Jon Von Neumann diagram:

Keywords:

 CU – Control Unit
 ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
 MU – Memory unit
 PC – Program Counter
 MAR – Memory Address Register
 MDR – Memory Data Register  CIR – Current Instruction Register

Computers contains three main components: ALU, CU and MU. CU contains PC and CIR while
MU contains MDR and MAR, the memory storage.

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 Steps of how this works:

1. CU fetches/gets instructions
2. Address is copied from the PC to the MAR
3. Instructions copied from the MAR to the MDR
4. Contents of the MDR is copied into the CIR,PC discretely increased by 1
5. Next instruction is fetched (fetched execute cycle)
6. Instructions are decoded and then executed using the control bus

Internal Clock Speed

What: The internal clock speed of a CPU, measured in GHZ, determines how many cycles
per second the processor can execute.

Why: Higher clock speeds can lead to better performance.

Overclocking

What: The process of increasing the clock rate of a computer's CPU beyond its factory
settings.
Why: This can lead to improved performance and faster processing speeds.
Risks : Potential overheating ,Hardware damage.

The cache

What: It is a small, high-speed storage area located within the CPU. Why:

It stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce latency.

impacting overall performance: The larger the cache memory size the better the CPU
performance.

Cores

What: They are the fundamental processing units of a CPU, capable of executing
instructions independently.

Why: Modern CPUs often have multiple cores, allowing for parallel processing, which
significantly enhances performance, especially in multitasking and complex applications.

Input and Output devices

Why do we need input and output devices?

Without it our computer wouldn’t be able to function as well and correctly. They are the mini
components of a computer.

Input – used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system.

Input devices:

 scanners
 keyboards
 mouse
 sensors
 microphones
 digital cameras
Output – any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user.

Output devices:
  Printers
 Loudspeakers
 Projectors
 LCD/LED monitors

Printers:
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Quick response (QR) codes

Another type of barcode is the QR code. It’s a machine-readable code consisting of an array
of black and white squares, typically used for storing URLs or other information for reading
by the camera on a smartphone. Normal bar codes can hold only around 30 digits where
the QR code can hold up to 7000 digits.

Image of QR code:

Digital Cameras

• Photographs are stored in memory

• They can be easily transferred to a computer using a USB •

Uses o Digital cameras can produce photographs for direct
transfer to a computer or to print out o Digital cameras allow short video clips to be
produced o Photographs can be uploaded directly into application software such as word
processor
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easier to produce better quality The camera user needs to be computer
photographs than with a tradition camera literate to use the camera properly

Easier and faster to upload photographs to There is some artistry lost since clever
a computer software corrects errors in the
photographs

There is no need to develop film and print The resolution is not yet as good as
out photographs (saves paper and no traditional cameras
longer needs the chemicals to produce
photographs from films)

Easy to delete an image from the memory if

it’s not satisfactory

The memory card can store several

hundred photographs

Keyboards
Keyboards is an essential part of a computer, without
it you wouldn’t be able to type. Keyboards are used as
the input device on computers. tablets, mobile phones,
etc. The keyboard is connected to the computer either
by a USB connection or wireless. Phones and tablets
use touchscreen technology, the keyboard appears on
the screen.

Pointing devices
Pointing devices are physical devices that
requires the user to ‘click’ on an icon. The mouse
is still the most popular pointing device (others
are tracker
ball or by
touchscreen) Mice can be connected to the computer via wireless connection or by a USB
connection (same as keyboard) The mouse requires space for it to move around, the
mouse is generally supported by a mouse pad because mat surfaces is the easiest for
movement instead of something like paper which will prevent the mouse operating
correctly.
Microphones
Microphones are used to input sound to a computer. For example:

 doing a voice over in a presentation

 part of a speech recognition system
 part of a voice recognition system
Microphones are either built into the computer or are external
devices connected through the USB port or using wireless
connectivity. When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates producing an
electric signal. This signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and
stored in the computer.

Touchscreens
Touchscreens is the future. It is every where from phones to
computers. Touchscreens are a form of input device. They allow a
simple touch to activate applications or to carry out many of the
functions that the pointing devices can do.

Main uses of touchscreen is in mobile phones and tablets. At present there are 3 major
types of touchscreen technologies applied to mobile phone screens.

 capacitive
 infra-red
 resistive

Sensors

Advantages Disadvantages

Readings by sensors are more accurate than Faulty sensors can give spurious
taken by humans results Temperature sensor

Readings are continuous, there is no break in

monitoring
Because it is a continuous process any
necessary action or warning will be initiated
immediately
 The system can be automatic, removing the
need for human intervention, this is
particularly important if the process is
hazardous

DAC and ADC

In the diagram above Vdd is a drain supply.

ADC is an analog to digital converter meaning a device for converting an analog signal
(voltage or signals) to a digital code, usually binary. In the real world most of the signals
sensed and processed by humans are analog signals.

DAC is a digital to analog converter so, the opposite of what the ADC does. Converting
digital codes, normally in binary to analog signals and voltages.
TYPE OF SENSOR APPLICATIONS
TEMPERATURE Automatic washing machines, central heating systems, automatic
green houses, ovens
PRESSURE Burglar alarm systems, robotics, environmental monitoring,
Automatic washing machines
LIGHT Automatic doors, street lighting control, Burglar alarm systems,
automatic greenhouses
SOUND Burglar alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder flow in
pipes
HUMIDITY/MOISTURE Automatic greenhouses, environmental monitoring, factories
where moisture levels are crucial
 PH Automatic greenhouse, chemical processes, environmental
monitoring

Central Heating System o Inputs

• Applying factors
▪ Inputs from the user ➢ Time systems turns on/off

➢ Room temperature required ▪ Inputs from the system

➢ Actual room temperature ➢ Clock giving the time
o Outcome • The data from the sensors is converted into
digital using an ADC
▪ Heating or cooling room during the
• The data is stored in the computer memory
required times o Outputs ▪ Boiler ▪ Air
• The computer compares the data from the
conditioner o Processing
sensor with the values stored in its memory
▪ Check time against the one input
• The results are output on a screen in the form
and switches on when that time is of graphs and/or digital read-outs
reached
• An alarm is activated if any of the data is
▪ Same done to check when to turn outside acceptable parameters
off
• The system continues to monitor the patient
▪ When on, microprocessor reads temperature until the computer is turned off
from sensor and compares it with desired
Advantages of Using Computers in
temperature
Measurement
➢ If too low, it will heat up by turning the • The computer will not forget to take readings
boiler on and if it’s too high it will turn the air
conditioner on • The computer’s response time is much faster,
which is particularly important in the patient
➢ These will stay on until desired monitoring example
temperature is reached
• Doctors, nurses, scientists, etc. can all get on
with other tasks while the monitoring is done
Monitoring patients in a hospital automatically

• Sensors read key vital signs (such as • Computer give 24 hours cover every day (i.e.
pulse/heart rate, temperature, blood 24/7)
pressure, respiration, etc.)
• The readings will tend to be more accurate • If performed for educational purposes,
reduced practical hands-on experience and
• Readings can be taken more frequently if they learning.
are done by a computer and sensors

• It could also be safer if whatever is being

monitored may have potential hazards (e.g. Loudspeakers:
children falling into the river whilst
attempting to take readings) • Will not function in a power cut if no backup
power present (expensive to have reliable
backup power)
Disadvantages of Using Computers in
Measurement

• Expensive to purchase and set up

A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer which converts an electrical audio signal

into a corresponding sound. The most widely used type of speaker right now is the
dynamic speaker. The dynamic speaker operates on the same basic principle as a
dynamic microphone, but in reverse, to produce sound from an electrical signal.

Speakers are typically housed in a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet which is often a
rectangular or square box made of wood or sometimes plastic. The enclosure’s materials
and design play an important role in the quality of the sound.
Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and
concerts, and in public address systems.

Projector:
The most common type of projector used today is called a video
projector. .A video projector takes a video signal and projects the
corresponding image on a screen using the lens but some newer types
of projectors can project the image directly, by using lasers. A virtual
retinal display, or retinal projector, is a projector that projects an image
directly on the retina instead of using an external projection screen, a
bit like our eye. All video projectors use a very bright light to project the image, and most
modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and other inconsistencies through
manual settings, this is important as this was not possible in the olden days. Video
projectors are widely used for conference room presentations, classrooms and cinemas.

Monitor:
A computer monitor is an electronic device that shows pictures for computers.
 A monitor A television
monitor does not have a television tuner to A television has a television tuner to
change channels change channels
A high display resolution makes it easier to Comparatively low display resolution
see smaller letters and fine graphics.

There are three types of computer displays:

 The CRT ( Cathode Ray Tube monitors) monitor. These are big and heavy and use a
lot of desk space and electricity. This type of monitor is no longer popular.

 LCD Flat panel. Much thinner and lighter than monitors with a
cathode ray tube.
 An LED Monitor (Light Emitting Diode) or LED display is an LCD
Monitor that uses light emitting diodes for back lighting.

CRT monitor
Advantages of LED (over LCD Disadvantages of LED
monitors)
Lighter and thinner Glare gives viewers headaches
Longer life Images too sharp, so can cause eye
strain
Lower power consumption
Greater contrast and more vivid
colour
Relatively more robust

Internal/Main Memory
• Stores all data: application software, operating system, data files
• Consists of ROM and RAM
• Both RAM and ROM are integrated chips

RAM ROM

Random access memory (RAM) is an internal Read only memory (ROM) is memory used to
chip where data is stored temporarily store permanent information
 Memory can be written to and read from
RAM > ROM (usually; except washing
machines)
Stores anything that needs to be changed Chips cannot be altered, only read from
All program and data being used are on RAM Used to contain configuration data for a
computer etc.
Contents lost when computer is turned off Data not lost when computer is turned off
Referred to as volatile memory Referred to as non-volatile memory
Secondary memory

Magnetic Storage Optical Storage

read from and written to using read/write heads read from and written to using a laser beam
direct access direct access
slower access and transfer rates compared to
magnetic
more portable and cheaper to buy
prone to damage as they can easily be scratched
or broken.
store installed applications, system and user files Store videos, music, software
Eg: Fixed/ Portable harddrive, Magetic tapes Eg: CD, DVD, Blu-Ray Disc

Cloud Storage
• Your data is stored remotely and not on your computer, so you don’t have control over the
physical security of your data.
• Some of the data stored may be personal data which are open to hackers, and have to be
encrypted in order to prevent hackers from obtaining them.
• The company providing the storage may go out of business. In this case what has to be done to
the data will have to be considered.
• The company providing the storage will have to put in all its efforts and safety measures in
order to keep your data safe.
• If the company providing the storage doesn’t backup your data, you may lose it in case of
power cuts or fires, etc

Solid-state storage devices

Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts.
• Solid-state storage devices store data using a special type of memory called flash memory.
• USB/Memory Cards use Direct Access
Embedded system

• Its build into a device

• It has a single purpose/limited / dedicated function.
• It does not have additional peripherals.

Virtual memory

Hard drive is partitioned in some way to create virtual memory Uses:

• To extend the RAM capacity
• To allow computers to process large amount of data required for 3D modelling.