Chapter 1: Basics of Database and Architecture (12 Marks)

i) Introduction-
Data:
-Data is single piece of information.
-In other words, the input on which different operations are performed is called as
data.

Database:
-Database is collection of data related to specific organization.
-For example: i) College contain information about students, staff.
ii) Railway reservation system contains information about passengers,
railway time-table, reservation details, waiting list etc.
- Sample Database structure:
Student Table

Sid Name Class Marks

Course Table

Cid Name Hours

Marks Table

Sid Cid Marks Grade

Database Management System (DBMS):

-DBMS stands for Database Management System.
-We can break it like this DBMS = Database + Management System.
-Database is a collection of data and Management System is a set of programs to
store and retrieve those data.
-Based on this we can define DBMS like this: DBMS is a collection of inter-related
data and set of programs to store & access those data in an easy and effective
manner.
-Using DBMS, user can:
oSpecify data types, structures and constraints for data.
oStore the data.
oPerform operations on data such as retrieving data, updating database.

Applications of DBMS:
-Banking: Database isused in bank to store information about customers, accounts,
transaction details, loans etc.
-Airlines: Database is used to store details of reservations, passenger details and
schedule information etc.
-Universities: Database is used to store information about student details, course
details, marks details etc.
-Credit card Transactions: Database is used to store information about purchase on
credit cards and generation of monthly statements.
-Telecommunication: Database plays important role in telecommunication to store

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 information about call records like call made, call duration, monthly bills generation,
sms details etc.
-Finance: In finance, database requires to store information about sales, purchase
of financial instruments such as shares.
-Sales: Database plays role to store information of customer, product, purchasing
details.
-Manufacturing: Database requires for storing details of suppliers, products, ware
house details, purchasing details, order for items.
-Human Resource: Database stores information about employees, salaries, leave
records etc.
-E-commerce: Database is used for business activities such as online shopping,
booking of holiday packages.

Characteristics of Database:
i) Data Integrity: data integrity means correctness of data. DBMS maintains the
consistency, correctness of data.
ii) Security: DBMS protects data from unauthorized users access.
iii) Data Independence: DBMS provides data independency, i.e. User can access, store or
modify data independently.
iv) Backup: DBMS takes the backup i.e. Storing copies of files on other machine. So
whenever system fails, user can access data from backup copies.
v) Rollback: Whenver system fails, database undo or revert the currently executing
operation so data will be in consistent state. This is known as rollback.
vi) Concurrency control: DBMS provides concurrency control which handle simultaneous
access to data by multiple users.

File System Vs Database Approach:

File Processing System:
- A file processing system is a collection of files and programs that access/modify
these files.
- Typically, new files and programs are added over time (by different
programmers) as new information needs to be stored.
- In a typical file processing system, each department or area within an
organization has its own set of files.
- The records in one file may not relate to the records in any other file.
- File processing systems may use a storage device such as a hard disk or CD-
ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the files.
- For e.g. each application such as sales by salesperson, invoicing, payroll all
maintained their own files to store their data.

Disadvantages of File Processing System:

i) Data Redundancy:Each department in an organization has its own files in a file

processing system. For e.g. In schools, the Student file and the Student
Schedule file both might store the same student's names and addresses.
Duplicating data in this manner wastes resources such as storage space and
people’s time. When new students are added or student data is modified, file
maintenance tasks consume additional time because people must update
multiple files that contain the same data.

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ii) Isolated Data – Often it is difficult to access data stored in separate files in different
departments. Sharing data from multiple, separate files is a complicated procedure.
iii) Security Problems - In database system, every user is not able to access all the data.
For example, in college system database, leaves details of staff can be updated only by
HR department, it should not be accessible by any other person than HR dept.
iv) Concurrent-access anomalies: If multiple users are updating the same data
simultaneously, it will result in inconsistent state. In file processing system it is very
difficult to handle this using program code. This results in concurrent access anomalies.

Advantages and disadvantages of Database Systems:

➢Advantages:
1) Centralized management and control over the data:
- The database administrator having centralized control over the system.
2) Reduction of Redundancies:
- As DBMS has Centralized control of data by DBA, it avoids duplication of data and
reduces total amount of data storage required.
3) Shared Data:
- DBMS allows the sharing of data by any number of application programmers or
users.
4) Integrity:
- Integrity means that the data contained in the database is both accurate and
consistent and DBMS provides integrity by performing adequate checks.
5) Security:
- In DBMS, database administrator is responsible for ensuring authentication of
users.
6) Conflict Resolution:
- As database is under the control of the DBA, he/she should resolve the conflicting
requirements of various users and applications.
7) Data Independence:
- DBA can modify the structure of data. This modification does not affect other
applications.

➢Disadvantages:
1) Cost of operation: DBMS implementation cost is high compared to the file system.
2)Complexity: Database systems are complex to understand.
3) Extra Hardware: A DBMS requires disk storage for the data which may need to
purchase extra storage disks.
4) Requirements of Technical Staff: a team of technically sound people is required for
good understanding of DBMS and company have to pay higher salary to them.

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RDBMS (Relational Database Management System):
-RDBMS is a database based on the relational model developed by E.F. Codd.
-RDBMS is a type of DBMS that stores the data in the form of related tables.
- A relational database is composed of many relations in the form of two-
dimensional tables of rows and columns containing related rows.

Difference between DBMS and RDBMS:

Sr. DBMS RDBMS

No.
1 Database Management System Relational Database Management System
2 It is the old version of software to RDBMS is latest version of software for
handle the Database. handling databases.
3 DBMS applications store data as file. RDBMS applications store data in a tabular
form.
4 Data security is low as compare to Level of data security is very high as
RDBMS. compareto DBMS.
5 Data storage capacity is less as Data storage capacity is very high.
compared to RDBMS.
6 Not easy to maintain data integrity in Data integrity is one of the most important
DBMS. feature of RDBMS.
7 DBMS supports single user. RDBMS supports multiple users.
8 All Codd’s 12 rules are not followed. All Codd’s 12 rules are followed.
9 Example : Foxpro, Dbase Example : mysql, MariaDB, postgre, sql
server, oracle etc.

Components of database:
- A database system can be separated into two different modules that deal with all
operations of the overall system.
- The DBMS is made up of many interrelated components like:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedures
5. Database Access Language

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i) Hardware:
−This Consists of a set of physical electronic devices such as computers, I/O devices,
storage devices, etc., this provides the interface between computers and the real world
systems.
−For e.g. When we run Oracle or MySQL on our personal computer, then our computer's Hard
Disk, our Keyboard using which we type in all the commands, our computer's RAM, ROM all
become a part of the DBMS hardware.

ii) Software:
−This is the set of programs used to control and manage the overall database.
−This includes the DBMS software itself, the Operating System, the network software
being used to share the data among users, and the application programs used to access
data in the DBMS.

iii) Data:
−Data is the resource, for which DBMS was designed.
−The motive behind the creation of DBMS was to store and utilise data.
−In a typical Database, the user saved Data is present and meta data is stored.
−Metadata is data about the data. This is information stored by the DBMS to better
understand the data stored in it.
−For example: When I store my Name in a database, the DBMS will store when the name
was stored in the database, what is the size of the name, is it stored as related data to
some other data, or is it independent, all this information is metadata.

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iv) Procedures:
−Procedures refer to general instructions to use a database management system.
−This includes procedures to setup and install a DBMS, to login and logout of DBMS
software, to manage databases, to take backups, generating reports etc.

v) Database Access Language:

−Database Access Language is a simple language designed to write commands to
access, insert, update and delete data stored in any database.
−A user can write commands in the Database Access Language and submit it to the
DBMS for execution, which is then translated and executed by the DBMS.
−User can create new databases, tables, insert data, fetch stored data, update data and
delete the data using the access language.

vi) Users:
i) Database Administrators:Database Administrator or DBA is the one who manages the
complete database management system. DBA takes care of the security of the DBMS, it's
availability, managing the license keys, managing user accounts and access etc.
ii) Application Programmer or Software Developer:This user group is involved in
developing and designing the parts of DBMS.
iii) End User: End users are the one who store, retrieve, update and delete data.

Data Abstraction:
-Data abstraction is to hide complexity of data from users.
-As many database-systems users are not computer trained, developers hide the
complexity from users through several levels of abstraction, to simplify
userinteraction with the system
-There are 3 levels of data abstraction.
1) Physical level
2) Logical level
3) View level

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 1) Physical Level:
- It is lowest level of abstraction.
- It describes how the data are actually stored in database.
- It describes complex data structures in detail.
2) Logical Level:
- It is also known as conceptual level.
- It is the next higher level of abstraction.
- It describes what data stored in the database and what the relationships exist
among these data.
3) View Level:
- It is the highest level of abstraction.
- It describes only part of database to user.
- There is more complexity in physical as well as logical level so user should not
interact with complicated database.
- So different views of database can be created for user to interact with database
easily.

Database Languages:
-Database languages are used for read, update and store data in a database.
-Types of DBMS languages:
i) Data Definition Language (DDL): DDL is used for specifying the database schema
(Structure). Following tasks are performed under DDL:
• CREATE - used to create objects in the database
• ALTER - used to alters the structure of the database
• DROP - used to delete objects from the database
• TRUNCATE - used to remove all records from a table.

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 • COMMENT - used to add comments to the data dictionary
• RENAME - used to rename an object
ii) Data Manipulation Language (DML): DML is used for accessing and performing
operations on data in a database. Following tasks are performed under DML:
• SELECT - It retrieves data from a database
• INSERT - It inserts data into a table
• UPDATE - It updates existing data within a table
• DELETE - It deletes all or specific records from a table.
iii) Data Control language (DCL): DCL is used for granting and revoking user access on a
database. It is mostly concerned with rights, permissions and other controls of the
database system.
• GRANT - allow users access privileges to database
• REVOKE - withdraw users access privileges given by using the GRANT command

Data Independence:
- It is the ability to modify a schema in one level without affecting schema in another
level.
- There are two types of data independence:
1) Physical data independence: It is the ability to change schema at physical level
without affecting logical or view level. It is the ability to modify the physical schema
without requiring any change in application programs. Physical data independence
separates conceptual levels from the internal levels.
2) Logical data independence: It is the ability to change logical schema without
affecting external schema or application programs. Logical data independence
separates external level from the conceptual view.

Data Integrity:
−Data integrity is the overall completeness, accuracy and consistency of data.
− Integrity constraints provides a way of ensuring that changes made to the database by
authorized users do not result in a loss of data consistency and correctness.
−When creating databases, attention needs to be given to data integrity and how to
maintain it.
−A good database will enforce data integrity whenever possible.
−An integrity constraint can be any arbitrary predicate or condition applied to the
database.
− For example:
− Bank customer age should not be less than 18.
− No two customers can have same customer ID.

− Some Examples of incorrect data:

- Student taking admission to branch which is not available in college.

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iii) Architecture of Database:
- A 3-tier architecture will separate complexity of each architectural layer (tier)
from each other.
- It is the most widely used architecture to design a DBMS.

• Database (Data) Tier:

- This layer is made up of DBMS and Data storage.
- This database layer manages the storage and retrieval of data as well as
security, data integrity of the application.
- The data is stored in this layer. Hence, security is most important aspect of this
layer.
• Application (Middle) Tier:
- The middle tier is also called as application server and it consists of application
logic.
- This tier executes process management.
- It hides the complexity of process distribution from the user.
- This tier processes the inputs it receives from the clients and interacts with the
database.
- Thus, middle tier represents the code that the user calls upon through the
presentation layer to retrieve data from the database.

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 • User (Presentation) Tier:
- End-users operate on this tier.
- This tier has all things that are visible to the user, such as screen layout and
navigation.
- This layer is mainly consisting of Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) which is visible
to all database application users.
Database Products:
Various database products are as below:
- MS Access, Foxpro, SQL Server by Microsoft
- Oracle by Oracle Corporation
- Maria DB
- MySQL
- DB2 by IBM

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