Visit https://ebookultra.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks

Food Science Nutrition 1st Edition Sunetra Roday

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookultra.com/download/food-science-
nutrition-1st-edition-sunetra-roday/

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookultra.com

Here are some suggested products you might be interested in.
Click the link to download

Dictionary of Food Science and Nutrition 1st Edition A & C

Black Publishers

https://ebookultra.com/download/dictionary-of-food-science-and-
nutrition-1st-edition-a-c-black-publishers/

Delivering Performance in Food Supply Chains Woodhead

Publishing Series in Food Science Technology and Nutrition
1st Edition C Mena
https://ebookultra.com/download/delivering-performance-in-food-supply-
chains-woodhead-publishing-series-in-food-science-technology-and-
nutrition-1st-edition-c-mena/

Lawrie s meat science Seventh Edition Woodhead Publishing

in Food Science Technology and Nutrition R. A. Lawrie

https://ebookultra.com/download/lawrie-s-meat-science-seventh-edition-
woodhead-publishing-in-food-science-technology-and-nutrition-r-a-
lawrie/

Cereal Grains Assessing and Managing Quality Food Science

Technology and Nutrition 1st Edition C. Wrigley

https://ebookultra.com/download/cereal-grains-assessing-and-managing-
quality-food-science-technology-and-nutrition-1st-edition-c-wrigley/
Reviews in Food and Nutrition Toxicity Volume 4 Reviews in
Food and Nutrition 1st Edition Victor R. Preedy

https://ebookultra.com/download/reviews-in-food-and-nutrition-
toxicity-volume-4-reviews-in-food-and-nutrition-1st-edition-victor-r-
preedy/

Advances in Food Nutrition Research 61 1st Edition Steve

Taylor

https://ebookultra.com/download/advances-in-food-nutrition-
research-61-1st-edition-steve-taylor/

Food Science and Food Biotechnology 1st Edition Gustavo F.

Gutierrez-Lopez

https://ebookultra.com/download/food-science-and-food-
biotechnology-1st-edition-gustavo-f-gutierrez-lopez/

Advances in Food and Nutrition Research Volume 76 1st

Edition Henry

https://ebookultra.com/download/advances-in-food-and-nutrition-
research-volume-76-1st-edition-henry/

Reviews in Food and Nutrition Toxicity 1st Edition Victor

R. Preedy

https://ebookultra.com/download/reviews-in-food-and-nutrition-
toxicity-1st-edition-victor-r-preedy/
Food Science Nutrition 1st Edition Sunetra Roday Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Sunetra Roday
ISBN(s): 9780195689112, 0195689119
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 23.20 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
 ‘@)seteyxe
HIGHER EDUCATION

SUNETRA RODAY
ood Sclence
K Nutrition

me SS oad
Sen
Maharashtra State Instbteo
“ofHotel Mannagement and
ogy

ILL ILIL
CORNWALL COLLEGE
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. —

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in

Oxford New York

Auckland Cape Town Dares Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto

With offices in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press

in the UK and in certain other countries.

Published in India
by Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press 2007

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

Database right Oxford University Press (maker)

First published 2007

Third impression 2008

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-56891 1-2

ISBN-10: 0-19-568911-9

12 OY
See mnan 9mLENG oy
stmt

Typeset in Baskerville
by Planman Technologies, India
Printed in India by Sai Printopack, New Delhi 110020
and published by Oxford University Press
YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001
 In ever loving memory of
my father
late Col. A W Shrouti
on his 85th birth anniversary
vi Preface

oils, flavour, browning reactions, food processing, food evaluation, and the new
trends in foods. This part covers scientific principles and. their applications in the
preparation of food and commercial food products. The focus is on the composition,
structure, and behaviour of food in relation to pre-preparation, cooking, packaging,
and storage relevant to catering operations. New commodities and processes which
are of current relevance have been included.
The second part, comprising 12 chapters, introduces nutrition and explains
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, minerals, and energy metabolism
from the perspective of nutrition science. It also discusses balanced diets, menu
planning and mass food production, modified diets, and the new trends in nutrition.
Weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-related diseases are included. Dietary
guidelines for prevention of deficiency and problems related to excessive consumption
have been covered.

Sunetra Roday
 Acknowledgements

Many people from the industry and academia have helped me in successfully
completing this project and I am grateful for their contributions. It is practically
impossible to name them all but I would specially like to mention a few.
I am grateful to Dr S K Mahajan, Joint Director, Technical Education, Maharashtra,
and Principal, Maharashtra State Institute of Hotel Management and Catering
Technology, Pune, for his inspiration and encouragement.
I would like to acknowledge the technical data provided by Dr Prashant Gadkari,
our family homeopath and friend at Pune.
I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my son Vikrant Roday and his friend
Praveen Khurjekar for providing all technical assistance and to my daughter
Dr Neha Roday for her invaluable contribution to the section on nutrition.
I would also like to thank my colleagues, support staff, and students for their
suggestions, contribution, and help.
I extend my sincere thanks to the publisher—its editorial and production staff—
and also the reviewers for their valuable time and suggestions.
I am greatly indebted to my husband and entire family for putting up with
impossible hours and schedules.

SR
 Contents

Part! Food Science

1 Introduction to Food Science
Introduction

Food Science Concepts

Basic SI Units of Length, Area, Volume, and Weight
Density
Temperature
pH or Potential Hydrogen
Important Terminologies, their Definition and Relevance
Colloidal Systems in Foods
Introduction
Constituents of Food
Stability of Colloidal Systems
Carbohydrates
Introduction
Classification of Carbohydrates
Structure of Carbohydrates
Starch
Gelation
Retrogradation
Dextrinization
Types of Food Starches
Sugar
Soluble Fibres: Pectins, Gums, and Mucilages
Proteins
Introduction
Basic Structure and Properties
Native Proteins
Denatured Proteins
Functional Properties of Specific Protein Rich Foods
Milk
eeee “$C GD
Contents &
ix

Eggs 71
Meat 77
Commercial Uses of Proteins 81
6 Fats and Oils 85
Introduction 85
Structure 86
Rancidity 88
Reversion 90
Factors Leading to Rancidity and Reversion 91
Prevention of Rancidity 92
Effect of Heat on Fats and Oils OZ
Polymerization 92
Care of Fats and Oils 93
Extraction of Fats and Oils 93
Refining 94
Winterization 95
Hydrogenation of Oils 95
Shortenings 96
Popular Fats and Oils Available 98
Commercial Uses of Fats and Oils 99

7 Flavour 103
Introduction 103
Definitions 104
Use of Flavours in Food Preparation 110

8 Browning Reactions 112

Introduction 112
Types of Browning Reactions 113
Role of Browning In Food Preparation 118
Detrimental Effects of Browning 119
9 Food Processing 121
Introduction 121
Causes of Food Spoilage 122
Objectives of Food Processing 123
Methods of Food Preservation 124
Effect of Processing (Heat, Acid, and Alkali) on Food Constituents 139
x Contents

10 Evaluation of Food
Introduction
Methods of Evaluation
Proximate Analysis of Food Constituents
11 New Trends in Foods
Introduction
Soya Foods
Food Fads
Organic Foods
New Trends in Packaging
Edible Films

Part Il Nutrition
12 Introduction to Nutrition
Introduction
Relation of Food and Health
Food and its Functions
Classification of Nutrients
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Food
13 Carbohydrates
Introduction
Classification of Carbohydrates
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism
Dietary Sources
Functions
Artificial Sweeteners
Alcohol
14 Proteins
Introduction
Protein Quality
Classification of Proteins
Functions in the Human Body
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism
Methods of Improving Protein Quality
Factors Influencing Protein Requirements
Dietary Sources
Effect of Deficiency and Excess
 Contents xi

15 Lipids 210
Introduction 210
Classification of Lipids 211
Fatty Acids 212
Unsaturated Fatty Acids 213
Antioxidants 215
Saturated Fatty Acids Zi
Phospholipids 216
Lipoproteins 216
Cholesterol 218
Functions of Fats 218
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Fats 219
Dietary Source 221
Deficiency of Fats Dae
Symptoms of Excessive Intake 222
Recommended Dietary Allowances 222
16 Water 226
Introduction 226
Functions 227
Daily Intake of Water 227.
Daily Loss of Body Water 228
Water Balance 229
17 Vitamins 232
Introduction 232
Classification 233
Fat Soluble Vitamins 234
Water Soluble Vitamins 238
Effect of Cooking on Vitamins 245

18 Minerals 248
Introduction 248
Classification 249
General Functions of Minerals 249

19 Energy Metabolism 261

Introduction 261
Forms of Energy 262
Units of Measurement 263
xii Contents eee
Tee

Energy Value of Food

Energy Needs of the Body
Total Energy Requirement
Basal Metabolic Rate
Specific Dynamic Action
Physical Activity
Energy Balance
Calculating the Energy Value Based on Proximate Principles
Dietary Sources
Estimation of Energy Requirements
Modifying Energy Content of Meals
20 Balanced Diet
Introduction
Recommended Dietary Allowances
Basic Food Groups
Guidelines for Using the Basic Food Group
21 Menu Planning and Mass Food Production
Introduction
Factors Influencing Meal Planning
Planning Balanced Meals
Steps in Planning Balanced Meals
Calculating the Nutritive Value of a Recipe
Special Nutritional Requirements
Effect of Quantity Cooking and Processing on Nutrients
22 Modified Diets
Introduction
Purpose of Diet Therapy
Classification of Modified Diets
Diets for Common Disorders

23 New Trends in Nutrition

Need for Serving Nutritional and Health-specific Meals
Nutritive Value of Fast Food and Junk Food
Nutritional Evaluation of Newly Launched Products
Significance of Nutritional Labelling
Index
PART ONE 7 FOOD SCIENCE

Introduction
Food Science

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
¢ appreciate the importance of food science to a caterer in the context of the processed food
revolution
¢ understand the relationship of food science to food EEN: fone AEP OOEy and food
processing | | oe
appreciate the role of convenience feeds in our day:-to-“day life
define the term food science and know the types of changes which take place in food

INTRODUCTION

‘he food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry, is

one of the largest and most needed industry in the world today fulfilling one
». of our three basic needs, i.e., food. Its growth rate is phenomenal, growing
by leaps and bounds to provide three square meals to our rapidly increasing popu-
lation and keeping pace with the ever-changing demands of the population.
The developments in the food industry can be traced back to surplus food
which needed to be preserved for a rainy day. Food preservation is not a new phe-
nomenon. Our forefathers understood the basic principles underlying food
preservation and practised them using natural ingredients and the forces of nature
2 Food Science and Nutrition

like sunlight and ultraviolet rays till newer and more scientific methods were
developed. :
Improvement in equipment and machinery has made it possible to increase
the capacity of food processing plants greatly. The shelf life of perishable foods
has increased dramatically with the invention of the refrigerator and the use of
dry ice.
With the advent of the wheel, surplus food was transported several hundred
miles. As early as in 1850, milk was transported by special milk trains and tank
trucks over a distance of several hundred miles with negligible loss in quality. Food
which was perishable was moved thousands of miles before it was processed,
stored, and consumed.
Over the past few decades, the food industry has witnessed a significant change.
The market has witnessed such a flood of food commodities, superior in quality and
available all year round. Ice cream filled cones and nuts in ice cream retaining their
crunch, fresh milk stored on the shelf for months, and crisp croutons in a ready to
serve cream soup are a few marvels of food science and technology. With these
advances in science and technology, the consumer has an unlimited choice of meals
to choose from all year round.
The aesthetic value of food is important. To be able to offer the consumer quali-
ty cuisine, basic knowledge of food science and its applications is necessary. Every
food handler should know the composition, structure, and behaviour of food and
the changes that take place during cooking, holding, and storage as well as what
happens to food once it is consumed, i.e., its digestion, absorption, and metabolism
in the human body.
The study of food is today accepted as a separate discipline called food
science.

Definition Food science is a systematic study of the nature of food materials and the
scientific principles underlying their modification, preservation, and spoilage.
To understand food science, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, mathematics,
and biology and their applications, i.e., biochemistry, microbiology, and food tech-
nology, are necessary to prepare, package, store, and serve wholesome, high quality
products.
All foods are chemical compounds which undergo various chemical reactions at
all stages from production to consumption. These reactions are based on the laws
of chemistry. Many processes used while preparing food involve physical changes
apart from chemical changes.
Matter exists in three states—solid, liquid, gas.
In general, as the temperature is increased, a pure substance will change from
solid to liquid and then to a gas, without change in chemical composition. However,
 Introduction to Food Science 3

many organic compounds will decompose, undergoing various chemical reactions,

rather than a change of state when temperature is raised.
Many foods are complex mixtures of chemical substances. In processed foods,
additives are added to improve colour, texture, flavour, etc., and these additives are
also chemical compounds. It undergoes further chemical changes during storage,
cooking, processing as well as in the human body during digestion of food by action
of chemical substances.
Physical aspects of food such as the various food systems are of colloidal dimen-
sions. Food is subjected to various physical conditions during preparation and stor-
age which affect its quality such as temperature and pressure changes.
Food chemistry is the science that deals with the composition, structure, and
properties of food, and with chemical changes that take place in food. It forms a
major part of food science and is closely related to food microbiology. The chemi-
cal composition of food dictates which micro-organisms can grow on it and the
changes which take place in the food because of their growth. The changes may be
planned and desirable or may result because of contamination, causing disease, i.e.,
causing food poisoning and food infection or just spoiling the food renderingitunfit
for consumption. Micro-organisms have basic growth requirements, namely, food,
moisture, temperature, time, osmotic pressure, pH, and the presence or absence of
oxygen.
Food chemistry and food microbiology are intimately related to food processing
because the processes to which food needs to be subjected to improve its taste, tex-
ture, flavour, and aroma depend on its composition and ingredients. The time and
temperature for food processing depend not only on the chemical composition of
food but on its microbial load and the type of packaging to be used.
The growing public demand for meals away from home has made the problem
of serving safe wholesome food more critical and challenging. This makes it imper-
ative for food handlers to understand and implement the basic principles of the
food science to enable them to prepare and serve high quality products over
extended lunch hours.

The Need for Convenience Foods

Rapid urbanization and changes in social and cultural practices have modified the
food habits of the community. Industrial development in Indian cities has compelled
labour from villages to migrate to cities in search of employment. It is estimated that
within the next ten years, half the world’s population will be living and working in
urban areas. Increase in buying power and long hours spent away from home com-
muting to work places, make convenience foods a necessity in every home.
The ever-increasing market for convenience foods, be it tinned, canned, chilled,
frozen, or preserved, presents a whole array of complex operations in food
4 Food Science and Nutrition

processing. This weaning away from the traditional fare of yesteryears provides a
tremendous and urgent challenge to the food industry: serving safe, attractive, and
nutritious food that is wholesome and bacteriologically safe and conforms with
quality standards.
The urban workforce does not have the time or inclination to follow the tradi-
tional recipes and would rather pick up packed, clean, and reasonably priced meals
rather than return home from work and do domestic chores.
Most food consumed in developed countries is in the form of convenience foods.
Convenience foods are foods that require little labour and time to prepare. A pack-
et of frozen green peas is a convenience food since it requires no shelling. A pack-
et of whole wheat flour is also a convenience food as it has already been milled. A
packet of instant idli mix is more of a convenience food, and ‘ready to eat’ or ‘heat
and eat’ foods like chicken keema matar or canned palak paneer are most conven-
ient since they need no further cooking.
Many different types of convenience foods are available in the market today. The
speed and efficiency of cooking and service increases dramatically with the use of
convenience foods, giving the caterer, homemaker, or working professional more
time to devote to other activities. The convenience food revolution is possible
because of a wide variety of chemicals which are added to food not only to preserve
it but to enhance its overall quality. These numerous chemicals, tested and permit-
ted by law to be added to food are called food additives.
Today, convenience foods are being specially packed for caterers and are avail-
able in large catering packs. Manufacturers of specialized food supplies pack food
so that it fits into standard catering equipment, e.g., catering packs that fit into vend-
ing machines. The caterer can choose between smaller packs and larger packs that
are economical.
Convenience foods need to be handled with care because one source of infection
can contaminate thousands of prepacked items. Take-away meals should not be
kept for a long time, hygiene should be practised in processing plants, and time and
temperature control should be observed during storage. Leftover contents in large
catering packs should not be stored in the open.
Convenience foods help by saving considerable time and effort. However, the
cost of convenience foods compared to home-prepared foods should be considered
before purchase. Some foods may not be costlier while others may work out to be
expensive. For people who have to rush home from work and prepare a meal, such
foods purchased on the way home or stacked in the deep freezer are not only time-
saving but also convenient.
Convenience foods vary widely in their palatability, nutrient content, and cost.
The consumer can choose from a bewildering display of snacks, soups, sauces, fruit
 Introduction to Food Science 5

chunks and juices, desserts, meat, and vegetable preparations and gravies in the
ready to eat and ready to cook form. They need to be warmed up in a microwave
before they are served.
Canned foods, commercially prepared chappatis, snacks both sweet and savoury,
main course, vegetable preparations, soups, gravies, sauces, breakfast cereals, bak-
ery items, deep frozen foods, dry ready mixes, etc., are not only time saving but
convenient to cook and store.
Thus, food science covers all aspects of food, from the properties of food materials
and influences of all factors affecting food, beginning from growing the food to har-
vesting or slaughter, i.e., all stages from the farm to the table, from raw food till it is
consumed like processing, nutritive value, shelf life, novel sources of food, fabricated
food and food analogs, conservation and re-use of resources to make more food.
A study of food science and nutrition will be of benefit to all food professionals.

SUMMARY

The food industry is a fast-growing industry that applies the principles of food sci-
ence and technology to offer the consumer a wide array of fresh and processed
foods to meet their nutritional needs, wants, and budget. These foods are available
under different brand names, all year round in delectable flavours and assorted
preparations.
The aesthetic value of food is an important criterion in its acceptability. Every
food handler should be aware of the composition, structure, and behaviour of food
and what happens to it during processing and after consumption. The systematic
study of food is called food science. All foods are chemical compounds and under-
go physical as well as chemical changes. The various food systems are of colloidal
dimensions and various physical conditions such as temperature and pressure affect
its quality.
Food science is intimately related to food chemistry, food microbiology, and food
processing. To understand this, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, mathemat-
ics, and biology are necessary.
The growing demand for meals away from home has made the problem of serving
safe and wholesome food critical and challenging. With rapid urbanization and
changes in food habits and lifestyles, and increase in the number of couples who have
little time has caused a shift in focus from farm-grown fresh foods to partially or total-
ly processed convenience foods. These foods require little labour and time to prepare
and are useful to both caterers and homemakers. The shelf life and acceptability of
these foods are enhanced by the use of permitted additives. The consumer can choose
from a wide range of ‘ready-to-cook’ and ‘ready-to-eat’ foods.
6 Food Science and Nutrition

SES MM LE UE UTR LULL LS a eae yeaa rd ee eee hg Sula fe AAU LSE AEE SU MTSE TEM EET OLE ESET,

KEY TERMS
Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide having temperature Food technology Application of the principles of
of -79°C and used to refrigerate foodstuffs being food science to the preservation, processing, pack-
transported. aging, storage, and transportation of food materials.
Convenience foods Processed foods in which much Food science A study of the physical and chemical
pre-preparation/preparation has already been done constituents of food and the scientific principles
by the manufacturer, e.g., frozen green peas, break- underlying their modification, preservation, and
fast cereals, and canned foods. spoilage.
Additives All material added to food to improve its shelf Food microbiology A study of bacteria, yeasts, and
life, colour, flavour, texture, taste, and quality, such as moulds, and their harmful and useful effects on food
flavouring agents, antioxidants, preservatives, etc. and its consumption.
SD SPER LELAND IME LTE TENGE UTA UES SUN ABATE OE LTE LIE ETM SETA LEGS OLE ESS TIGL BELEN ET TELL HE ESET SEM LET NEON EES

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What changes have the food industry witnessed in the last century?
2. Why is knowledge of the principles of food science necessary for a catering
professional?
3. What do you understand by the term ‘convenience foods’? What foods
does it include? Give suitable examples from your daily life.
4. Do you think convenience foods are necessary? Justify your answer giving
suitable examples.
 Food Science
Concepts

~ Learning Objectives
_ After reading this chapter, you should able oe
’ appreciate the importance of es thebasic concepts iin
physics, chemistry,
and biology
interpret the weights and measures in recipes ae
weigh and measure ingredients accurately = : 7
. understand and define the relevant terms, that a, anpiseadant role in fad ston
© understand the applications of these concepts in the food industry —
apply this knowledge in real lifesituations |

Weights and measures are set standards which are used to find the size of sub-
stances. To obtain a high quality product and carry out a profitable business, accu-
rate weighing and measuring of all ingredients is essential.

BASIC SI UNITS OF LENGTH, AREA, VOLUME, AND WEIGHT

‘he SI or International System of measurement is used universally for meas-

urement of matter. In this system, prefixes such as ‘deci’, ‘centi’, and ‘milli’,
and units such as ‘litre’, ‘gram’, ‘metre’, and derived units such as ‘joule’ and
‘pascal’ are used.
8 Food Science and Nutrition

Prefixes represent numbers or numerical quantities symbolized by letters.

mega = M = 1,000,000 = one million
kilo = k = 1,000 = one thousand
deci = d = 1/10 = one tenth
centi = c = 1/100 = one hundredth
milli = m = 1/1,000 = one thousandth
micro = L = 1/1,000,000 = one millionth

Measurement of Length
The unit for measuring length is the metre (m).
Length is measured using a measuring tape or ruler.
One thousand metres (1,000 m) = one kilometre (km).
A metre is divided into hundred parts. Each part is called a centimetre (cm) or
one metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm).
Each centimetre is made up of ten smaller parts called millimetre (mm) one cen-
timetre = 10 millimetres (mm).
The simplest instrument for measuring length is a scale or ruler measuring one
metre, or a measuring tape.

Measurement of Volume
Volume and capacity is measured in litres. A litre is made up of 10 decilitres
(dl). Each decilitre is made up of 10 centilitres (cl). A centilitre is made up of
10 millilitres (ml), which means that a litre is made up of one thousand millilitres
(1,000 ml).
Most measuring cups and jugs are marked in millilitres and litres. The capacity
of cups and spoons is listed below.
1 tablespoon = 15 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
1 breakfast cup = 240 ml
1 coffee cup = 100-120 ml
1 teacup = 150-180 ml
1 water glass = 280-300 ml
 Food Science Concepts 9

Measuring pan

Adjustment
knob

Pointer

Fig. 2.1 Single pan weighing scale

The volume of solids that is not greatly affected by water can be measured by the
water displacement method. Solids are immersed in the displacement can and the
volume of water displaced, equal to the volume of the solid, is noted.
The seed method is used to measure the volume of cake and bread. A large tin
box is filled to the brim with seeds and the volume of seeds required to fill the box
is measured in a measuring cylinder. The cake of which the volume is to be meas-
ured is placed in the empty tin and covered with seeds. The volume of seeds
remaining after covering the cake is equal to the volume of the cake.

Measurement of Weight or Mass

Weight is the pull experienced on the body by the earth’s force of gravity. Mass is
the amount of matter contained in a known volume of substance. Mass always
remains constant but weight may change in different parts of the world because the
force of gravity varies from place to place.
Weight is measured on a weighing scale. The kilogram is the unit for measuring
weight and is made up of one thousand smaller parts called grams.
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g)
Each gram is further divided into one thousand smaller parts called milligrams (mg).
1 g= 1,000 mg
Each milligram is further divided into 1,000 micrograms (j\g).
1 mg = 1,000 ug
From the above we conclude that
1 kg = 1,000,000 mg and a measure of 1 ppm means | mg in | kg of a substance.
10 Food Science and Nutrition

DENSITY
Density is the relationship between the weight and volume of a substance expressed as
weight in kg
Density =
volume in m?
It is expressed in kilograms per cubic metre and is used to compare the heavi-
ness or lightness of different foods.
A fruit cake has a greater density as compared to a sponge cake. The density of
liquids is measured in g/cm3. Water has a density of 1 g/cm’.

Relative Density
Relative density (R.D.) is the ratio of the mass of a known volume of a substance to
the mass of the same volume of water. It tells us the number of times the volume of
a substance is heavier or lighter than an equal volume of water. If the R.D. of a vol-
ume of lead is 11, it means that it is eleven times as heavy as an equal volume of
water.
mass or weight of a substance
Relative density =
weight of equal volume of water
A hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids. It is
made up of a weighted bulb with a graduated stem calibrated to measure the rela-
tive density of the liquid directly. The liquid to be tested should be at room tem-
perature and the hydrometer is allowed to float in the liquid. The depth to which it
sinks is read on the graduated stem. Hydrometers are specifically calibrated to
measure the R.D. of different liquids used in the catering industry.
Saccharometers are used to determine the concentration of sugar solutions,
denoted in degrees Brix. A 75% sugar solution is called 75 degrees Brix.
Salinometers are used to determine the R.D. of brine or sodium chloride solu-
tions used for canning vegetables or pickling ham.
Lactometers are used for checking the purity of milk. Addition of water or
removal of cream affects the R.D. and is depicted on the graduated scale on the
stem. The scale is marked 1.00 to 1.04. ‘W’ denotes R.D. of water, ‘M’ denotes pure
milk, and ‘S’ denotes skim milk.
Alcoholometers are used to test the R.D. of alcoholic beverages. It is used to
check the number of degrees proof or ethanol content of wines, beers, and spirits,
and whether it has been diluted.
Refractometers are used to measure the sugar or total solids in solution (TSS)
while preparing jam, syrups, etc. They measure the refractive index of light reflected
through the solution.
 Food Science Concepts 11

Refractometer reading 28° Brix

Fig. 2.2 A refractometer

Besides checking the purity of milk, ethanol content of alcoholic beverages,

strength of salt solution, and concentration or stage of ‘doneness’ for sugar syrups
and preserves like jam, sauce, and candied fruit, the other applications of R.D. are
e testing eggs for freshness when eggs are dipped in a 10% salt solution, fresh
eggs sink and stale eggs float because of a large air space caused by staling;
e determining the lightness of cakes; and
e choosing potatoes for boiling and frying. Potatoes that have a low R.D.
should be boiled, while those that have a high R.D. should be baked or fried.

TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy needed to carry out work. Energy is the capacity for doing
work. Energy is present in two forms: (1) potential energy or stored energy, such as
the energy stored in a bar of chocolate; and (2) kinetic energy or active energy in
motion, such as when a person is walking.
Energy is present in many forms. Heat is one form of energy. Solar energy, elec-
trical energy, and chemical energy are some of the others.
Heat energy is measured in units called joules and the energy present in food is
measured in kilocalories. One kilocalorie is made up of 1,000 calories.
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.2 kilojoules (kj)
1 calorie = 4.2 joules
Temperature refers to the relative hotness or coldness of a substance compared
with melting ice at 0°C and boiling water at 100°C. Thermometers are used to
measure temperature.
12 Food Science and Nutrition

Temperature is measured either in the Celsius or centigrade scale (°C) or in the

Farenheit scale (°F). Each scale has two fixed points: .
1. Melting point of ice (0°C or 32°F)
2. Boiling point of water (100°C or 212°F).
The Celsius scale is divided into 100 degrees and the Farenheit scale into 180
degrees. The Celsius scale is the international scale.
Conversion of Farenheit scale to Celsius scale
To convert temperature in °F into °C the following formula is used

Cr. 39. x 5=9C

9
To convert 212°F into °C
(212°F - 32) x 5.
20 9
= 80x35,
g
70 KS
= 100°C
So 2f2fF= 100©

A probe thermometer A candy thermometer

(meat thermometer) (sugar thermometer)
stainless steel body glass thermometer
glass dial fitted on brass 40°C to 180°C
Fig. 2.3 Thermometers
 Food Science Concepts 13

Types of Thermometers
Most thermometers are mercury in glass thermometers with different temperature
ranges depending on their purpose. Some common thermometers are:
1. Sugar or confectionery thermometers (40°C to 180°C)
2. Dough testing thermometers (19°C to 43°C)
O29 Meat thermometers with a special spike which can be pierced into meat and
a round dial to record temperature
4. Refrigeration thermometers filled with red coloured ethanol (-30°C
to —IDGC).

pH OR POTENTIAL HYDROGEN
When an acid is diluted with water it dissociates into hydrogen ions and acid radical ions.

HCl = Ht ~ Cr
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen ion Chloride ion
(acid radical)

The term pH (hydrogen ion concentration) is used to express the degree of acidity
or alkalinity of a food. It is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the hydro-
gen ion concentration, i.e., higher the hydrogen ion concentration, lower will be the
pH and vice versa. Some foods like fruits contain organic acids and have an acid reac-
tion while others such as milk are neutral. Bakery products leavened with baking pow-
der, have an alkaline reaction. Pure water is pH 7 or neutral.
The pH scale of pH 0 to pH 14, ie., from extremely strong acids to extremely
strong alkali is used to describe the acidity or alkalinity of food.
A reading between pH 1 to pH 6.5 indicates acidic food while pH 7.5 to pH 14
indicates alkaline food. The pH of a solution can be measured electrically using the
pH meter or it may be measured colorimetrically using pH papers which change
colours according to the pH.

Buffers
They are defined as solutions that can resist a change of pH on addition of acids or
alkalis but within limits. These solutions are made up of a weak acid and one of its
salts or a weak base and one of its salts.

Acid Neutral Alkali

0 1 ie Set Oe ees BOw TO! TTD. Ag ee

Extremely Weak Weak Extremely
strong acid acid alkali strong alkali
Fig. 2.4 The pH scale
14
ee Food Science
ee and Nutrition
ee —E—

Table 2.1 pH values of some common foods

Strongly acidic Vinegar

Lime juice
Pickles
Apples
Orange juice
Fruit cake
Tomato
Banana
Bread
Mildly acidic Spinach
Potatoes
Peas
Butter chicken
Salmon
Milk

Mildly , Egg white

Alkaline , Soda bread

When hydrogen ions (H*) or hydroxide ions (OH’) are added, they can be
absorbed by these systems without altering the pH of the resulting solution.
Common buffers are:
1. Acetic acid and sodium acetate mixture
2. Citric acid and sodium citrate mixture.

Buffering action is very important in the human body and in food. The salts of
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium function as buffers and maintain the
pH of milk at a constant level of 6.5.
Applications of pH:

1. Preparation of jam—The pectin in jam and marmalade does not form a gel
until the pH is lowered to 3.5. If fruit used for making these preserves does
not contain sufficient acid, small amounts of citric acid should be added.
2. Retaining bright green colour in green vegetables—Green vegetables tend to
get discoloured when cooked. Green colour can be retained by adding a
pinch of sodium bicarbonate to the cooking liquor but B complex vitamins
and vitamin C gets destroyed in an alkaline medium.
co Food digestion—pH of thegastrointestinal juices affects our digestive process.
The pH of gastric juice is strongly acidic, between 1 and 2, and aids in diges-
tion of food in the stomach while a mildly alkaline pH, between pH 7 and 8
is needed, to complete digestion in the intestine.
 Food Science Concepts 15

4. Texture of cakes—A significant change in texture is observed with a change in

pH while baking cakes. Low pH gives a fine texture and high pH gives a
coarse texture to the cake crumb.
5. pH of dough—In bread making, compressed yeast is used for fermentation.
During fermentation, yeasts convert simple sugars to ethyl alcohol and car-
bon dioxide.
(a) Ethyl alcohol takes up oxygen and forms acetic acid
(b) Carbon dioxide dissolves partially in water to form carbonic acid
(c) Chemical yeast food, i.e., ammonium sulfate and ammonium chloride if
used, produce sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid respectively.
All these acids lower the pH of the dough from pH 6.0 to pH 4.5. This change in
pH makes the dough less sticky and more elastic.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES, THEIR DEFINITION AND RELEVANCE

Boiling Point
Boiling is the use of heat to change a substance from a liquid to a gas. The change
takes place throughout the body of the liquid at a definite temperature.
Like the melting point, the boiling point of a pure substance is always constant.
It changes if impurities or dissolved substances are present or by changes in atmos-
pheric pressure. Pure water boils at 100°C.
Applications of boiling point:
1. Boiling vegetables in salted water increases the boiling point above 100°C.
2. In sugar cookery, the boiling points of sugar solutions is noted at various
stages so that fondant, fudge, toffee, and caramel can be prepared.
Boiling under pressure When atmospheric pressure is lowered, water boils at a lower
temperature of 70°C. At hill stations, the atmospheric pressure is low so temperature is
also lower and food takes longer time to cook. When pressure is increased, e.g., below
sea levelvor boiling in a pressure cooker, water boils at higher temperatures and food
cooks faster.
Applications of boiling under pressure:
1. Food is cooked in pressure cookers to reduce cooking time to one-fourth
of ordinary cooking time as water boils at a higher temperature under
pressure.
2. Autoclaves are used for sterilization by moist heat under pressure at
121°C and 15 lb pressure for 20 minutes.

Evaporation
Evaporation is a change of state from liquid to gas which takes place continuously
from the surface of a liquid.
16 Food Science and Nutrition

Operating valve
Handle ‘
Temp 121°C
Pressure gauge
(15 lb pressure)
Clamps
Gasket

Perforated
stand

Electric coil
Fig. 2.5 An autoclave

Volatile liquids vaporize easily e.g., petrol and acetone.

Non-volatile liquids like oils evaporate very gradually. Evaporation is faster when
there is breeze and low humidity in the air as well as a large surface area and high
temperature.
Applications of evaporation:

1. Bread and cake if left uncovered, hardens and becomes stale because of loss
of moisture. This can be prevented by storing food in covered tins.
2. Cooking in shallow uncovered pans will cause greater evaporation and is
used for preparing mawa from milk.
3. Milk powder is prepared by dehydration or spray drying in which water from
milk is removed by circulating hot air.

Melting Point
Melting or fusion is the change of state from a solid to a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid melts and turns into a liquid is called its melt-
ing point. The melting point of fats depends on the percentage of saturated long
chain fatty acids present in it.
The melting point for any chemical is fixed and is used to measure the purity of
a substance. It is lowered by adding other substances.
Melting point of fats:
Vanaspati 37-39°C
Butter 36©
Lard 44°C
Tallow 48°C
Coconut oil 26°C
 Food Science Concepts 17

Applications of melting point:

1. Ice has a melting point of 0°C. If adequate sodium chloride is added to ice,
the melting point falls to -18°C. This lowering of melting point is made use
of in the setting of ice cream.
2. Fat is removed from adipose tissue of animals by a process called rendering
which is based on the melting point. Boiling water or dry heat is used to
liberate the oil from the fat cells.
Corn oil temperatures:
l. Frying 180-195°C
2. Smoke point Den©
3. Flash point Be @
4. Fire point 363°C

Smoke point When fats and oils are heated strongly above frying temperature,
they decompose and a stage is reached at which visible thin bluish smoke is given
off. This temperature is called the smoke point.
The temperature varies with different fats and ranges between 160 and 260°C.
The bluish vapour is because of formation of acrolein from overheated glycerol.
Acrolein has an acrid odour and is irritating to the eyes.
The smoking point is lowered by the following factors:
1. Presence of large quantities of free fatty acids
2. Exposure of large surface area while heating
3. Presence of suspended food particles.

CH,O. CO.R CH, OH

CHO. CO.R ———————-» 3 RCOOH 1+ CH OH
high temperature CH, OH
CH,O. CO.R
Fat or oil Free fatty acids Glycerol
heat to
smoke point
and above

2H,O CHy).CH.CHO
+

Water Acrolein
Fig. 2.6 Effect of high temperature on fat
18
Ra
Food Science and Nutrition
a Sci i ke ee ee ee ee ee

Flash point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats
and oils can be ignited, but will not support combustion. The flash point varies with
different fats and ranges between 290 and 330°C.
Fire point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats and
oils support combustion. It ranges between 340 and 360°C for different fats. The oil
or fat may catch fire and burn.
The smoke point, flash point, and fire point are lowered by the presence of free
fatty acids.

Table 2.2 Smoke point of some common fats

Corn oil
Cotton seed
Soya bean
Ground nut
Butter
Lard
Beef dripping

Normal frying temperature for most oils is 180-195°C. The smoke point is
25-40°C above normal frying temperature. The application of smoke point is in
frying foods. Fats and oils used for deep fat frying should have a high smoke point.
Moist foods should be coated well before frying as moisture present in food tends
to hydrolyse the fat and increase the free fatty acids present.

Surface Tension
Surface tension is a force experienced on the surface of a liquid. It is caused by
cohesion, i.e., a force that causes the molecules of a substance to be attracted to one
another.
The molecules of a liquid that are below the surface are pulled by cohesive forces
from all directions. But the molecules at the surface behave differently because they
are only pulled downwards or sideways. This downward or sideways attraction
causes a constant pull on the surface molecules which makes the liquid behave as if
it is covered by a thin elastic film. For example, the surface of water can support
needles if they are placed carefully.
Because of surface tension, drops of liquid take a spherical shape, which has the
smallest possible surface area, e.g., dew drops.
 Food Science Concepts 19

Surface tension causes liquids to rise in a thin tube (capillary tube) when the tube
is dipped in liquid. This property of liquids is important in many food systems and
in the action of detergents.
Surface tension is also defined as the force of attraction which exists between liq-
uid and solid surfaces.
Applications of surface tension:
1. Addition of detergent to liquids reduces the surface tension of water and the
surface attraction between the fibre and greasy stain, and allows the soil to be
removed from the fabric.
2. Release agents help prevent the paper lining the tin from sticking to the cake.
They contain silicone compounds.
3. Silicones have a property of lowering the surface tension and is added to
wood polishes to allow the polish to spread easily.
4. Non-stick cookware is coated with polytetrafluoroethane plastic or silicone to
prevent attraction between the food and pan.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water from a weak solution to a stronger solution through
a semipermeable membrane.
When raisins are soaked in a cup of water for sometime, the raisins swell because
water from the cup enters the raisins. Similarly, if raisins are placed in a concen-
trated sugar solution, they shrivel up after sometime because water from the raisins
passes into the sugar solution because of osmosis.
Plant and animal cell membranes act as semipermeable membranes and selec-
tively permit water and electrolytes to enter or leave the cell.
Applications of osmosis:
1. Osmosis plays an important role in food processing and preservation to retain
the original shape and size of canned fruits in syrup and of vegetables in pickles.
2. The freshness of fruits and vegetables depends on the osmotic pressure in the
cells. Salads lose their crisp crunchy texture and become limp if salt and
sugar is sprinkled much in advance. Lettuce leaves can be revived by
immersing then in chilled water.
Humidity
Humidity refers to the presence of water vapour in the air. Water vapour is pro-
duced by respiration of plants and animals, evaporation from food during cooking
and from water bodies, from rain during the monsoons, etc.
In catering establishments, moisture in the air is quite high because of large vol-
umes of steam from boilers, from cooking food, from dishwashers and laundry
processes, and respiration and perspiration of people in a confined area.
20 Food Science and Nutrition

A humid atmosphere causes discomfort, headache, and tiredness.

The humidity of the air is measured with the help of a hygrometer. This instru-
ment depicts the percentage of water vapour in the air. It is a ratio between the
amount of water vapour which air could hold and what it actually holds at the same
temperature. Humidity of 60-70% is considered normal and does not cause dis-
comfort or undue spoilage of food.
Applications of humidity:
1. Spoilage organisms multiply and spores germinate at high moisture levels in
the atmosphere.
2. Humidity needs to be controlled in air-conditioned rooms along with venti-
lation and heating which is done by humidifier water sprays which maintain
60-70% humidity.
3. Processed foods are prevented from drying up by adding substances with
hygroscopic properties called humectants. Glycerine and sorbitol are used as
humectants in jam.

Food Rheology

It is the science of measuring forces which are needed to deform food materials or to
study the flow properties of liquid foods. It deals with the viscous behaviour of a system.
Solid food can be chopped up, ground, minced, sliced, torn apart, or broken
while it is being prepared or eaten. The texture is determined when we chew food
and it is described as crisp, tough, chewy, creamy, sticky, spongy, etc.
Liquid foods are fluid or viscous. Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a liquid
to flow. It is measured by an instrument called a viscometer. This property of a liquid
is seen in batters, sauces, syrups, etc.
Compression It is the pressure needed to squash foam or spongy foods to find out
their freshness or tenderness. The compressimeter or tenderometer is used to meas-
ure the lightness of a product.

Adhesion Adhesive gum-like properties give stickiness to food which sticks to the
teeth when chewed, like toffee. Breaking strength of dry foods, such as spaghetti,
biscuits, and potato wafers, are measured by applying a load till the product breaks.
Shearing It is the force needed to cut or slice through meat, vegetables, fruits, etc.,
and indicates the toughness of a food. Penetrometers measure the force needed to
penetrate a food, such as jelly, cooking fat, canned and fresh fruits, and vegetables.

Rigidity It is the property of those substances which do not flow, e.g., baked cus-
tard and cake. Rigid substances show either elastic property or plastic property.

Elastic substances These substances do not flow, but flow when force is applied.
However, when the force is removed it regains its original shape, e.g., sponge cake.
 Food Science Concepts 21

Table 2.3. Conversion of imperial units to metric equivalents

Length 1 inch (in) 2.5 centimetres (cm)

1 foot (ft ) 30.5 centimetres (cm)
39.4 inches (in) 100 centimetres (cm)or 1 metre
1 mile 1.6 kilometres

Volume 1 pint 568 millilitres (ml)

1 gallon 4.5 litres (I)
1.8 pints 1 litre (|)

Weight 1 ounce (0z.) 28.4 grams (g)

1 pound (Ib) 454 grams (g)
2.2 pounds (!b) 1 kilogram (kg)

Energy 1 kilocalorie (kcal) 4.2 kilojoules (kJ)

1 calorie (cal) 4.2 joules (J)

Temperature 32°Fahrenheit (F) 0°Celsius (C)

212°Fahrenheit (F) 100°Celsius (C)

Area 1 square inch (sq. in) 6.45 square centimetres (sq. cm)
1 square foot (sq. ft) 929 sq. cm
1 square mile 2.59 sq. km

Elasticity It is the property which permits a substance to change its shape when a
force is applied to it and to come back to its original shape once the force is
removed, provided the force applied is within elastic limits.
Applications of elasticity:

1. The stretching power of the dough can be tested before baking. The extensi-
bility of flour is due to gluten formed in flour. Over-kneading of dough results
in decreased elasticity.
2. Dough improvers are chemicals added to improve or strengthen the elasticity
of bread dough.
3. Addition of malt flour gives a softer-textured dough because of enzymes pres-
ent in malt.
Plastic substances These substances resist flow to a certain point, but beyond that
point they flow, i.e., they become plastic in nature.
Plasticity is an important property of margarine. A plastic fat is one which can be
creamed as well as forms a thin sheet or layer in dough when the dough is rolled
out, e.g., flaky pastry.
 22 Food Science and Nutrition

‘Satine MASE OUP SR GLP EU LE A Se PBA BG eS elPR rae ae eta psa eee iP a IMP meee HP LARTER LT POTS EEL ERR

SUMMARY
A knowledge of basic physical, chemical, and biological sciences are needed by all
students studying catering. Today, the SI or International System of measurement is
used universally for measuring matter. The unit for measuring length is the metre
and for volume it is the litre. Weight is measured in kilograms and may change from
place to place because of the force of gravity or pull of the earth. Density is the rela-
tionship between weight and volume of a substance while relative density is the
mass of a known volume of a substance divided by the mass of the same volume of
water. The hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids
and are specifically calibrated to measure the relative density of different sub-
stances. The lactometer is used to test the purity of milk, the saccharometer is used
to measure the concentration of sugar soiutions, alcoholometers are used to check
the degrees proof, and salinometers to check the relative density of brine.
Energy is present in many forms, such as heat, solar, electrical, and chemical.
Heat is measured in joules. Temperature is measured in degrees Farenheit and
degrees Celsius, the potential hydrogen (pH) is used to express the degree of acidi-
ty or alkalinity of a food. A pH between | and 6.5 is acidic and above 7.5 it is called
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH of 7, which is neutral.
Buffers help in maintaining the pH of foods at a constant level.
-Many other terminologies are relevant and need to be known and their applica-
tions understood by the caterer.

5 REET RL ILE TRE LL ELEM TUR OT LEELA LM ERI ET TLS DEERE ELT IM LET TERE LL REL EANRE LET DEOL BES TELE LTT LIES UEETT ESR LEAT TRIS RTEESTES SINISE SME ES UE EERIE SLL URES,

KEY TERMS
Acrolein A substance formed when glycerol from fat Rendering The process of removal of fat from the fat
is heated at high temperatures which is irritating to cells of adipose tissue of animals by dry heat method.
the eyes and respiratory tract. Silicone Organic compounds of silicon used on non-
Hygroscopic Readily absorbing water, such sub- sticking wrapping paper.
stances are used as drying agents, e.g., silica gel and
calcium chloride. /
Relative humidity Method of measuring the mois-
ture present in air relative to saturation at the same
temperature.
BAUS. SR Se! OS Ae eS We Te ee nee wer ANNI pee i, PALF AR UA S UE

REVIEW EXERCISES

Ql! Define the following terms:

i Viscosity
ii Osmosis
 Food Science Concepts 23

pH
Smoke point
Relative density
Give scientific reasons for:

Why food takes longer time to get cooked at high altitudes.

Fat used for deep fat frying should have a high smoke point.
The weight of a substance changes when weighed in different parts of the
world.
Fresh eggs sink and stale eggs float on water.
Small amounts of citric acid are added while making jelly preserve.
List the main factors which affect the rate of evaporation.
What is meant by surface tension? Give two examples to explain this term.
How would you determine the density of a bread roll?
Convert the following measurements:

2200 kCal into kJ

37°C into°F
90°F into°C
iv 5 ft 6 inches into cm
Vv 8 ozs into ml
 al

‘Colloidal Systems
in Foods

INTRODUCTION :

ood served in catering establishments can be divided into two broad

gories namely intact edible tissues and food dispersions. Sliced pineag
diced vegetables, and fish fillets are examples of intact tissues. However, 1
food preparations have been subjected to different processes before they are bro
to the table. Large masses of food may be subdivided into smaller particle:
processes like mincing, grinding, pulping, and homogenizing, and ingredients |
be mixed in different ways like beating, cutting and folding, blending, whipy
keerColloidal
OEMS Systems IMT
in TOOTS
Foods HD
25

stirring, emulsifying, etc., converting the intact tissue into complex dispersions.
The kind of process food is subjected to will have a bearing on the final quality of
the product.
A well baked cake, where ingredients have been mixed correctly and a heavy
collapsed cake may have the same chemical composition and nutritive value, but
the latter will have no market because its physical qualities, i.e., its volume, texture,
and appearance do not meet acceptable standards. These standards are of utmost
importance to both the caterer and the consumer, and an understanding of the prin-
ciples underling food dispersions is necessary for caterers to prepare high quality
products.

CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD
Apart from water, food is mainly composed of three main groups of constituents
namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and their derivatives. Along with these consti-
tuents, minerals, vitamins, organic acids, pigments, enzymes, flavouring substances,
and other organic constituents are present in varying amounts in different foods.
These constituents give food their structure, texture, colour, flavour, and nutritive
value. To the caterer and consumer, the physical appearance is as significant as its
chemical composition.
Foods are mixtures or dispersions of two or more types of substances. These sub-
stances are present as particles of various sizes. Depending on the particle size or size
of the molecule in the mixture, these substances may be classified as a true solution,
a colloidal dispersion, or a coarse suspension.

‘rue Solution
It is composed of two parts: the solute which is the dissolved substance and the sol-
vent which is the substance in which the solute is dissolved. In a true solution, ions
or molecules smaller than one millimicron are dissolved in a liquid. They contain
varying amounts of ions or molecules of dissolved substances depending on the tem-
perature of the solvent and on the solute. Solutions may be unsaturated, saturated,
or supersaturated. They have the smallest particle size of the three types of disper-
sions. A solution is homogenous, i.e., alike in all parts, e.g., sugar syrup and brine.

juspension
Suspensions are dispersions of coarse particles in a liquid. The particles are large
and require continuous agitation to keep them dispersed. When agitation ceases,
these coarse suspended particles settle down because of force of gravity. When the
mixture is stirred, the suspension is formed again. In a suspension the particle size
is larger than one micrometre or micron, e.g., starch and cold water paste. Many
dispersions in food contain substances which are larger than one micron in size.
26 Food Science and Nutrition

Colloidal Systems
Between the particle sizes of the solutions and those of suspensions, lies the area
of colloidal systems. The particles are large enough to impart to the system some
properties different from those found in true solutions, but small enough so that
they do not separate out on standing. Colloidal systems deal with dispersions of
definite size, since it is the size of the particles in the colloidal range that impart the
specific and characteristic properties to the system.
Colloidal dispersions are characterized by particles ranging between one mil-
limicron (0.001 um) and 100 millimicrons (0.1 tm) with maximum size of up to one
micrometre (tm) in diameter.
One micrometre (micron) (um) = 1073 mm or 1/1,000 mm
10-4 cm or
10-6 m
One millimicron (mu) = 1073 um or 1/1,000 um
There is no distinct line of demarcation. Particles approaching the limits of the
size of one zone may show properties of two zones. For example, sugar exhibit:
both crystalloid and colloidal properties in food systems. The properties exhibit-
ed by colloidal particles around 1 my in size are different from those of particles
around 0.1 um in size, e.g., crystalline candies have an organized crystalline
structure while amorphous candies such as fondant lack an organized crystalline
structure.
The gluten particles of hydrated flour proteins have colloidal dimensions but
gluten particles of cake and pastry flours are more dispersed or of smaller size than
those of bread flours. This is one reason for the different results obtained in cake:
when bread flour is used instead of cake flour.
All colloidal dispersions or colloidal systems have two phases: a continuous phase
and a discontinuous or dispersed phase. The continuous phase extends throughou

Table 3.1 Size of dispersed particle

Ty ee USSR

True solution Up to one millimicron

Colloidal dispersion | One millimicron up

to one micrometre

Coarse suspension More than one

micrometre
 Colloidal Systems in Foods 27

the system and surrounds the dispersed phase completely. Proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats exist in foods as particles of colloidal dimensions. The system is a colloidal
system as long as the particle size of the dispersed phase is within colloidal dimen-
sions. Colloidal systems may be a combination of solid, liquid, or gas as the conti-
nuous or dispersed phase.
In food, the following colloidal systems are of importance.
1. Sol — Colloidal dispersion of a solid dispersed in a liquid.
2. Gel — Colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a solid.
3. Emulsion — Colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a liquid.
4. Foam — Colloidal dispersion of a gas dispersed in a liquid.
5. Solid foam or suspensoid — Colloidal dispersion of a gas dispersed in a solid.
Dispersions may be simple or complex. In a simple dispersion a colloid may con-
sist of a solid dispersed in a liquid, e.g., when gelatin is dissolved in warm water,
a simple dispersion called a sol is formed. Mayonnaise is an example of a complex
dispersion since it is an emulsion, a sol, and foam combined in one. Milk is another
example of a complex dispersion, i.e., more than one phase is dispersed in a liquid.
Milk is a solution of lactose in water, an emulsion of fat in water, and a sol as milk
protein is dispersed in water.
Colloidal particles have different characteristics. Some are attracted to water and
are called hydrophilic or water loving. They get hydrated easily. Others repel water
and are called hydrophobic or water hating. These different characteristics are seen
because of the difference in chemical composition of the compounds. In certain
substances, a part of their structure is hydrophobic while other parts are
hydrophilic. Those parts or functional groups that are attracted to water are called
polar groups. Examples of polar groups are the organic acid group or COOH group
in proteins, the aldehyde or CHO group in carbohydrates, etc. Non polar groups are
hydrophobic, e.g., carbon chains -C-C-C-C- and cyclic structures, C which are
seen in organic compounds.
Organic substances which have both polar and nonpolar groups are useful as
emulsifying agents in food emulsions as part of their molecule is attracted towards
the dispersed phase and part towards the continuous phase.

STABILITY OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS

The stability of a colloidal system depends on two factors.
1. The charge on the colloidal particle
2. A layer of water that is tightly bound to the molecule
Charge on the colloidal particle As the surface charge on the colloidal particle is
similar, like charges repel and the particles do not get attracted or join together. This
28 Food Science and Nutrition

Skim milk
Soups
Gravy
Pouring custard

Gel iqui Caramel custard

Curd
Jam
Jelly

Emulsion iqui Butter

Mayonnaise
Salad dressing
Whole milk

Whipped egg white

Whipped cream

Solid foam/ Baked meringue

suspensoid Cake
Fluffy omlette
Set whipped gelatin

Aerosol i Smoke for

flavouring

helps in keeping the system stable. When the charge is neutralized, the colloidal
particles flocculate and separate out.
Layer on water Water is present in food in two distinct physical states: free water
and bound water. Part of the water present in food is free water which can act as a
solvent and has flow properties. The rest of the water is bound water which is close-
ly combined with starch or protein by hydrogen bonding and influences the physi-
cal properties of food. Many colloidal systems are hydrophilic and attract a layer of
water around them. The layer of water acts as an insulation and keep the colloidal
system stable.

Types of Colloidal Systems in Food

Sol In this system, solids of colloidal dimensions are dispersed throughout a
liquid. Solids form the dispersed phase and liquids the continuous phase. The
 Colloidal Systems in Foods 29

viscosity of sols may range from liquid, e.g., skim milk to extremely viscous, e.g.,
tomato ketchup which barely flows. The viscosity of the sol will depend on the con-
centration of solid and the temperature of the sol. The higher the concentration of
solid in a sol, the more viscous the sol. The viscosity of a sol can be adjusted by
adding more liquid.
Irrespective of the viscosity, in a sol the solid is always distributed throughout
the sol and does not settle at the bottom. Protein in milk remains dispersed because
of the like electrical charges on the surface of the protein molecule, which repel
each other. When the charge on the dispersed protein molecules is neutralized by
addition of acid, protein flocculates and separates out as is seen while preparing
paneer.
Pectin remains dispersed because of its hydrophilic nature. It attracts a layer of
water that is tightly bound to the pectin molecule by hydrogen bonding. All sols
have flow properties. They flow more readily at higher temperatures than at a lower
one. Sometimes a sol may change into a gel when the system is viscous and there
is a drop in energy level, e.g., during cooling. The solids start associating with one
another and form a three dimensional meshwork in which the liquid is trapped.
Milk, cream soups, pouring custard, béchamel sauce, and gravy are commonly used
sols in the kitchen.
Gel A gel is a colloidal system in which liquid forms the dispersed phase and
solid forms the continuous phase. It is also called a reverse sol. A gel does not flow.
Some of the liquid is adsorbed on the surface of the solid molecules and is called
bound water. Because of this bound liquid, the gel has structure. The remaining liq-
uid is trapped in the solid three-dimensional meshwork of the gel. As compared to
a sol, the concentration of solid is higher in a gel.
A food gel consists of a continuous phase of interconnected particles or macro-
molecules in which liquid is dispersed. The rigidity, elasticity, and brittleness of the
gel depends on the type and concentration of the solid or gelling agent, the pH,
salt content, and temperature, e.g., pectin does not form a gel unless the pH is
acidic. -
The gelling agent may be a polysaccharide like cornflour in blancmange, a pro-
tein like albumin in caramel custard or complex colloidal particles like calcium
caseinate in curds. Gums, pectins, and gelatin can form gels even at low concentra-
tions. }
When a gel is stored for sometime or becomes stale, there is a reduction in gel vol-
ume. The liquid which was entrapped in the three-dimensional meshwork of the gel
is expelled from the interstitial spaces and the gel shrinks. This condition is called
syneresis or weeping gel. Syneresis is seen in baked custards, moulded desserts, and
curds. Free liquid may also be released if the gel structure is cut, e.g., in curds, whey
separates out when the set gel is cut or disturbed.
30 Food Science and Nutrition

Continuous
phase
Free
liquid Trapped
Gelatin liquid
molecules
Fig. 3.1 In a gelatin sol, gelatin forms the dispersed
phase. On cooling, gelatin forms the continuous phase

Sols and gels are reverse colloidal systems and many can be changed from one
type to another. Many gels are first sols which on cooling form gels provided the
concentration of solids is adequate.

Dissolved Heated
gelatin jelly a Jelly
crystals

SOL Cooled GEL

When a sol is converted into a gel, the energy levels fall. This is seen during
the cooling process. The solids in the dispersed phase move with difficulty
through the continuous phase and ultimately associate with one another by form-
ing secondary bonds. When the dispersion is cold enough, permanent bonds
form, which can hold the liquid in the solid meshwork. A gel is formed which
differs from a sol because it is apparently solid and is capable of holding its shape
when served.
Emulsion An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of tiny droplets of one liquid
suspended in another. In this colloidal system, liquids form the dispersed as well
as the continuous phase. One liquid is dispersed as dropletsin another liquid.
For an emulsion to form, agitation or shaking the two liquids is. necessary till they
are well mixed. Emulsions form, only when the two liquids are immiscible in
each other, e.g., oil and water. The liquid with the higher surface tension forms
small droplets or the dispersed phase. When an emulsion is formed the dispersed
liquid has a much larger surface area as compared to the two liquids as separate
layers.
Food emulsions are of two types:
(a) Oil in water emulsion or O/W emulsion in which the droplets of oil are dis-
persed in water, for example, mayonnaise and milk.
(b) Water in oil emulsion or W/O emulsion in which droplets of water are dis-
persed in oil, for example, margarine and butter.
 Colloidal Systems in Foods 31

Oil

Water

Fig. 3.2 Surface area of oil as a layer and as an emulsion

(note the increase in surface area)

Emulsions may also be classified on the basis of stability as follows:

E: Temporary emulsions, e.g., French dressing

= Semipermanent emulsions, e.g., milk
3. Permanent emulsions, e.g., mayonnaise, homogenized milk
An emulsion is more viscous than the liquids that form the emulsion. Vinegar
and oil when seen individually are very fluid, but when they are agitated together to
make the emulsion mayonnaise the mixture becomes viscous.
In a temporary emulsion, the droplets that form the dispersed phase tend to coa-
lesce as they bump into one another and form larger droplets till the emulsion
breaks or separates into oil and water.
In food emulsions, the water phase may also contain water soluble constituents
of milk, fruit juice, cooked starch paste, whole egg, vinegar, or lime juice as well
as salts and other water soluble compounds. The oil phase may contain a blend of
different fats and oils and fat soluble compounds.

Theory of Emulsification

1. During the process of emulsification, the main step is to break down the bulk
liquid into small droplets and then stabilize the emulsion.
2 In a stable emulsion the droplets remain dispersed. But due to interfacial ten-
sion, there is a tendency for droplets to coalesce and separate out. The inter-
facial tension is lowered by the addition of emulsifiers. Emulsifiers or emul-
sifying agents are surface active agents which lower the interfacial tension,
i.e., the tension at the interface of two immiscible liquids.
The dispersed droplets which are of colloidal dimensions tend to form spher-
ical structures in the continuous phase.
To prepare a stable emulsion, it is necessary to reduce the size of the droplets,
prevent their coalescing, and increase their surface area.
Mechanical aids such as beaters, stirrers, homogenizers, and colloid mills
help to reduce the size of the dispersed droplets, thereby increasing surface
area. Energy is required to work against the interfacial tension and allow the
continuous phase to stretch out and cover the dispersed droplets.
 6. Emulsifiers are used to reduce interfacial tension, They get adsorbed at the
interface. .
7, Inan O/W emulsion, e.g., mayonnaise, the nonpolar group of the emulsifier
is oriented towards the oil droplet (salad oil) and is adsorbed in the outermost
layer of the droplet.
8. The polar group of the emulsifier is oriented towards the continuous phase of
water (vinegar, lime juice, water from egg) surrounding the oil droplet.
9. The molecules of emulsifier surround the droplet completely forming a
monomolecular layer of emulsifier (lecithin) around the droplet.
10. The oil droplet is thus protected by a film consisting of 3 layers namely

(a) the outermost layer of oil molecules

(b) a layer of emulsifier
(c) the innermost layer of water
This protective film/layer prevents two oil droplets from coalescing when they collide.
11. Emulsions are further stabilized by the electric charge.
12. The ingredients used should not be chilled. Warm ingredients emulsify sooner
as they are more fluid and spread or split into droplets faster.
13. The consistency of an emulsion ranges from liquid to a plastic solid.
The stability of an emulsion depends on the following factors:

The presence and type of emulsifying agent present

The amount or concentration of the emulsifying agent
The size of the droplets in dispersed phase
The ratio of oil and water used
hg The
gel viscosity of the continuous phase
The presence and type of emulsifying agent present The most
important factor which determines the stability of an emulsion is the presence of
an emulsifying agent. The emulsifying agent may be present naturally in one of
the ingredients, e.g., lecithin is a natural emulsifying agent present in egg yolk or
the emulsifying agent may be added to the emulsion.
An emulsifying agent is a compound containing both polar and nonpolar
groups and is thus attracted to both phases of the emulsion at the interface.
The polar groups are oriented towards the water phase and the nonpolar
groups pull the molecule of the emulsifying agent towards oil. The emulsifi-
er forms a layer at the interface which coats the surfaces of the dispersed
droplet completely.
The droplets do not touch each other and coalesce because of the protective
layer of the emulsifying agent. The emulsion formed becomes stable and does
 Colloidal Systems in Foods 33

Temporary Emulsifying Stable

emulsion agent emulsion

Fig. 3.3 Diagrammatic representation of orientation of

emulsifying agent in an O/W emulsion

ce of the emul-
not separate out into two separate layers because of the presen
sifying agent.
fying agent used,
The type of emulsion formed will also depend on the emulsi
agent is stronger.
and whether the polar or nonpolar group on the emulsifying
is more strongly
If the nonpolar group is stronger, the emulsifying agent
and water will form
attracted to oil. The surface tension of oil is reduced
d will be a W/O type of
droplets or the dispersed phase. The emulsion forme
emulsion.
g agent The amount
The amount or concentration of the emulsifyin
ent to coat the dispersed
of emulsifier present in the emulsion should be suffici
at the interface which is
droplets completely. The emulsifier forms a layer
touch each other and coalesce
monomolecular in thickness. The droplets do not
agent around each droplet.
because of the protective layer of emulsifying
any beneficial effects. If the
Addition of extra emulsifying agent does not have
coated or protected and stabili-
emulsifier is insufficient, all droplets will not be
ty of the’emulsion is affected.
Mechanical aids such as
The size of the droplets in dispersed phase
help to reduce the size of the droplets
beaters, homogenizers, and colloid mills
The smaller the size of the dispersed
dispersed, i.e., increase their surface area. ener-
droplet represents a lower
droplets, the more stable the emulsion. A large
stability. Homogenized milk is a sta-
gy state than two small droplets and has less
are reduced.
ble emulsion as the size of the fat droplets used or the
ratio of oil and water
The ratio of oil and water used The
phase is important. The continuous
ratio of dispersed phase to the continuous
sed droplets completely. For this
phase should stretch out and cover the disper
emulsion is necessary.
proper mixing, shaking, or beating of the
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 BY GABRIELLE E. JACKSON.
Little Miss Cricket.
Little Miss Cricket’s New Home.
Illustrated. 12mo. $1.25 each.
Two charming stories of a pathetic little heroine.

The Joy of Piney Hill.

Illustrated in color by Ruth M. Hallock. 12mo.
Cloth, $1.50.
The story of a dear little girl who was in trouble and who was
taken into a model school where she makes every one love her.

Three Graces.
Three Graces at College.
With illustrations in tint by C. M. Relyea. 12mo.
Cloth, $1.50 each.
The first, a story of boarding school life, full of incident and
wholesome characterization. The second, a charming story of college
life, its ideals, recreations, temptations and rewards.

Sunlight and Shadow.

 Four full-page illustrations in colors. 12mo.
Ornamental cloth, $1.50.
“A wholesome little tale is this, tingling with life and youthful
spirits.”—The Interior.

Big Jack.
Illustrated. 12mo. Ornamental cloth, $1.00.
“A book which every parent would show wisdom in putting in the
libraries of his children.”—Dayton Daily News.

Little Miss Sunshine.

Illustrated. 12mo. Ornamental cloth, $1.50.
“A delightful, wholesome, readable book for girls.”—Criterion.

Little Comrade.
Illustrated. 12mo. Ornamental cloth, $1.00.
Every child should be taught the love of animals. This book
teaches that love.

The Colburn Prize.

Illustrated. 12mo. Ornamental cloth, $1.00.
Dedicated to the school-girls throughout the land. Nine full-page
illustrations add to the charm of this exquisite gift book.
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

A GREAT STORY FOR BOYS.

Buck Jones at Annapolis.

By Captain Richmond Pearson Hobson, U. S. Navy.
Illustrated in colors. 12mo. Ornamental cloth, $1.50.
There is no boy in the country to whom the name of Hobson does
not bring a thrill of patriotic fire. A boy’s story by this national hero is
sure of an overwhelming reception. Captain Hobson here shows
himself a story-teller of rare powers, and his book would captivate
the young reader whatever name was on its title-page. His name
adds new charm and conviction.
There has never before been so loyally and faithfully depicted the
routine and life of the naval cadet. Every incident in this story of
Buck’s career at the Naval Academy has its foundation in fact, and in
the author’s use of them here they become revitalized. Nowhere else
so well as in this story can the young man, desirous of learning how
a cadet fares at Annapolis, obtain the information. And in addition to
all this Captain Hobson has told a story brimful of interest and
adventure, the love and mystery of the sea, the fascination of boy
life aboard ship with other boys, and the friendships with old tars
and younger classmates.
“Ranked among the most popular books for boys, not only because of the fame
of the gallant young author, but because it is a splendid story of the sort that
cannot be put aside until finished, even if the reading extends far into the small
morning hours.”—Albany Times-Union.
 “American boys who take an interest in the growth and achievements of our
splendid Navy—and that means all American boys with red blood in their veins—
have a huge treat awaiting them in ‘Buck Jones at Annapolis.’ The book is full of
snap, stirring adventure and insight into life at Annapolis.”—Army and Navy
Journal.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

BY HEZEKIAH BUTTERWORTH.
The Young McKinley.
Illustrated. 12mo. Ornamental Cloth, $1.50.
Mr. Butterworth portrays the future President at school, where,
after a bitter disappointment, the crusty old school-teacher, who has
a good heart beneath his severe exterior, says to him: “Never mind,
you may be President yet.” He traces President McKinley’s career
through his army days to the time when he was preparing for that
great political career which made the blow that struck him down at
the height of his glory a blow to the whole United States.

Brother Jonathan; or, The Alarm

Post in the Cedars.
A Tale of Early Connecticut. Illustrated. 12mo.
Cloth, $1.50.

In the Days of Audubon.

 A Tale of the “Protector of Birds.” Illustrated by B.
West Clinedinst and others. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

In the Days of Jefferson; or, The Six

Golden Horseshoes.
A Tale of Republican Simplicity. Illustrated by F. T.
Merrill. $1.50.

The Story of Magellan.

A Tale of the Discovery of the Philippines.
Illustrated by F. T. Merrill and others. $1.50.

The Treasure Ship.

A Story of Sir William Phipps and the Inter-Charter
Period in Massachusetts. Illustrated by B. West
Clinedinst and others. $1.50.

The Pilot of the Mayflower.

Illustrated by H. Winthrop Peirce and others.
$1.50.

True to His Home.

 A Tale of the Boyhood of Franklin. Illustrated by H.
Winthrop Peirce. $1.50.

The Wampum Belt; or, The Fairest

Page of History.
A Tale of William Penn’s Treaty with the Indians.
With 6 full-page Illustrations. $1.50.

The Knight of Liberty.

A Tale of the Fortunes of Lafayette. With 6 full-
page Illustrations. $1.50.

The Patriot Schoolmaster.

A Tale of the Minutemen and the Sons of Liberty.
With 6 full-page Illustrations by H. Winthrop Peirce.
$1.50.

In the Boyhood of Lincoln.

A Story of the Black Hawk War and the Tunker
Schoolmaster. With 12 Illustrations and colored
Frontispiece. $1.50.
The Boys of Greenway Court.
A Story of the Early Years of Washington. With 10
full-page Illustrations. $1.50.

The Log School-House on the

Columbia.
With 13 full-page Illustrations by J. Carter Beard,
E. J. Austen, and others. $1.50.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

STORIES FOR YOUNG READERS

JOURNEYS OF THE KIT KAT
CLUB. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00 Net.
By William R. A. Wilson.
A beautifully illustrated volume filled with interesting and salient
features of English history, folk-lore, politics, and scenery.

BUTT CHANLER,
FRESHMAN. Illustrated. 12mo. $1.50.
By James Shelley Hamilton, Amherst ’06.
 College sports are always a subject of interest to young readers,
and here are incidents that are dear to all college associates.
“The story is breezy, bright, and clean.”—The Bookseller, New
York.

WILLIAMS OF WEST
POINT. Illustrated. 12mo. $1.50.
By Lieut. Hugh S. Johnson.
A story of West Point under the old code. “Every boy with red
blood in his veins will pronounce it a corker.”—The Globe, Boston.

THE SUBSTITUTE. Illustrated. 12mo. $1.50.

By Walter Camp.
“Presents the ideal to football enthusiasts. The author’s name is
guarantee of the accuracy of descriptions of the plays.”—The
Courant, Hartford, Conn.

THE FOREST RUNNERS. Illustrated in

Color. 12mo. $1.50.
By Joseph A. Altsheler.
This story deals with the further adventures of the two young
woodsmen in the history of Kentucky who were heroes in “The
Young Trailers.” The story is full of thrills to appeal to every boy who
loves a good story.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

 Transcriber’s Note:
Except for the frontispiece, illustrations have been moved to the text that
they illustrate, so the page number of the illustration may not match the page
number in the List of Illustrations.
Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected.
Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOUR AFOOT:
BEING THE ADVENTURES OF THE BIG FOUR ON THE HIGHWAY ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com