CHAPTER 3

Database Systems and Big Data

Data are the principal resources of an organization. Data stored in computer systems form a hierarchy
extending from a single bit to a database, the major record-keeping entity of a firm. Each higher rung of
this hierarchy is organized from the components below it. Data are logically organized into:
1. Bits (characters) 3. Records 5. Databases
2. Fields 4. Files

Bit (Character) - a bit is the smallest unit of data representation (value of a bit may be a 0 or 1). A bit (a
binary digit) represents a circuit that is either on or off. Bits can be organized into units called bytes. A
byte is typically eight bits. Each byte represents a character.

Character: A basic building block of most information, consisting of uppercase letters, lowercase letters,
numeric digits, or special symbols. Characters are put together to form a field.

Field - a field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a characteristic or
quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event). A field is typically a name, number, or
combination of characters that describes an aspect of a business object.

Record: A collection of data fields all related to one object, activity, or individual is called a record. A
record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity. A record consists of fields,
with each field describing an attribute of the entity.

File - A collection of related records or a group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the
application for which they are primarily used.

 A primary key in a file is the field (or fields) whose value identifies a record among others in a
data file.

At the highest level of this hierarchy is a database, a collection of integrated and related files. Characters
are combined to make a field, fields are combined to make a record, records are combined to make a file,
and files are combined to make a database.

Database - is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database consolidates records
previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data for many
applications. The data is managed by systems software called database management systems (DBMS).
The data stored in a database is independent of the application programs using it and of the types of
secondary storage devices on which it is stored.

Data base is defined from three levels of view:

Level 1: literal meaning: the place where data is stored

  Database = Data + Base, the actual storage of all the information that are interested

Level 2: Database Management System (DBMS): The software tool package that helps gatekeeper and
manage data storage, access and maintenances. It can be either in personal usage scope (MS Access,
SQLite) or enterprise level scope (Oracle, MySQL, MS SQL, etc).

Level 3: Database Application: All the possible applications built upon the data stored in databases
(web site, BI application, ERP etc).

A database management system (DBMS) consists of a group of programs that manipulate the database
and provide an interface between the database and its users and other application programs. A database, a
DBMS, and the application programs that use the data make up a database environment.

A database administrator (DBA) is a skilled and trained IS professional who directs all activities related
to an organization’s database, including providing security from intruders.

DATA MANAGEMENT

Data consists of raw facts, such as employee numbers and sales figures. For data to be transformed into
useful information, it must first be organized in a meaningful way.

Data Entities, Attributes, and Keys

Entities, attributes, and keys are important database concepts. An entity is a general class of people,
places, or things (objects) for which data is collected, stored, and maintained. Examples of entities include
employees, inventory, and customers.

An attribute is a characteristic of an entity. Attributes are usually selected to reflect the relevant
characteristics of entities such as employees or customers. The specific value of an attribute, called a data
item, can be found in the fields of the record describing an entity.

A key is a field or set of fields in a record that identifies the record. A primary key is a field or set of
fields that uniquely identifies the record.

 No other record can have the same primary key.

 The primary key is used to distinguish records so that they can be accessed, organized, and
manipulated.
 Primary keys ensure that each record in a file is unique.

The Database Approach At one time, information systems referenced specific files containing relevant
data. For example, a payroll system would use a payroll file. Each distinct operational system used data
files dedicated to that system. This approach to data management is called the traditional approach to data
management. Today, most organizations use the database approach to data management, whereby
multiple information systems share a pool of related data. A database offers the ability to share data and
information resources.

To use the database approach to data management, additional software a database management system
(DBMS) is required. A DBMS consists of a group of programs that can be used as an interface between a
database and the user of the database. Typically, this software acts as a buffer between the application
programs and the database itself.

DATA MODELING AND DATABASE CHARACTERISTICS

A database should be designed to store all data relevant to the business and provide quick access and easy
modification.

Data Modeling

When organizing a database, key considerations includes determining what data to collect, who will have
access to it, and how they might want to use it. After determining these details, an organization can create
the database. Building a database requires two different types of designs:

A logical design and

A physical design.

The logical design of a database is an abstract model of how the data should be structured and arranged to
meet an organization’s information needs. The logical design involves identifying relationships among
the data items and grouping them in an orderly fashion.

The physical design starts from the logical database design and fine-tunes it for performance and cost
considerations.

A data model is a diagram of entities and their relationships.

Data modeling usually involves understanding a specific business problem and analyzing the data and
information needed to deliver a solution. Entity-relationship (ER) diagrams use basic graphical symbols
to show the organization of and relationships between data. ER diagrams show data items in tables
(entities) and the ways they are related. ER diagrams help ensure that the relationships among the data
entities in a database are correctly structured so that any application programs developed are consistent
with business operations and user needs. In addition, ER diagrams can serve as reference documents after
a database is in use.

Relational model: A database model that describes data in which all data elements are placed in two-
dimensional tables, called relations, which are the logical equivalent of files.

Manipulating Data: After entering data into a relational database, users can make inquiries and analyze
the data. Basic data manipulations include selecting, projecting, and joining.

Selecting involves eliminating rows according to certain criteria.

Projecting involves eliminating columns in a table.
Joining involves combining two or more tables.
Domain: The allowable values for data attributes.
Selecting: Manipulating data to eliminate rows according to certain criteria.
Projecting: Manipulating data to eliminate columns in a table.
Joining: Manipulating data to combine two or more tables.
 Linking: Data manipulation that combines two or more tables using common data attributes to
form a new table with only the unique data attributes

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The functional units responsible for managing the data are:

Data administrator (DA): The person who has the central responsibility for an organizations data.

Database administrator (DBA): is a specialist responsible for maintaining standards for the
development, maintenance, and security of an organization's databases.

 Is expected to have a clear understanding of the fundamental business of the organization, be

proficient in the use of selected database management systems, and stay abreast of emerging
technologies and new design approaches.
 A skilled IS professional who directs all activities related to an organization’s database.

A DBMS is a group of programs used as an interface between a database and application programs or a
database and the user. DBMSs are used to manage all kinds of data for all kinds of purposes.

Database management system (DBMS): A group of programs that manipulate the database and provide
an interface between the database and the user of the database and other application programs.

BIGDATA

Big Data: Big data is the term for a collection of data sets so large and complex that it becomes difficult
to process using on-hand database management tools or traditional data processing applications. Big data
is characterized by:

Volume: large amounts of data Zeta bytes/Massive datasets

Velocity: Data is live streaming or in motion
Variety: data comes in many different forms from diverse sources
Veracity: can we trust the data? How accurate is it? etc.