampling circuit in a PCM transmitter is to periodically sample the
continually changing analog input voltage and convert those samples to a series of constant amplitude
pulses that can more easily be converted to binary PCM code. For the ADC to accurately convert a
voltage to a binary code, the voltage must be relatively constant so that the ADC can complete the
conversion before the voltage level changes. If not, the ADC would be continually attempting to follow
the changes and may never stabilize on any PCM code.

Natural sampling is when tops of the sample pulses retain their natural shape during the sample
interval, making it difficult for an ADC to convert the sample to a PCM code. With natural sampling,
the frequency spectrum of the sampled output is different from that of an ideal sample. The amplitude
of the frequency components produced from narrow, finite-width sample pulses decreases for the
higher harmonics in a (sin x)/x manner. This alters the information frequency spectrum requiring the
use of frequency equalizers (compensation filters) before recovery by a low pass filter.

Natural sampling is when tops of the sample pulses retain their natural shape during the sample
interval, making it difficult for an ADC to convert the sample to a PCM code. With natural sampling,
the frequency spectrum of the sampled output is different from that of an ideal sample. The amplitude
of the frequency components produced from narrow, finite-width sample pulses decreases for the
higher harmonics in a (sin x)/x manner. This alters the information frequency spectrum requiring the
use of frequency equalizers (compensation filters) before recovery by a low pass filter. Flat-top
Sampling The most common method used for sampling voice signals in PCM systems is flat-top
sampling, which is accomplished in a sample-and-hold circuit. The purpose of a sample-and hold
circuit is to periodically sample the continually changing analog input voltage and convert those
samples to a series of constant-amplitude PAM voltage levels. With flat top sampling, the input
voltage is sampled with a narrow pulse and then held relatively constant until the next sample is
taken.

The Nyquist sampling theorem establishes the minimum sampling rate (fs) that can be used for a given
PCM system. For a sample to be reproduced accurately in a PCM receiver, each cycle of the analog
input signal (fa) must be sampled at least twice. Consequently, the minimum sampling rate is equal to
twice the highest audio input frequency. If fs is less than two times fa, an impairment called alias or
foldover distortion occurs.