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Painting Words

Beatriz González-Moreno and Fernando González-Moreno have brought together

an international group of scholars around the idea of “painting words,” which they
define as the pictorial ability of language to stir the reader’s imagination and the
way illustrators have “read” literary works over the course of centuries. Many
traditional comparative studies examine literature belonging to specific time
periods or movements, far less frequently do they bridge visual culture with text.
Painting Words: Aesthetics and the Relationship between Image and Text aims to
do just that.

Beatriz González-Moreno is a tenured professor at the University of Castilla-La

Mancha in Spain where she teaches English literature.

Fernando González-Moreno is a tenured professor at the University of

Castilla-La Mancha in Spain where he teaches Art History.
Painting Words
Aesthetics and the Relationship between
Image and Text

Edited by Beatriz González-Moreno and

Fernando González-Moreno
First published 2020
by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 Taylor & Francis
The right of Beatriz González-Moreno and Fernando González-
Moreno to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and
of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: González-Moreno, Beatriz, (Professor of literature) editor. |
González Moreno, Fernando, 1977– editor.
Title: Painting words : aesthetics and the relationship between image
and text / edited by Beatriz González-Moreno and Fernando
González-Moreno.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2020. | Series: Routledge
interdisciplinary perspectives on literature | Includes bibliographical
references and index. | Summary: “Editors, Beatriz González
Moreno and Fernando González Moreno have brought together an
international group of scholars around the idea of “painting words,”
which they define as the pictorial ability of language to stir the
reader’s imagination and the way illustrators have “read” literary
works over the course of centuries. Many traditional comparative
studies examine literature belonging to specific time periods or
movements, far less frequently do they bridge visual culture with
text—Painting Words: Aesthetics and the Relationship between
Image and Text aims to do just that”—Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020005839 (print) | LCCN 2020005840 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367196769 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367506377
(paperback) | ISBN 9780429242601 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Visual literature—History and criticism. | Art and
literature.
Classification: LCC PN56.V54 P35 2020 (print) | LCC PN56.V54
(ebook) | DDC 809/.93357—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005839
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005840

ISBN: 978-0-367-19676-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-50637-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-24260-1 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

List of Illustrations vii

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction 1
B E AT R I Z G O N Z ÁL E Z - MORE NO AND
F E R N A N D O G ONZ ÁL E Z - MORE NO

PART I
Old Concepts in New Garments: Ut Pictura
Poesis and Ekphrasis 9

1 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories of Folly, Love

and Prudence 11
F E R N A N D O G ONZ ÁL E Z - MORE NO

2 The Presence of Ut Pictura Poesis in William

Shakespeare’s and Miguel de Cervantes’ Works 33
A L E J A N D R O JAQUE RO E S PARCI A

PART II
The Sister Arts in the English Long-Nineteenth Century 49

3 Embellishing the Poetic Text: Felicia Hemans and

Female Aesthetic Education in the Nineteenth-Century
British Annuals 51
B E AT R I Z G O N Z ÁL E Z - MORE NO

4 Emily Eden’s Representations of India Through

Sketches and Letters: A Picturesque Female
Travel Account of the Empire 66
TA G I R E M G AL L E GO GARCÍ A
vi Contents
5 William Wordsworth’s Ekphrastic Poetry: Wandering
Into the Realms of the Visual Arts 79
M A C A R E N A RODRÍ GUE Z RODRÍ GUE Z

PART III
Intermedial Encounters in America 91

6 The Pictorial Richness of Poe’s Oeuvre 93

M A R G A R I TA RI GAL - ARAGÓN AND F E RNANDO
G O N Z Á L E Z - MORE NO

7 The (Literary) Caricatures of Flannery O’Connor’s

Short Fiction 113
J O S É M A N U E L CORRE OS O- RODE NAS

8 Word Painter: Visual Tropes of Enlightenment in

N. Scott Momaday’s House Made of Dawn 129
B A R B A R A K . ROBI NS

PART IV
Where the Future Lies: Transatlantic Interdisciplinarity 143

9 Romanticism’s Pan-Atlantic Life: Blake, Shelley,

and Byron in José Joaquín de Mora’s Meditaciones
Poéticas (1826) 145
J O S E LY N M . A L ME I DA AND S ARA ME DI NA CALZA D A

10 ‘Make Visible’: Paul Klee’s Dictum and Wallace Stevens

and José Ángel Valente’s Essays on Poetry 161
S A N T I A G O R O DRÍ GUE Z GUE RRE RO- S T RACHAN

Index 174
Illustrations

1.1 Phaeton, anonymous woodcut (London: R. Knaplock,

D. Midwinter, J. Tonson et al., 1719) 13
1.2 Don Quichotte conduit par la Folie et Embrasé
de l’amour extravaguant de Dulcinée sort de chez
luy pour estre Chevalier Errant. Charles-Antoine
Coypel (des.) and Louis Surugue père (eng.)
(Paris: Chez Surugue, c. 1724) 14
1.3 Frontispiece I. Antonio Carnicero (des.) and
Fernando Selma (eng.) (Madrid: J. Ibarra, 1780) 16
1.4 Frontispiece I. Luis Paret y Alcázar (des.) and Juan
Moreno Tejada (eng.) (Madrid: G. Sancha, 1798–99) 18
1.5 Entrée de L´amour et de la Richesse aux Noces
de Gamache. Charles-Antoine Coypel (des.) and
Louise-Magdeleine Cochin Horthemels (eng.)
(Paris: Surugue, c. 1724) 20
1.6 Don Quichotte est delivré de sa folie par la Sagesse.
Charles-Antoine Coypel (des.) and Charles-Nicolas
Cochin père (eng.) (Paris: Chez Surugue, c. 1728–30) 22
1.7 Frontispiece II. Pedro Arnal (des.) and Juan de la
Cruz Cano y Olmedilla (eng.) (Madrid: J. Ibarra, 1780) 24
1.8 Dedicatory Headpiece. Jacob van der Schley (des. and
eng.) (La Haie: Pierre de Hondt, 1746) 26
1.9 Frontispiece. Francis Hayman (des.) and Charles
Grignion (eng.) (London: A. Millar, 1755) 27
1.10 Frontispiece. Samuel Wale (des.) and Rennoldson
(eng.) (London: J. Cooke, 1774) 29
3.1 Women at Evening Prayers in a Private Home.
Henry Singleton (des.) and Charles Heath (eng.)
(London: R. Ackermann, 1826) 55
3.2 Presentation Plate. Henry Corbould (des.) and
John William Cook (eng.) (London: Smith, Elder
and Co., 1829) 58
viii Illustrations
3.3 The Mother and Child. William Brockedon (des.) and
William Humphrey (eng.) (London, Printed for Hurst,
Robinson and Co., 1825) 61
4.1 The Raja of Putteealla on his State Elephant. From
Portraits of the Princes & People of India, 1844, by
Lowes Cato Dickinson, Emily Eden, J Dickinson &
Son, Charles Hullmandel 71
4.2 Title Page. Portraits of the Princes & People of
India, 1844, by Lowes Cato Dickinson, Emily Eden,
J. Dickinson & Son, Charles Hullmandel 72
6.1 Eleonora, John Byam Shaw (London: Sidgwick &
Jackson Ltd., 1909) 98
6.2 Metzengerstein, Hermann Vogel (Paris: A. Quantin, 1884) 105
6.3 Metzengerstein, Hans Fronius (München: Rütten and
Loening Verlag, 1965) 106
6.4 The Oval Portrait, Frederick Simpson Coburn
(New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1902) 107
7.1 “Targets Are Where You Find ’Em!” The Colonnade
(March 27, 1943) 115
7.2 “‘Now Why Waste all Your Energy Getting Physically
Fit? You’ll Never Look Like a WAVE Anyhow’”
The Colonnade (February 6, 1943) 117
7.3 “‘Isn’t It Fortunate That Genevieve Has Completely
Escaped That Boy-Crazy Stage?’” The Colonnade
(May 2, 1945) 118
9.1 Blake as he Appears in Mora’s Frontispiece 147
9.2 La eternidad y el espacio 151
9.3 El juicio 155
Acknowledgments

We would like to begin by thanking Routledge, Jennifer Abbott and the rest of
the editorial team for believing in this project and making it possible. Thank
you for your guidance and patience throughout this long journey. We are also
deeply grateful to both Patti Urbina and Kathy Radosta for their insightful
comments and thorough revisions. Your encouraging messages were really
appreciated! Special thanks to our colleague and friend, Margarita, now recov-
ered after battling through a tough period.
The book would not have been possible without our wonderful research
group LyA (Literature and Art), whose unparalleled friendship and support is
proof of the importance of interdisciplinarity and interdepartmentality. LyA is,
nonetheless, a reality thanks to the University of Castilla-La Mancha. And for
that, we are extremely grateful.
Our work is also part of the R+D+I project “Edgar A. Poe Online. Text
and Image” (HAR2015-64580-P; FEDER). In this sense, we are very much
indebted to the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for
funding our research during all these years.
And thanks to our parents, to Pedro for being always there unconditionally
and to our little fairy Paula.
Introduction
Beatriz González-Moreno
and Fernando González-Moreno

During the last few decades, and because of the preeminence of the image in
everyday life, the Romantic aesthetics of dialogue and communication amongst
the different arts become more necessary than ever. In a globalized world,
isolation and compartmentalization hinder us, whereas the Romantic idea of
belonging urges us to look beyond and to build bridges. Bearing this Roman-
tic spirit in mind, this book is intended to promote interdisciplinary studies
and encourage further dialogue between art and literature. In this regard, we
adhere to Praz’s words: “There is nothing . . . to discourage us from searching
for a common link between the various arts.”1 As a result, we aim to offer an
analysis of a wide variety of texts and images as an example of how, across
both time and space, the mutual dependency of the arts has always proved to
be inspirational. Accordingly, we are not just focusing on one specific country
and period but several, offering the reader an inspiring overview of the literary
and visual department both in Europe and America from the Renaissance to
the twentieth century.
Traditional comparative studies mostly examine texts belonging to either
different periods or cultures, but it is highly infrequent that they promote com-
parison between text and image, embracing not only interdisciplinarity but also
transdisciplinarity. In general, we can assert that art history has carried the
interdisciplinary gene almost since its birth; no artwork can be fully understood
without the culture that has surrounded its genesis, including literature. In this
regard, several pioneers should be quoted here, such as Rensselaer W. Lee,
Ut pictura poesis: The Humanistic Theory of Painting (1940, 1967) or Denis
Mahon, Studies in Seicento Art and Theory (1947). Also, the methodology
started by Aby Warburg and developed by Erwin Panofsky has emphasized the
necessity of exploring the relationship between text and image – a path that has
produced multiple and enriching results. We may recall here Panofsky’s Mean-
ing in the Visual Arts (1955), whose study of Titian’s Allegory of Prudence
reminds us that any artwork “however delightful as a visual spectacle, must
also be understood as carrying a more-than-visual meaning.”2 Within the field
of English studies and because of the influence of cultural studies, boundaries
amongst disciplines have been easily trespassed and recent studies have recov-
ered the concept of ekphrasis, “an old and yet surprisingly familiar bird.”3 In
2 Beatriz González-Moreno et al.
this regard, a few names are to be acknowledged: Grant F. Scott’s The Sculpted
Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts (1994); W. J. T. Mitchell’s Picture
Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (1994); James A. W. Hef-
fernan’s Museum of Words: The Poetics of Ekphrasis from Homer to Ashbery
(2004); and Stephen Cheeke’s Writing for Art. The Aesthetics of Ekphrasis
(2010). By chronologically discussing these authors, the reader can realize to
what extent debating about art and literature has been a harsh and perilous
journey. Scott put it that way when he braved into this new world:

Everywhere in ekphrastic studies we encounter the language of subterfuge,

of conspiracy, there is something taboo about moving across media, even
as there is something profoundly liberating. When we become ekphrastics,
we begin to act out what is forbidden and incestuous; we traverse borders
with a strange hush, as if being pursued by a brigade of aesthetic police.4

Moving across media is not an easy task and trying to establish a dialogue
between art and literature is incestuous. That is why the relationship amongst
the different arts is perceived as paragonal and not sisterly. Reinforcing this
aspect, Mitchell’s emphasis lies on the “conviction that the tensions between
visual and verbal representations are inseparable from struggles in cultural
politics and political culture.”5 And Heffernan adheres to this paragonal con-
nection, to this “struggle for dominance between the image and the word.”6 In
this regard, this book departs from the approaches mentioned earlier. We do
not seek to elucidate this struggle or reinforce it but to focus on the sisterhood
of the different arts under the general umbrella of aesthetics and the resulting
enriching dialogue. In this sense, we get closer to Cheeke’s stance, framing
the subject to the larger questions and connecting it to the category of the
aesthetic.7 One need just remember that aesthetics has to do with feelings and
emotions and, ultimately, this is what both art and literature try to stir: “Aes-
thetics is to be understood to mean not merely the theory of beauty but the
theory of the qualities of feeling.”8 Thus, to avoid getting lost in a myriad of
definitions and losing the reader in the process, we follow Heffernan’s simple
but meaningful definition of ekphrasis: “The verbal representation of visual
representation.”9
In the end, it is not about art or English studies; it is not about compart-
mentalization but finding a common ground based on association, the Romantic
Wordsworthian “inward eye.”10 Be it writers, be it painters, they both try to
make us see, to conjure an image in our minds which, eventually, is medi-
ated and recreated by the imagination. Here resonate Joseph Conrad’s words,
“My task which I am trying to achieve is, by the power of the written word to
make you hear, to make you feel – it is, before all, to make you see.”11 Thus,
interdisciplinarity shakes hands with inter-art studies in order to make us look
beyond and awake our curiosity. Not in vain, curiosity is a central concept
in aesthetics, “The first and the simplest emotion which we discover in the
human mind is Curiosity. By curiosity, I mean whatever desire we have for, or
 Introduction 3
whatever pleasure we take in novelty.”12 Moved by curiosity, we confront the
world; we confront ourselves. In their book, Art as Therapy (2013), Alain de
Botton and John Armstrong contend how art (and we include under the label art,
both the visual and the written text) becomes a frame for experience and self-
knowledge, amongst many other psychological insights. Words interact with
the visual and the visual with the written text, and it all interacts with us and
within us. Thus, our purpose and our advice to the reader is “to navigate by new
and larger constellations, drawn on by the delight of making cross-cultural
connections. . . . Curiosity, open-mindedness, intellectual ambition: these are
the only prerequisites for making comparisons.”13
By embarking on this inter-arts journey, we soon realize that this book goes
beyond comparative studies and that, rather, dialogic studies help us to shape
the whole experience. At times, the writer dialogues with the image; the image
dialogues with the writer. The reader is expected to engage in a dialogue, either
to agree or disagree, but surely to be stirred, her imagination and curiosity
awakened. We resort, in this regard, to Burbules’ definition of dialogue: “An
activity directed toward discovery and new understanding, which stands to
improve the knowledge, insight, or sensitivity of its participants.”14 Neverthe-
less, for dialogue to be successful, clarification is needed first concerning the
aesthetic conceptual frame under which the chapters are written: the Horatian
adagio ut pictura poesis (“as is painting so is poetry.”)
Thus, the book opens with an analysis of this old concept clothed in new
garments. The Renaissance promoted the development of this debate with an
almost incomparable intensity. At the beginning of this period, those artists
who began to claim for themselves the same liberality and nobility that poets
already enjoyed set all their efforts in finding in the theoretical background
of the antiquity the legitimation for their demands. The writers of the new
art literature born under the protection of Humanism – Leon Battista Alberti,
Leonardo da Vinci, Giorgio Vasari . . . – found in authors such as Simonides of
Ceos and Horace the starting point for their argumentation. They established a
convenient re-reading of the Horatian ut pictura poesis: painting should imi-
tate poetry; painters should act as poets who, instead of words, use drawing
and colour. The artists who wanted to be considered as such, in the fullest
dimension of the word, were forced to compose verses. We may recall here
Michelangelo Buonarroti’s sonnets, where the sculptor tried to reflect the same
sensibility that his chisel extracted from the marble. And the writers, as part
of the culture of the ambidextrous artist, began to act as painters, making use
of literary resources such as the ekphrasis, drawing on the artistic vocabulary
to enrich the enargeia of their texts or reflecting on the artists’ contributions
as if they were art critics. Around the end of the sixteenth century and during
the first decades of the seventeenth century, the confluence of art and litera-
ture, painting and poetry reached a prosperous and fertile climax: painting pre-
tended to be poetry, competing for the capacity to narrate stories, and poetry
intended to be painting, emulating its visual and plastic values. Here we will
find Cervantes as the best exponent of the Spanish Golden Age – a cultural
4 Beatriz González-Moreno et al.
moment when any “idle reader” was able to read the emblematic and alle-
gorical images created by these authors. His statement about the relationship
amongst history, painting and poetry cannot be more revealing: “La historia, la
poesía y la pintura simbolizan entre sí, y se parecen tanto que, cuando escribes
historia, pintas, y cuando pintas, compones.”15 And here we will encounter
Shakespeare, whose works cannot be fully understood without bearing in mind
several of the topoi originated by the aforementioned Renaissance tradition:
the inclusion of references to artworks which are judged or valuated by the
writer himself, the imitation of the pictorial work making use of the ekphrasis
or the reflection on questions related to art theory, such as the ut pictura poesis.
Necessarily, at the core of this edition lies the Romantic period. On the
grounds of a common spirit (Geistesgeschichte), the sister arts are promoted
and so is aesthetic education. We follow, in this sense, the path opened by
Jean H. Hagstrum, to whose canonical Sister Arts: Tradition of Literary Pic-
torialism and English Poetry from Dryden to Gray (1958) this book pays a
humble homage. The term “sister arts” disembarked in England when John
Dryden translated in 1695 into English prose the poem De Arte Graphica by
the French Charles-Alphonse Du Fresnoy: “Painting and Poesy are two Sisters,
which are so like in all things, that they mutually lend to each other both their
Name and Office.”16 The Romantic sister arts were inclusive not only of paint-
ing and poetry but also of landscape gardening. Their degree of visuality was
codified by means of three main aesthetic categories: the beautiful, the sub-
lime and the picturesque, as elaborated by Edmund Burke, William Gilpin or
Uvedale Price.17 Ultimately, the world was aestheticized, and the key to those
pictorial realms came by the hand of an aesthetic education. Regarding this,
William Wordsworth is a must since he perfectly embodies the idea of the poet
as a vate: as a prophet guiding the reader to enlightenment. As a result, William
Wordsworth’s ekphrastic poems will be examined by paying attention to how
he dialogues with the visual arts. Wordsworth not only tries to make the reader
see but “to see into the life of things,”18 reinforcing a sense of belonging and
communion, dialogue aiming at transcendence. Also, Emily Eden’s use of both
pen and pencil to sketch the Other is discussed. Dialogue, in this case, is biased
at the expense of a silent, manufactured picturesque other. The picturesque, in
this regard, helps to formulate a colonial discourse to appropriate the Other.
From a gender perspective, Felicia Hemans epitomizes to what extent the aes-
thetic categories were gendered and how the beautiful was to be understood as
female as opposed to the masculine sublime. She relies on a female aesthetic
education based on acceptance and resignation, as a result of which the dia-
logue between the poem and the illustration is easy, fluid and deprived of any
tension or inquiring remark. She faithfully accommodates text and image as an
example of fine taste and female propriety.
As we leave behind Europe, the book delves into intermedial encounters.
The authors discussed try to communicate by means of different dialogic tools,
and their works become an insightful meditation on the crossovers between
art and literature. Although not an artist himself, E. A. Poe had a profound
 Introduction 5
knowledge of aesthetics. He was an art expert, and some of his tales show this
intimacy with visuality. Relying on Longinus’s treatise On the Sublime, we
come across two significant concepts intertwined with ekphrasis: “The object
of the poetical form is to enthral [ekplexis], and that of the prose form to pres-
ent things vividly [enargeia], though both indeed aim at the emotional and
the excited.”19 Without entering on the debate posed by Longinus’s pairing
of prose with enargeia and poetry with ekplexis, Poe’s works are discussed as
drawing on these two concepts, and thus, ultimately, it is analyzed how both
of them revolve around a “process of visualization resulting in vivid presence
or enthralment by means of an account that draws on the human tendency
to experience emotions.”20 Poe’s detailed, visual technique favours that expe-
rience in connection with the eighteenth-century aesthetic categories of the
beautiful, the sublime and the picturesque, offering the reader a whole range
of feelings. As a result, he also paved the ground for an intermedial encounter
between his works and illustrators, which have become valuable contributions
that enlighten us about Poe’s rich imaginings.
As part of these intermedial encounters, some of Flannery O’Connor’s tales
are examined. She was herself a caricaturist and, as a consequence, it is signifi-
cant to analyze how she managed to translate her “pictoric” techniques to her
writings. In this sense, her caricaturesque scenes benefit from the encounter
between two differentiated art forms: word and image in dialogue again. In
fact, such a dialogue was a necessity for her. The visual arts helped her to shape
the world and to understand the writing process: “For the writer of fiction,”
Flannery O’Connor said, “everything has its testing point in the eye, and the
eye is an organ that eventually involves the whole personality, and as much
of the world as can be got into it.”21 Similarly, N. Scott Momaday, as a writer
who paints, brings a visual sensibility to his fiction. To achieve that, tropes of
vision and light are used to make the reader see beyond, to be “enlightened.” A
multifaceted reality is offered by means of glasses, lenses, only to help us see
how the characters relate amongst themselves in their quest for identity and
balance. In a Wordsworthian way, Momaday conceives the imagination as a
divine blindness in which we see with our souls. No better definition comes to
mind to delineate the “inward eye,” and it comes out quite unexpectedly via a
comparative encounter. Thus, bearing the above in mind, both authors, Flan-
nery O’Connor and N. Scott Momaday, rely on their intimacy with the pictorial
technique to paint words and emphasize the sisterhood of the different arts to
apprehend the world.
The book closes with a focus on transatlantic interdisciplinarity, where dif-
ferent dialogues are established amongst diverse authors, periods and conti-
nents. The journey begins with William Blake’s first foray in America through
the eyes of the Spanish José Joaquín de Mora, who embraces the Blakean
interplay between text and image. Mora becomes an outstanding example of
the pan-Atlantic cultural exchanges with the newly established Iberoamerican
republics, while encouraging the reader to meditate on the value of reception
and the reciprocity between art and literature on the one hand and pan-Atlantic
6 Beatriz González-Moreno et al.
encounters on the other. In a similar multifaceted dialogue, the book examines
the presence of the Swiss-German Paul Klee in the American Wallace Stevens
and the Spanish José Ángel Valente. Although they responded to Klee’s aes-
thetics differently, the painter acted as a revolutionary force to them by means
of his axiomatic “art does not reproduce the visible but makes visible.”22 In the
case of Stevens, he appropriates Simone Weil’s theological concept of decre-
ation in his quest for transcendence, where on the brink of nothingness, on
the abyss, the poet awaits for revelation. The void is accepted by Valente to
experience an ecstatic knowledge conducive to final creation; the work of art
reveals itself thus as auratic, disclosing a hidden reality, allowing the poet to
see into the life of things.
“We are aesthetic beings through and through; we apprehend the world
through aesthetic eyes,”23 and the authors analyzed here know that too well.
They lean on painting words to aestheticize the world so that the reader may
see both beyond and within, and they rely on both art and literature. Bearing
this in mind, in a much image-mediated era, this book tries to raise awareness
not only about the importance of dialogue amongst the different arts, but also
about the relevance of historical and cultural perspectives. “Aesthetic value
can be understood properly only in the context of a broader inquiry into human
values and cultures.”24 And this is what this book tries to offer to the reader:
an interdisciplinary journey of dialogue throughout time and space under the
belief in a common spirit.

Notes
1. Mario Praz, Mnemosyne: The Parallel Between Literature and the Visual Arts
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 54.
2. Erwin Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts (London: Penguin, 1970), 205.
3. James A.W. Heffernan, “Ekphrasis and Representation,” New Literary His-
tory 22, no. 2 (1991): 297. Many times revisited, the concept of ekphrasis has
been defined from numerous perspectives resulting in a variation of ekphras-
tic experiences. See, for example, Hollander’s distinction between “notional”
(imaginative, fictional work) and “actual” (real, existing work) ekphrasis. John
Hollander, “The Poetics of Ekphrasis,” Word & Image 4, no. 1 (1988): 209–219,
https://doi.org/10.1080/02666286.1988.10436238.
4. Grant F. Scott, The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts (Hanover,
NH: University Press of New England, 1994), xiii.
5. William John Thomas Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Rep-
resentation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), 3. Mitchell distin-
guishes three phases in the ekphrastic experience: “ekphrastic indifference,” “a
commonsense perception that ekphrasis is impossible”; “ekphrastic hope,” “the
impossibility of ekphrasis is overcome in imagination”; and “ekphrastic fear,” “the
moment of resistance or counterdesire that occurs when we sense that the differ-
ence between the verbal and visual representation might collapse” (152–154).
6. James A.W. Heffernan, Museum of Words: The Poetics of Ekphrasis from Homer to
Ashbery (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2004), 1.
7. Stephen Cheeke, Writing for Art. The Aesthetics of Ekphrasis (Manchester: Man-
chester University Press, 2010), 3.
8. Sigmund Freud, Art and Literature (London: Penguin, 1990), 339.
 Introduction 7
9. James A.W. Heffernan, Museum of Words: The Poetics of Ekphrasis from Homer to
Ashbery (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2004), 3.
10. The phrase “inward eye” was coined by William Wordsworth in his poem “I wan-
dered lonely as a Cloud.”
11. Joseph Conrad, The Nigger of the Narcissus (New York: Doubleday and Co.,
1914), 14.
12. Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sub-
lime and Beautiful (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 29.
13. Ben Hutchinson, Comparative Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2018), 3.
14. Nicholas C. Burbules, Dialogue in Teaching: Theory and Practice (New York:
Teachers College Press, 1993), 9.
15. “History, poetry, and painting resemble each other and indeed they are so much
alike that when you write history you are painting, and when you paint you are
composing poetry.” Miguel de Cervantes, Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda
(Barcelona: Penguin Random House, 2016), 354.
16. John Dryden, The Works of John Dryden: In Verse and Prose, with a Life, Vol. 2
(New York: George Dearborn Publisher, 1836), 342.
17. See Beatriz González-Moreno, Lo sublime, lo gótico y lo romántico: la experien-
cia estética en el Romanticismo Inglés (Cuenca: Ediciones de la Universidad de
Castilla-La Mancha, 2007).
18. Lines belonging to William Wordsworth’s poem, “Lines written a few Miles above
Tintern Abbey.”
19. Longinus, On the Sublime, revised by Donald Russell, trans. W.H. Fyfe (Cam-
bridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1995), 15.1–2, http://dx.doi.
org/10.4159/dlcl.longinus-sublime.1995.
20. Caroline van Eck, “The Petrifying Gaze of Medusa: Ambivalence, Ekplexis, and
the Sublime,” Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art 8, no. 2 (Summer 2016):
2, https://doi.org/10.5092/jhna.2016.8.2.3.
21. Flannery O’Connor, Flannery O’Connor: The Cartoons, ed. Kelly Gerald (Seattle:
Fantagraphics Books, 2012), 101.
22. Paul Klee, The Notebooks of Paul Klee. Volume I. The Thinking Eye, ed. Jürg
Spiller, trans. Ralph Manheim (San Francisco: Wittenborn Art Books, 2013), 76.
23. Colin McGinn, Ethics, Evil and Fiction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
121.
24. Alan Singer and Allen Dunn, eds., Literary Aesthetics: A Reader (Oxford: Black-
well, 2000), 3.

Bibliography
Burbules, Nicholas C. Dialogue in Teaching: Theory and Practice. New York: Teach-
ers College Press, 1993.
Burke, Edmund. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime
and Beautiful. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Cervantes, Miguel de. Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda. Barcelona: Penguin Ran-
dom House, 2016.
Cheeke, Stephen. Writing for Art: The Aesthetics of Ekphrasis. Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2010.
Conrad, Joseph. The Nigger of the Narcissus. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1914.
Dryden, John. The Works of John Dryden: In Verse and Prose, with a Life (2 vols.). New
York: George Dearborn Publisher, 1836.
Freud, Sigmund. Art and Literature. London: Penguin, 1990.
8 Beatriz González-Moreno et al.
González-Moreno, Beatriz. Lo sublime, lo gótico y lo romántico: la experiencia esté-
tica en el Romanticismo Inglés. Cuenca: Ediciones de la Universidad de Castilla-La
Mancha, 2007.
Heffernan, James A. W. “Ekphrasis and Representation.” New Literary History 22, no.
2 (1991): 297–316. https://doi.org/10.2307/469040.
Heffernan, James A. W. Museum of Words: The Poetics of Ekphrasis from Homer to
Ashbery. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2004.
Hollander, John. “The Poetics of Ekphrasis.” Word & Image 4, no. 1 (1988): 209–219.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02666286.1988.10436238.
Hutchinson, Ben. Comparative Literature: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2018.
Klee, Paul. The Notebooks of Paul Klee. Volume I: The Thinking Eye. Edited by Jürg
Spiller and translated by Ralph Manheim. San Francisco: Wittenborn Art Books,
2013.
Longinus. On the Sublime. Revised by Donald Russell and translated by W. H. Fyfe.
Cambridge, MA. and London: Harvard University Press, 1995.
McGinn, Colin. Ethics, Evil and Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Mitchell, William John Thomas. Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Repre-
sentation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994.
O’Connor, Flannery. Flannery O’Connor: The Cartoons. Edited by Kelly Gerald. Seat-
tle: Fantagraphics Books, 2012.
Panofsky, Erwin. Meaning in the Visual Arts. London: Penguin, 1970.
Praz, Mario. Mnemosyne: The Parallel Between Literature and the Visual Arts. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1970.
Scott, Grant F. The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts. Hanover, NH:
University Press of New England, 1994.
Singer, Alan, and Allen Dunn, eds. Literary Aesthetics: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell,
2000.
Van Eck, Caroline. “The Petrifying Gaze of Medusa: Ambivalence, Ekplexis, and
the Sublime.” Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art 8, no. 2 (Summer 2016).
https://doi.org/10.5092/jhna.2016.8.2.3.
Part I

Old Concepts in New

Garments
Ut Pictura Poesis and Ekphrasis
1 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories
of Folly, Love and Prudence
Fernando González-Moreno

Poets and painters competed amongst themselves to create the most complex
and obscure emblems and allegories as part of Renaissance humanism, becom-
ing an essential part of its culture not only in the sixteenth century but also in
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Although they were created by the intel-
lectual and humanist elite, these elaborate pieces of hermetic knowledge were
widely known by the whole society. Theatre was one of the most important
ways by which common people could learn the meaning of these symbolical
images. In the Spanish Siglo de Oro theatre, the presence of allegorical or
emblematical characters with which the playwright could express his moral
ideas was common. Miguel de Cervantes’s theatre is a good example. His
Tragedy of Numancia (1582) displays several historical characters, including
the allegory of Spain. Cervantes “paints” her as a maiden with a mural crown
holding a tower. He also “depicts” the allegories of the river Ebro and its three
main tributaries; the allegory of War as a woman armed with a shield and a
lance; Sickness like a woman with a yellow mask, a bandage around her head
and a crutch; Famine dressed as a woman with a mask and yellow clothes; and,
finally, the allegory of Fame.1
Cervantes knew and used the emblematical and allegorical culture – a com-
mon place for both writers and painters – in his works, and, of course, his
universally known masterpiece Don Quixote (Madrid: Juan de la Cuesta, 1605
and 1615) was not alien to it. If we read Chapter XX in Part II, there, once
again in a theatrical performance, we discover a poetical, elaborate and inge-
nious allegorical scene. In this chapter, during Camacho’s wedding, we wit-
ness the staging of the allegorical confrontation of Love, represented as Cupid,
and his retinue (Poetry, Discretion, Good Lineage and Valour) against Wealth
and his retinue (Liberality, Largesse, Treasure and Peaceful Possession) – a
scene that I will discuss later.
However, it is not in the text but in Don Quixote’s illustrations where we find
the most extensive connection between Cervantes’s book and the emblematical
tradition. These illustrations show us Cervantes’s capacity to inspire allegori-
cal images. When Don Quixote began to be illustrated in the 1640s and 1650s
outside Spain (the first extensively illustrated edition was published by Savery
in Dordrecht, 1657),2 the illustrators preferred scenes with obvious amusing
12 Fernando González Moreno
actions. Don Quixote was mainly read as a comical and entertaining book, so
the illustrations should reflect such a reading. However, since the beginning of
the eighteenth century, Don Quixote started to be read in different ways, not
only as a popular and funny book but also almost as a moral one.3 Don Quix-
ote became a renewed literature masterpiece from which important lessons on
Truth, Knowledge, Madness, Love, Prudence and Satire could be learnt – ideas
that soon began to be represented through emblems and allegories.

The Extravagant Knight of La Mancha

Folly was the first idea from Don Quixote that interested illustrators. The first
attempt to represent it in a symbolical way appeared in 1719 in the edition
published in London by Knaplock. Here, as a decorative tailpiece, there is a
little woodcut that, at first sight, has nothing to do with Don Quixote’s his-
tory. It represents Phaeton, Phoebus’ son, falling from the cart of the sun as
it was described by Ovid in his Metamorphoses. But why has the illustrator
selected this Roman myth to accompany Cervantes’s text? What do Don Quix-
ote and Phaeton have in common? We find the answer in Andrea Alciato’s
Emblematum libellus (or Book of the Emblems, 1531). In this book, there are
two emblems, LV and LVI, about Recklessness or Stultitia (Temeritas and In
Temerarios). In the first one, a mad man is compared with a cart drawn by run-
away horses. In this allegory, the cart alludes to the human body, the charioteer
to the human reason and the horses to the senses; man becomes mad when the
body is not controlled by reason but by perturbed senses.4 Alciato stated,

A driver pulled by a horse whose mouth does not respond to the bridle is
rushed headlong and in vain drags the reins. You cannot readily trust one
whom no reason governs, one who is heedlessly taken where his fancy goes.5

And in the second emblem, Alciato used Phaeton’s myth in a similar way
[Figure 1.1]:

Even so, the majority of the kings are borne up to heaven on the wheels of
Fortune, driven by youth’s ambition. After they have brought great disas-
ter on the human race and themselves, they finally pay the penalty for all
their crimes.6

Phaeton becomes a symbol of reckless or mad acts; he dies because of his reck-
less action because he tries to act without reason, just guided by a passion. The
metaphor fits Don Quixote really well.
This first example of how emblems began to be used in Don Quixote’s
illustrations marks the beginning of a symbolical and iconographical tradi-
tion that will endure during all of the eighteenth century – a tradition whose
chief inaugurator was Charles-Antoine Coypel.7 Between 1717 and 1734, the
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 13

Figure 1.1 Phaeton, anonymous woodcut (London: R. Knaplock, D. Midwinter, J. Tonson

et al., 1719)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project

French painter Charles-Antoine Coypel designed 27 tapestry cartons based on

episodes from Don Quixote that served to produce several series of tapestries
at the Gobelins manufacture in Paris. These designs were such an early success
that starting in 1723, they were engraved and sold in Paris at Chez Surugue
as a set of prints by themselves. Coypel’s compositions are in keeping with
eighteenth-century French, court and baroque tastes; they resemble great the-
atrical performances where all the elements of eighteenth-century theatre have
been included, chiefly emblems and allegories.
Coypel’s series of engravings, composed as emblems with a pictura (image)
and a suscriptio (caption), begin with Don Quichotte conduit par la Folie et
Embrasé de l’amour extravaguant de Dulcinée sort de chez luy pour estre
Chevalier Errant [Don Quixote, led by Folly and embraced by the extravagant
love of Dulcinea, leaves his house to be an Errant Knight], plate engraved by
Surugue in 1724 (Figure 1.2).8 Here we find the first allegory of Folly clearly
applied to Don Quixote. The knight initiates his first sally accompanied by
the allegory of Folly, who points towards some of the adventures that await
him: the flock of sheep and the windmill half-transformed into a giant. Folly
is represented as a female figure with a sceptre, such as those used by jesters,
and wearing a barber basin as a helmet (Mambrino’s helmet). This element,
14 Fernando González Moreno

Figure 1.2 Don Quichotte conduit par la Folie et Embrasé de l’amour extravaguant
de Dulcinée sort de chez luy pour estre Chevalier Errant. Charles-Antoine
Coypel (des.) and Louis Surugue père (eng.) (Paris: Chez Surugue, c. 1724)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project

the basin, is a purely quijotesco [quixotic] symbol; it was the one won by
Don Quixote during one of his adventures and now, taken from the novel, it
becomes a symbol of madness itself. Moreover, this basin has been decorated
with several feathers, which are not just a mere ornament as discussed next.
If we search again in Alciato’s Emblematum libellus, we find another emblem,
in this case number LXV, about Foolishness (Fatuitas). Alciato explained,

You are surprised that in my poem you are called Otus, when your ancient
family name, handed down for generations, is Otho. The otus is eared and
has feathers like the little owl. The skilful birdcatcher gets the bird into his
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 15
power as it dances. For this reason we call stupid people, easy to catch, oti.
You too can have this name, which suits you.9

In Latin, Otus refers to a long-eared owl (scientifically known as Asio otus)

described by Pliny in his Natural History as an easy to catch bird because,
when it fixes its attention on one person, it does not notice if another one circles
around it.10 Due to that, the otus was considered a stupid animal, and Alciato
took its name to designate the stupid man, depicting his emblem as a man with
owl feathers. That is the reason why Coypel has incorporated some feathers
into Don Quixote’s basin or, better said, Folly’s basin.
Finally, this allegory of Folly is completed with the appearance of another one
with which the cause of Don Quixote’s madness is explained – namely, Cupid or
Love. In Coypel’s opinion, Love is the cause of Don Quixote’s folly; as it is said
in the description of the illustration: “An Extravagant Passion for Dulcinea.”
Coypel has represented Love in a traditional way with the winged figure of
Cupid, Venus’ son. However, here he is not holding his usual bow and arrows
but a torch with which he is touching Don Quixote’s heart in order to inflame it
with this incommensurable and mad love. This idea of Love as a torch or as a
flame is well-known, and it appears in another of the most important books of
allegories: Cesare Ripa’s Iconologia (1593). When Ripa describes the allegory
of Love Tamed, he refers to “Cupid sitting, and his flambeau being burnt out.”11
So, according to Coypel’s illustration, Don Quixote’s madness is caused
by his extravagant – even indecorous due to Alonso Quijano’s age – passion
for Dulcinea, to whom Folly is pointing. Or maybe Folly is the cause of this
Love. In any case, it is interesting to observe that this union between Love
and Madness was a subject in which Renaissance and baroque painters were
very interested. Bronzino’s Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time, for example, was
dedicated to it. Painted around 1545, it represents the incestuous and mad love
between Venus and her own son Cupid caused by Folly, depicted as a little boy.
The image created by Coypel was so successful that later illustrators kept
showing similar allegorical representations. For example, the frontispiece
designed by Antonio Carnicero and engraved by Fernando Selma for the Span-
ish Royal Academy edition printed by Ibarra in Madrid, 1780 (Figure 1.3). In
this frontispiece, Don Quixote has been represented as the Knight of the Lions
(an allusion to the adventure in the second part) accompanied again by Folly
and Love. Both of them hold Dulcinea’s portrait, the cause of Don Quixote’s
folly. Love’s image is not new: Cupid with his bow and arrows. However, this
image of Folly has some novelties with respect to Coypel’s representation. It
appears as a female figure dressed as a jester; her clothes are full of little bells,
and she holds a whirligig. This element has been taken from Ripa’s Iconologia,
where Folly is described as

a person at man’s state, in a long, black garment; laughing; riding upon

a hobby-horse; holding, in one hand, a whirligig of past-board; and plays
Figure 1.3 Frontispiece I. Antonio Carnicero (des.) and Fernando Selma (eng.)
(Madrid: J. Ibarra, 1780)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 17
the fool with children, who make him twirl it by the wind. Folly is only
acting contrary to due decorum, and the common custom of men, delight-
ing in childish toys, and things of little moment.12

The frontispiece is completed with the image of a Satyr, which will be

explained later.
The same idea also appears in a headpiece from the edition of Madrid: G.
Sancha, 1798. The image, designed by Luis Paret y Alcázar and engraved by
Juan Moreno de Tejada, depicts Don Quixote at his library receiving the influ-
ence of Folly, a female winged figure with two feathers on her head; we have
already seen the symbolism of these feathers in Alciato. And, again, Folly calls
Don Quixote’s attention to Dulcinea’s portrait, held by Love or Cupid. Don
Quixote’s love towards Dulcinea is once more the cause of his madness.
In other cases, this union between Folly and Love will continue with some
variations. For example, in the aforementioned edition (Madrid: G. Sancha,
1798), there is a frontispiece designed and engraved by the same artists, Luis
Paret y Alcázar and Juan Moreno de Tejada, where Don Quixote is guided by
Folly and surrounded by several symbols of Love: two little Cupids and a pair
of doves (Figure 1.4). The presence of these birds is clear; they are the usual
animals that accompany Venus.13 But we also find two novelties: a shining
temple and a tomb; two elements that indicate that Folly is not only tempting
Don Quixote with Love but also with Fame. The shining temple is a classical
reference to Fame; it is the promise of glory for the feats of the great heroes.
Indeed, one famous Spanish book of emblems was entitled The Temple of Fame
(El Templo de la Fama con Instrucciones Políticas y Morales by Andrés Ferrer
de Valdecebro, Madrid: 1680). Regarding the tomb, we find the explanation
for this element in another of Alciato’s emblems. Emblem CXXXV, Strenu-
orum immortale nomen (the name of the men of action is immortal) says,

You see the tomb of Aeacus’ descendant on the Rhoetean shore, which
white-footed Thetis often visits. This stone is always covered with green
amaranth, because the honour due to heroes shall never die. This man was
“the wall of the Greeks”, and the destruction of great Hector, and he owes
no more to Lydian poet than the poet does to him.14

Alciato uses the image of Achilles’s tomb to refer to how great heroes’ fame
is remembered after death, so the tomb in Paret’s illustration is Don Quixote’s
own tomb, the promise of how his great, although mad, feats will be remem-
bered after his death.
This union between Love and Folly began to disappear as the eighteenth
century came to an end. Due to the influence of Romanticism, the place that
had been occupied by Love, as the cause of Don Quixote’s madness, would be
taken by Fantasy. We find this new vision of Folly in the 1799 French edition
by Didot. One of its illustrations, designed by Lefebvre and engraved by Louis
Joseph Masquelier, represents Don Quixote at his library in the very moment
Figure 1.4 Frontispiece I. Luis Paret y Alcázar (des.) and Juan Moreno Tejada (eng.)
(Madrid: G. Sancha, 1798–99)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 19
when Folly, crowned by feathers, touches his head with her jester sceptre and
the knight begins to imagine monsters, evils and bojigangas15 (represented
amongst dark clouds). Love and Dulcinea do not accompany Folly any longer;
instead, Don Quixote’s (un)reason is now ruled by extreme Fantasy. This is
the beginning of a new iconographical era that will triumph in the Romantic
illustrations by Tony Johannot (Paris: Dubochet, 1836–1837) or Gustave Doré
(Paris: Hachette, 1863).
We have seen how Love appears in some illustrations linked to Madness, but
this is not the only kind of Love that we can find in Cervantes’s novel. Indeed,
to discuss Love’s nature, the writer devotes a whole episode where he draws
on a theatrical and allegorical performance. In Chapter XX, Part II, during
Camacho’s wedding, a “danza de artificio y de las que llaman habladas” takes
place.16 During the staged celebrations, two retinues appear with eight nymphs.
Cervantes describes them as if they were painted emblems: with their names
written over a parchment (the inscriptio or title), an allegorical figure (pictura)
and a poem (suscriptio). The first retinue is led by Love as Cupid, “adornado
de alas, arco, aljaba y saetas,”17 followed by Poetry, Discretion, Good Lineage
and Valour; the second retinue is led by Wealth, “vestido de ricas y diversas
colores de oro y seda,”18 followed by Liberality, Largesse, Treasure and Peace-
ful Possession. Both Love and Wealth try to conquer a maiden protected in the
Castle of Modesty: Love with his arrows and Wealth with a bag full of money.
This bag of money is used to destroy the castle that protects the maiden, but,
finally, Love and his retinue manage to rebuild it and to save the maiden from
Wealth. In this way, Cervantes defends that Love, when it is discreet, such as
the one sung by poets, not extravagant as Don Quixote’s love for Dulcinea, and
when it is accompanied by valour, as Basilio proves is stronger than the kind of
love caused by Wealth, represented by Camacho.
Coypel chose this scene for one of his tapestry cartons, and Louise-
Magdeleine Hortemels engraved it in 1724 (Figure 1.5). As a rich, symbolic
and theatrical representation, it fits Copypel’s style and taste quite well. In the
centre, we see Love painted following Cervantes’s description: winged Cupid
with his bow, quiver and throwing an arrow towards the maiden’s castle. At his
right, the first allegory is Poetry, with a trumpet in her right hand and wearing
a garment with stars. This image was explained by Cesare Ripa, who described
Poetry as

a lady in a sky coloured garment; with stars. . . . The sky-colours signifie

(sic) that none can excel in this Art, if he be not endowed with extraor-
dinary talents from Heaven;. . . . The starry robe, Divinity, as having her
original from Heaven.

and that “with the left hand she holds the lyre, and with the other a trumpet, the
former has affinity to the cadence of verses, with the harmony of music, and
the latter alludes to the poets aiming at fame.”19 Except for the lyre, Coypel
represents all the other elements.
20 Fernando González Moreno

Figure 1.5 Entrée de L´amour et de la Richesse aux Noces de Gamache. Charles-

Antoine Coypel (des.) and Louise-Magdeleine Cochin Horthemels (eng.)
(Paris: Surugue, c. 1724)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Projects

The next allegory in Cupid’s retinue is Discretion. Here we must first

include a comment on François Filleau de Saint-Martin’s French translation
(1677), the one used by Coypel to read Cervantes. The Spanish author men-
tions five allegories: “Amor” (Love), “Poesía” (Poetry), “Discreción” (Dis-
cretion or Wit), “Buen linaje” (Good Lineage or Nobility) and “Valentía”
(Valour). Filleau de Saint-Martin translated them respectively as “Amour,”
“Poésie,” “Sagesse,” “Illustre Naissance” and “Valeur.” So if we bear in
mind that Coypel, following that translation, understands Discretion as
Wisdom (“Sagesse”), we may think that this virtue is the one depicted as
Pallas Athena since she is the goddess of Wisdom. However, this would be
a mistake. Coypel has represented Discretion (understood as Wisdom) fol-
lowing Ripa once more: “A maid . . . holding a lamp lighted. . . . The Lamp
signifies the Light of the Understanding.”20 However, this symbol implies a
deeper meaning which connects the image with the allegory of Discretion or
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 21
Prudence too. In Saint Matthew’s gospel (25.1), it is said that the Kingdom
of Heaven will be like ten virgins who carried their oil lamps to wait for the
bridegroom. Five of them were discreet and took more oil; the other five were
foolish and did not take more. When the bridegroom arrived, the five discreet
virgins were waiting with their lamps burning and could go into the mar-
riage feast; the foolish virgins had run out of oil and had to go to buy more,
so when the bridegroom arrived, they could not enter the marriage feast.
This is the reason why the oil lamp also represents Discretion or Prudence –
a virtue opposed to Folly.
Regarding the two other allegories, Good Lineage or Nobility and Valour,
the images depicted by Coypel – Pallas Athena and a female figure holding a
crown – may seem confusing. If we read Ripa’s Iconologia, we find that Good
Lineage, understood as Nobility, is described as

a lady in a grave habit, with a spear in one hand, and the picture of Minerva
in the other. . . . The spear and Minerva show that all nobility is acquired
by Arts or Arms; Minerva being the Protectrice of both alike. True nobility
arises from virtuous actions.21

However, Ripa also mentions that the allegory of Nobility holds a pair of
crowns. Before that ambiguity, we defend that Athena or Minerva represents
Nobility (Good Lineage) and the woman holding a crown Valour. This idea is
supported by one detail in Ripa’s description of Valour: “Holding a crown of
laurel in one hand. . . . The crown of laurel denotes the consistent and unvaried
conduct of a man of valour.”22
Regarding Wealth and its retinue, the first allegory follows Cervantes’s
description: dressed with several rich colours of gold and silk. Neither Alci-
ato nor Ripa say anything about this figure, but this allegory was well-known
during the baroque. In fact, an allegory of Wealth (La Richesse, c. 1640, Louvre
Museum) is one of the most famous paintings by Simon Vouet, the French painter
who introduced the Italian baroque style in France.
Following Wealth appears Liberality, a female figure holding two cornuco-
pias and a pair of compasses. Both cornucopias are rightly represented if we
read Cesare Ripa, who described Liberality or Munificence as

the act of giving with becoming generosity. It is allegorically expressed by

the figure of a cheerful looking woman, dressed in rich white robes. . . .
In the right hand she holds a cornucopia, inclining downwards, flowing
with money and jewels; and in the left hand she holds another cornucopia,
containing fruit and flowers. . . . The two cornucopias indicate that Liberal-
ity observes a proper medium between prodigality and avarice, are expres-
sive of a noble and generous mind, and that Liberality regards the riches
she possesses, and distributes her favours on objects of merit and worth.23

And the pair of compasses is mentioned by Ripa too; this tool indicates that
Liberality is a virtue that has to be exercised according to and in fair measure
22 Fernando González Moreno
with each one’s own richness.24 The three last allegories in Wealth’s retinue
are Largesse, Treasure and Peaceful Possession, but Coypel does not seem
to be too much interested in their representations. He just introduces a single
female figure without any kind of symbol, so she cannot be recognized. Indeed,
these allegories are quite rare and neither Cervantes, nor Alciato, nor Ripa give
any kind of description.

Folly Defeated by Prudence

I began this chapter talking about Folly as one of the main ideas we can find
represented in allegorical illustrations, and, of course, we can find her opposites
too. The first of them is Wisdom. Her representation appears in another of Coy-
pel’s illustrations, Don Quichotte est delivré de sa Folie par la Sagesse [Don
Quixote delivered from his Folly by Wisdom],25 whose design was engraved by
Charles-Nicolas Cochin père c. 1728–30 (Figure 1.6). In this illustration, which

Figure 1.6 Don Quichotte est delivré de sa folie par la Sagesse. Charles-Antoine
Coypel (des.) and Charles-Nicolas Cochin père (eng.) (Paris: Chez
Surugue, c. 1728–30)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 23
symbolizes how Don Quixote recovers his reason, Wisdom appears opposing
Folly. Don Quixote, asleep, receives a vision of Wisdom, represented by Coypel
as Pallas Athena or Minerva. This allegory of Wisdom was defended by Ripa,
who said,

Minerva was the goddess of Wisdom, and the patroness of the sciences
which render men useful to society, and entitle them to esteem of poster-
ity. . . . Minerva is usually represented in a standing attitude completely
armed, with a composed but smiling countenance, a golden breastplate,
a spear in her right hand, and her terrible Aegis or shield in her left, on
which is the head of Medusa, entwined with snakes, and her helmet was
decorated with olives, to denote Peace, Life and Happiness.26

The appearance of Wisdom makes Don Quixote abandon his arms, including his
basin or helmet with feathers (symbols of Folly). On the contrary, now Sancho
remains captivated by Folly. She tempts him with a castle and the promise of
becoming governor of an Ínsula [Island].
Perhaps we could think that the same opposite ideas have been represented
in the frontispiece designed by Pedro Arnal and engraved by Juan de la Cruz
for the Spanish Royal Academy edition of 1780 (Figure 1.7). Here we see Don
Quixote’s tomb with the allegory of Folly, who cries because Don Quixote has
died as a sane man, and a second allegory that could be identified as Wisdom.
This figure seems very similar to the previous one (an armed female figure), so
she could be Wisdom or maybe Reason. Ripa described Reason as “armed like
Pallas; upon her helmet is a crown of gold; a drawn sword in her right hand; a
Lion bridled in her left. . . . The sword intimates the extirpating vice that wars
against the soul.”27 Our figure has some of those elements. She is armed like
Pallas with a helmet and a sword, and even a lion appears in her shield. But
there is another detail that clarifies this allegory. Around the sword, there is a
snake or, better said, a remora or sucking fish. This refers to one of Alciato’s
emblems: number XX, Maturandum (Making good speed):

Everyone tells us to deal with things quickly, but they also tell us to hold
back – not to be impetuous, not yet to wait too long. A missile linked with
a sucking-fish can demonstrate this for you: the fish is slow, but arrows fly
fast when they leave the shooter’s hand.28

According to Alciato, a prudent man ought to act not as fast as an arrow but
neither as slow as a sucking fish (echeneis or remora). Ripa took this emblem
to create his allegory of Prudence, the one that we see in Arnal’s design:

A woman with . . . a gilded Helmet on her head; . . . in her right hand an

arrow and a Remora fish twisting about it. The helmet signifies the Wisdom
of a prudent man, to be armed with wise counsel to defend himself. . . . The
Remora, that stops a ship, not to delay doing Good, when time serves.29
Figure 1.7 Frontispiece II. Pedro Arnal (des.) and Juan de la Cruz Cano y Olmedilla (eng.)
(Madrid: J. Ibarra, 1780)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 25
The appearance of Prudence as one of the ideas opposed to Folly is rooted
in the Middle Ages. Prudence is one of the seven virtues, or one of the four
cardinal virtues (Prudence, Fortitude, Justice and Temperance), and her oppo-
site vice was intended to be Folly, known as Stultitia or Foolishness. This can
be seen at the Capella dei Scrovegni in Padova (Italy), where Giotto, around
1306, painted Stultitia (Foolishness) facing Prudentia (Prudence). In this case,
Stultitia appears as a man dressed in a funny way, holding a club and with
headgear made of feathers.
We find another very notable representation of Prudence in a headpiece
designed and engraved by the Flemish designer Jacob van der Schley (La Haie:
Pierre de Hondt, 1746) (Figure 1.8).30 Some of the symbols used to identify
Prudence here have been explained before: the arrow and the remora described
by Ripa and Alciato and the oil lamp as a symbol of Discretion taken from
the Bible. Now a mirror and a crane also appear; the first, according to Ripa,
“bids us examine our defects by knowing ourselves.”31 Regarding the rela-
tion between the crane and Prudence, neither Ripa32 nor Alciato explain it,
but in a medieval bestiary we can find the next indication based on Pliny “the
elder” and Isidoro de Sevilla: “Cranes keep a watchful guard at night. . . . They
keep themselves awake for their sentry-go by holding stones in their claws,
and share the night-watches equally, taking over in turn”; if the watcher falls
asleep, the stone will fall and wake him.33 So, according to this medieval besti-
ary, the crane is an animal characterized by being always on guard, as a pru-
dent man ought to be. In this headpiece, Prudence is accompanied by Reason.
Schley has reproduced Ripa’s description, to which I referred partially before,
in a very complete way. She is armed like Pallas Athena, including her shield
with Medusa’s head or Gorgoneion, and she holds a pair of bridles, which are
explained by Ripa as “the command over wild passions” because “the unruly
passions ought to be controuled by the powers of reason.”34
Close to these ideas of Wisdom, Reason and Prudence, we also find the alle-
gory of Truth, which was mainly used to refer to Cervantes’s principal aim when
writing Don Quixote. Tonson’s 1738 edition canonized Cervantes’s Don Quixote
as a literary masterpiece that showed the Truth about chivalry novels, books
full of absurd and fantastic feats that could only be considered as detestable lit-
erature. The frontispiece designed by Francis Hayman and engraved by Charles
Grignion for Millar’s edition (1755) developed this idea (Figure 1.9). J. Strat-
ford, editor of the 1811 edition printed by Rousseau, described this frontispiece
in the following way:

In the Frontispiece the Designer seems to have imbided (sic) the true
spirit of Cervantes, and to have made a full display of the extravagance of
Quixotism or Knight-Errantry. The strong Castles, which have been raised
in the romantic ages of Chivalry, are here represented as falling to ruins
on the appearance of Minerva, who by the mirror which she holds in her
hand, reflecting the rays of science on the edifices of folly, exposes at once
the ridiculous notions of romance.35
26 Fernando González Moreno

Figure 1.8 Dedicatory Headpiece. Jacob van der Schley (des. and eng.) (La Haie:
Pierre de Hondt, 1746)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project

Before Minerva, goddess of knowledge, the characters of chivalry novels

(dwarfs, four-arm giants, knights and damsels) flee, and the castles of medieval
literature fall down. But she is not alone in this exploit; here we can also see
the allegory of Comedy, the literary genre used by Cervantes to carry on his
purpose. Comedy appears here as the muse of comedy and lyric poetry, Thalia,
represented as “a young woman of a chearful (sic) countenance” with the mask
of comedy.36 She draws a sword and helps Truth to knock down the buildings
of gothic literature, where a dwarf appears blowing a horn as Don Quixote
imagines when he arrives to an inn (3:1).
This frontispiece was especially successful, and the same idea was repeated
in other frontispieces. For example, in the 1794 edition published by Hogg
(London), we find a frontispiece designed by Riley and engraved by Scott that
includes an explanation of its allegorical image:

Emblematical Representation of TRUTH with her MIRROR dispelling

the Visions of GOTHIC SUPERSTITION and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY,
while the Enchanted Castle and its Giant Master, the Dragon, the Dis-
tressed Damsel Ghost in the back ground & c. describe the wild creations
of a distempered brain.

But probably the most accurate allegorical representation of this concept is the
frontispiece designed by Samuel Wale and engraved by Rennoldson for the
1774 edition published by Cooke in London (Figure 1.10). The design includes
a poem explaining the meaning of the illustration:
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 27

Figure 1.9 Frontispiece. Francis Hayman (des.) and Charles Grignion (eng.) (London:
A. Millar, 1755)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project

When Whims and Madness had possess’d each knight,

who fancy’d he was only born to fight,37
This well tim’d Satire with plain Truth combin’d,
At once gave Pleasure and Reform’d the Mind.
28 Fernando González Moreno
Folly, Truth and Satire are the three allegories here represented. It is interest-
ing to discover that Folly has been incarnated by Don Quixote himself, already
recognized as a symbol of Madness and of those bad chivalry novels. Regard-
ing Truth and Satire, both of them have been represented following Ripa in a
very accurate way. Truth, according to this author,

It is allegorically expressed by the figure of a very fine naked young

woman looking up to Heaven, with the sun above her head; she holds a
book in one hand.38 And in the other a palm branch, and rests her right
foot upon a globe. She is represented young and naked to denote that Truth
is naturally without any affectation or artifice: and she is looking up to
Heaven, to point out that the Almighty is the author and fountain of all
Truth. The sun above her head is the hieroglyphic of Truth and illumina-
tion of the faculties, they being inseparably connected. The book in her
hand with the motto verbum Dei, denotes that the holy scriptures contain
the most infallible truths. The palm branch alludes to victory and fortitude
of mind, and to the triumph she obtains over fraud and falsehood. The atti-
tude of trampling on the globe, points out that Truth despises all worldly
considerations, and spurns at every object which deviates from the prin-
ciples of purity and integrity.39

Regarding Satirical Poetry, Ripa40 describes it as

the last sort of poetry, in which wickedness or folly are censured. It is

represented by the figure of a Faun or Sylvan god, of a petulant or wan-
ton aspect, leaning on a thyrsus, and holding an arrow in his hand,41 with
which he is pointing to the following inscription, irridens cuspide figo.42

It is interesting to notice the duality of cuspis, which can be translated as rapier

(in Spanish, puya) but also, in a metaphorical sense, as gibe, dig or a satirical
phrase (in Spanish, pulla). Now we also understand why in the 1780 Spanish
Royal Academy edition, the frontispiece presents a satyr setting fire to several
chivalry novels (Amadís de Gaula, El Caballero de la Cruz, Olivante de Laura
and others); it refers to the literary genre used by Cervantes in his book.
Most of the editions mentioned in this chapter are in keeping with the way of
reading Don Quixote inaugurated by Lord Carteret’s edition (London: Tonson,
1738). Tonson and his collaborator John Oldfield defended the moral and liter-
ary value of Cervantes’s novel – a masterpiece from which the erudite reader
could learn relevant lessons not only on literature but also on life. The educated
reader should not read Don Quixote just as an entertaining or amusing book.
On the contrary, he had to find the truth beyond the mask of comedy and sat-
ire. He had to unveil the hidden meanings that Cervantes had concealed under
the appearance of allegories and emblems – images that took form through
the illustrated editions during the eighteenth century. Cervantes’ lessons on
madness, reason, prudence and love have the strength of icons, and, although
Figure 1.10 Frontispiece. Samuel Wale (des.) and Rennoldson (eng.) (London: J. Cooke,
1774)
Source: Image courtesy of the Cervantes Project
30 Fernando González Moreno
nowadays we are unable to understand many elements of that emblematic cul-
ture, one of his “pictures” has managed to survive century after century until
becoming one of the most iconic symbols of idealism, quest, madness, hope:
Don Quixote.

Notes
1. This chapter has been possible thanks to the Cervantes Project (http://cervantes.
dh.tamu.edu), which includes the project Iconografía textual del Quijote; all
the illustrations included in this chapter belong to it: (http://cervantes.dh.tamu.edu/
V2/CPI/iconography/pres.html). Fernando González, Eduardo Urbina, Richard
Furuta, and Jei Deng, “La colección de Quijotes ilustrados del proyecto Cervantes:
catálogo de ediciones y archivo digital de imágenes,” Cervantes. Bulletin of the
Cervantes Society of America XXV, no. 1 (2005 [2006]): 79–104; and Eduardo
Urbina et al., “Visual Knowledge: Textual Iconography of the Quixote,” in Don
Quixote Illustrated: Textual Images and Visual Readings, eds. Eduardo Urbina and
Jesús. G. Maestro (Pontevedra: Mirabel Editorial, 2005), 15–38.
2. The first edition with an illustrated title page (and with a well-conformed iconog-
raphy of Don Quixote) has been considered Paris: La veuve de Jacques du Clou
et Denis Moreau, 1618 (also in London: Blounte, 1620), and the first edition with
illustrated chapters was Frankfurt: T. Matthiae Gotzen, 1648.
3. See Rachel Schmidt, The Canonization of Don Quixote through Illustrated Edi-
tions of the Eighteenth Century (Québec: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1999).
4. The image of the charioteer of the soul has been taken from Plato, Phaedrus, trans.
by Harold N. Fowler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/London: William
Heinemann Ltd.), 246.
5. Andrea Alciato, Emblemata, ed., trans., and annot. by Betty I. Knott (Aldershot:
Scholar Press, 1996), 63.
6. Ibid., 65.
7. See Thierry Lefrançois, Charles Coypel. Peintre du Roi (1694–1752) (Paris:
Arthena 1994); and Fernando González, “Don Quichotte Conduit Par La Folie:
la herencia de Charles-Antoine Coypel en las ediciones ilustradas del Quijote,”
Anuario de Estudios Cervantinos 4 (2008): 1–50.
8. Don Quixot led by Folly & Inflamed by an Extravagant Passion for Dulciana Sets
out upon Knight Errantry. The English caption belongs to the Don Quixote edition
of London: Walthoe, 1731, where the same French illustrations were included.
9. Alciato, Emblemata, 73.
10. Pliny, Natural History, ed. by Jeffrey Henderson and trans. by H. Rackham (Cam-
bridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 2003), X.33.68.
11. Cesare Ripa, Iconologia or Moral Emblems, at the charge of P. Tempest (London:
Benj. Motte, 1709), 4, fig. 16.
12. Ibid., 59, fig. 238.
13. George Richardson, Iconology or a Collection of Emblematical Figures (London:
G. Scott, 1779, 2 vols), II, 100, fig. 343. I have used two editions of Ripa’s Iconolo-
gia to complete each other since they do not include the original complete descrip-
tions. Richardson copies Ripa’s allegories.
14. Alciato, Emblemata, 147.
15. Bojiganga, a small company of travelling players who performed comedies.
16. “An artistic dance of the sort they call speaking dance.”
17. “Furnished with wings, bow, quiver and arrows.”
18. “In a rich dress of gold and silk of divers colours.”
19. Ripa, Iconologia, 61, fig. 243; and Richardson, Iconology, I, 62, fig. 114.
20. Ibid., 67, fig. 270.
 Cervantes, Painter of Allegories 31
21. Ibid., 56, fig. 221.
22. Richardson, Iconology, II, 18, fig. 221.
23. Ibid., 107–108, fig. 349 and Ripa, Iconologia, 49, fig. 196.
24. Ibid.
25. Don Quixot’s deliverance out of Folly by Wisdom (London: Walthoe, 1731).
26. Richardson, Iconology, II, 106–107, fig. 348.
27. Ripa, Iconologia, 64, fig. 255.
28. Alciato, Emblemata, 26.
29. Ripa, Iconologia, 63, fig. 251.
30. Regarding the allegories of Prudence in Don Quixote, see Fernando González,
“Elogio de la prudencia: alegorías de la locura en el Quijote,” Anuario de Estudios
Cervantinos 8 (2011): 31–56; and “Don Quijote como emblema de la Locura y elo-
gio de la Prudencia,” in La impronta humanística (Ss. XV–XVIII). Saberes, visiones
e interpretaciones, eds. Ana Castro Santamaría y Joaquín García Nistal (Palermo:
Officina di Studi Medievali, 2013), 451–464.
31. Ibid.
32. A crane appears in Ripa’s allegory of Vigilance, which could be considered as Pru-
dence in a sense. Ripa, Iconologia, 78, fig. 313.
33. Terence Hanbury White (trans. and ed.), The Book of Beasts Being a Translation
from a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
1954), 110–112.
34. Ripa, Iconologia, 64, fig. 255; and Richardson, Iconology, I, 100, fig. 181.
35. Stratford’s 1811 edition included Hayman’s frontispiece re-engraved by A. Warren.
See Henry Spencer Ashbee, An Iconography of Don Quixote, 1605–1895 (London:
Printed for the author by the University Press, Aberdeen, and issued by the Biblio-
graphical Society, 1895), 114.
36. Richardson, Iconology, I, 43–44, fig. 79.
37. It refers to Cervantes.
38. In the engraving, both sun and book appear on the shield.
39. Richardson, Iconology, II, 94, fig. 337.
40. Ibid., I, 109, fig. 196.
41. In the engraving, both the thyrsus and the arrow appear together.
42. “Between laughs I thrust my rapier.”

Cervantes’s Works
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha.
Madrid: Juan de la Cuesta, 1605.
———. Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero Don Quijote de la Mancha. Madrid:
Juan de la Cuesta, 1615.
———. Den Verstandigen Vroomen Ridder, Don Quichot de la Mancha. Dordrecht:
Jacobus Savry, 1657.
———. The History of the Renowned Don Quixote de la Mancha. London: R. Knap-
lock, D. Midwinter, J. Tonson et al., 1719.
———. Vida y hechos del ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha. Londres: J.
y R. Tonson, 1738.
———. Les principales Avantures de l’admirable Don Quichotte, représentées en fig-
ures par Coypel, [. . .]. La Haie: Pierre de Hondt, 1746.
———. The History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote. London: A. Millar,
1755.
———. The History of the Renowned Don Quixote de la Mancha. London: J. Cooke,
1774.
32 Fernando González Moreno
———. El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha. Madrid: J. Ibarra, 1780.
———. The History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote. London: Alex.
Hogg, 1794.
———. El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha. Madrid: Gabriel de Sancha,
1798–99.
———. Don Quichotte de la Manche. Paris: Imprimerie de P. Didot l’âiné, 1799.
———. The History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote. London: J.
Stratford/S. Rousseau, 1811.
———. Don Quijote de la Mancha. Edited and annotated by Francisco Rico. [Madrid]:
Punto de Lectura, [2007].

Bibliography
Alciato, Andrea. Emblemata. Edited, translated, and annotated by Betty I. Knott. Alder-
shot: Scholar Press, 1996.
González, Fernando. “Don Quichotte Conduit Par La Folie: la herencia de Charles-
Antoine Coypel en las ediciones ilustradas del Quijote.” Anuario de Estudios Cer-
vantinos 4 (2008): 1–50.
———. “Elogio de la prudencia: alegorías de la locura en el Quijote.” Anuario de Estu-
dios Cervantinos 8 (2011): 31–56.
———. “Don Quijote como emblema de la Locura y elogio de la Prudencia.” In La
impronta humanística (Ss. XV–XVIII). Saberes, visiones e interpretaciones, edited by
Ana Castro Santamaría y Joaquín García Nistal, 451–464. Palermo: Officina di Studi
Medievali, 2013.
González, Fernando, Eduardo Urbina, Richard Furuta, and Jei Deng. “La colección de
Quijotes ilustrados del proyecto Cervantes: catálogo de ediciones y archivo digital
de imágenes.” Cervantes. Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America XXV, no. 1
(2005 [2006]): 79–104.
Lefrançois, Thierry. Charles Coypel. Peintre du Roi (1694–1752). Paris: Arthena 1994.
Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes. Translated by Harold N. Fowler. Cambridge, MA: Har-
vard University Press/London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1925.
Pliny. Natural History. Edited by Jeffrey Henderson and translated by H. Rackham.
Cambridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 2003 (1952).
Richardson, George. Iconology or a Collection of Emblematical Figures. London: G.
Scott, 1779.
Ripa, Cesare. Iconologia or Moral Emblems, at the charge of P. Tempest. London: Benj.
Motte, 1709.
Schmidt, Rachel. The Canonization of Don Quixote through Illustrated Editions of the
Eighteenth Century. Québec: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1999.
Urbina, Eduardo et al. “Visual Knowledge: Textual Iconography of the Quixote.” In
Don Quixote Illustrated: Textual Images and Visual Readings, edited by Eduardo
Urbina and Jesús G. Maestro, 15–38. Pontevedra: Mirabel Editorial, 2005.
White, Terence Hanbury, trans. and ed. The Book of Beasts Being a Translation from a
Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1954.
2 The Presence of Ut Pictura
Poesis in William Shakespeare’s
and Miguel de Cervantes’ Works
Alejandro Jaquero Esparcia

Painters’ journey towards social recognition, carved through centuries, favoured

the production of a wide range of apologetic works aimed at achieving such
purpose, with writers acquiring vital importance in the process of regarding
pictorial art as a liberal one. Many of them were involved in defending the
painters, colleagues whom they considered their peers, since they practised an
art different from handicraft work.1 The debate’s roots may be found in Italy,
where painters eventually acquired a status that served as an archetype for
the claims of painters throughout other geographical areas.2 In the following
lines, we intend to offer an overview of the subject by presenting contributions
made by two of the most outstanding figures in universal literature: William
Shakespeare and Miguel de Cervantes. Even though we have grouped both
authors under the theme Ut Pictura Poesis, a complete analysis is intended
herein about their particular interpretations of the Horatian motto, how their
words manage “to paint” the whole of certain narrations and how they make
use of the art of painting in their literary production.
It must also be made clear that research involving the link of the arts with
these two writers has been largely developed from a philological perspec-
tive, with considerable contributions being made in this regard. Marguerite
A. Tassi’s, John Dixon Hunt’s and Michele Marrapodi’s works, amongst
many other authors, give a relevant example of Shakespeare’s figure in the
context of arts. Repercussion of the paragone of arts, ekphrasis, emblem-
atic elements and the impact of the visual culture of the Italian Renaissance
have been some of the issues addressed by such authors.3 In a parallel way,
it may well be observed that something similar has happened throughout
Cervantes’ production. Although some historians of art have been getting
involved in the debate, the bulk of research carried out so far falls under
the philological field. Work by Frederick de Armas, Ignacio Arellano, Mar-
garita Levisi and Adela Lupi claims to integrate the Spanish writer into
the debate of the Golden Age regarding arts.4 What is intended herein is
to present the extension to which the art of painting is included in both
writers’ literary discourse, eventually claiming kinship between “the paint-
brush and the pen.”
34 Alejandro Jaquero Esparcia
Ut Pictura Poesis: Biased Interpretations in Spain
and England
The Horatian aphorism Ut Pictura Poesis acquired particular relevance in the
Modern Age, with this fact being mainly due to innovative reflections by Ital-
ian writers on the link between painting and poetry. Although highly regarded
writers such as Dante, Petrarch or Bocaccio had already dealt with such rela-
tionships in the early days of the Renaissance, interest increased throughout the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries as a consequence of painters’ social demands.
New humanists raised the debate again by putting forward a certain reformula-
tion of pre-existing artistic literature, by trying to find, back in the antiquity,
samples of the outstanding reputation that painting had had.5
Under the intellectual certainty conveyed by the Horatian platitude, as rightly
interpreted, artists and intellectuals assumed standards which were typical of
classical times yet they were re-oriented to the social and cultural demands of
the period.6 The establishment of a new system of arts led to recollection and
redirection of ancient classic topos, which had already been glimpsed in pre-
vious works, such as those by Cennino Cennini, yet seeking new goals.7 The
philosophical ideology promoted by Marsilio Ficino and his circle allowed
for retrieving the knowledge of classical antiquity and displaying new sub-
jects that promoted comparison between both arts. These new trends of thought
eventually appealed to emerging authors, such as Alberti or Leonardo, who
reflected on intellectual concerns that had been developed during that time.
Alberti’s approach tried to emphasize the importance of poetry for painting,
arts sharing similar creative processes and being a relevant source of inspira-
tion. On the other hand, Leonardo da Vinci took a more dramatic side by advo-
cating supremacy of pictorial art over poetry.8 The path chosen by writers in the
sixteenth century becomes progressively aligned with the opinions expressed
by Alberti since interest to reinforce connection of painting with a highly rec-
ognized liberal art depended on it.9 Giorgio Vasari’s Le Vite de´più eccellenti
pittori scultori e architettori did not avoid recalling the arts’ Horatian filiation,
specifically within the biographies of Dosso and the Battista Dossi brothers.
Vasari made use of the reflections of Ut Pictura Poesis in order to compose
the biography of the Ferrarese painters and to praise poet Lodovico Ariosto, a
contemporary peer far better than them as far as artistic quality is concerned.10
While the overall picture developed in Italy was the materialization of a
claim long sought by artists, a similar approach was intended in other Euro-
pean countries. Recognition given to painting and sculpture in Spain’s six-
teenth century could not succeed aside from mechanical and artisanal craft.
The late acceptance of the humanistic debate, well established in Italy, perpetu-
ated the classification of these activities under the category of craft work, sub-
mitted to the yoke of the guilds.11 However, as noted by Gállego, this period
can be benchmarked as the beginning of literary claims in favour of the art of
painting; Portuguese Francisco de Holanda blatantly stated, “One is the reason
for Spain and Portugal being infamous; and this is that neither in Spain nor
 The Presence of Ut Pictura Poesis 35
Portugal is painting well-known, nor are there good painting works, nor even
is painting honored.”12
Not much more flattering was the situation at the Anglo-Saxon side, with
some parallels being established thereto. It stems from a similar premise in
which English artists sought to break up with certain critical judgements of the
Middle Ages towards their artistic skills.13 Translation of some Italian essays
helped configure a range of vocabulary that favoured the idea of the noble arts,
as happened in the version of Giovanni Paola Lomazzo’s Trattato dell’arte
della Pittura, translated by Richard Haydocke.14 The survival of medieval
models and the issue of iconography with religious motives in Anglo-Saxon
countries did not allow the new Italian aesthetic ideology to be implemented
promptly.15
This progress did actually leave a mark on the literary ground. Contribu-
tions by writers began to include, amongst their reflections, classic quotes and
references that endorsed the strength of the arts of the paintbrush and the pen.
Interpretations of classical texts, such as Horatio’s Epistula Ad Pisones by the-
oreticians and Sir Philip Sidney’s The Defense of Poesie, are clear examples of
this.16 In the opuscule, loaded with evocative quotes from the classical world,
specific utterances are included about links with the art of painting, amongst
which Ut Pictura Poesis is included. The motto will also be used as a stylistic
resource, seeking a technical outcome which stems from such connection and
which may be reflected in texts – that is to say, the consequences of “paint-
ing with words.” However, both in Spain and in England, it will be meant to
strengthen this kinship with obvious practical interests leading to social rec-
ognition of pictorial activity.17 In this context, we may well add Spanish writ-
ers, some well-known poet-painters, who have been so prolific at connecting
painting and poetry in Spain’s Golden Age, together with English humanists
or virtuosi.18

The Art of Painting in William Shakespeare

Shakespeare’s connection with the world of arts is a well-proved fact, shaped
by research. Back at the early twentieth century, Thorp analyzed, in one of
his essays, a range of works by the English writer and the possible issues
that should begin to be raised to such an extent.19 By inquiring into an array
of approaches coherent with the history of arts, we believe that three levels
of utility of the figurative arts on the part of the author can be established –
namely, the use of art as a constructive element in order to configure the narra-
tion of some of his work, which brings news or assessments about such works
of art; the imitation of pictorial work through literature or, rather, the exercises
of ekphrasis (an element of interdisciplinary research); and, finally, the inclu-
sion of theoretical reflections on art and literature, amongst which Ut Pictura
Poesis may be found.
Starting from these three concepts, in the terms that have been mentioned
before, we will proceed to study an example of each through the literary works
36 Alejandro Jaquero Esparcia
of the English writer, firstly, with the analysis of The Taming of the Shrew
(c.1590). At the beginning, and as part of the trick that is proposed to be played
on the character of Christopher Sly, the Lord decides to prepare an activity
which will have him puzzled through a series of paintings, specifically regard-
ing the “most suggestive” paintings:

LORD. Even as a flatt’ring dream or worthless fancy. / Then take him up,
and manage well the jest: / Carry him gently to my fairest chamber, / And
hang it round with all my wanton pictures.
(I, i, 53–56)20

In the subsequent scene, the trick has been perpetrated, and Sly awakens in the
Lord’s chambers. He begins to be enticed into the pleasures and luxuries of the
aristocracy, stemming from music and references to the classical world. One
of the Lord’s servants eventually lures Sly into the stratagem, suggesting, as
another of the noble virtuosi’s delights, which pictorial images should satisfy
his own cravings:

SECOND SERVANT. Dost thou love pictures? We will fetch thee straight /
Adonis painted by a running brook, / And Cytherea all in sedges hid, /
Which seem to move and wanton with her breath / Even as the waving
sedges play wi’ th’ wind.
(I, ii, 56–60)21

The servants keep making suggestions about what works of art might be pre-
sented before the new gentleman, amidst which they emphasize such paint-
ings as Io and Jupiter or Daphne and Apollo. Besides framing the narrative
plot in the Italian city of Padua, Shakespeare makes use of classic iconogra-
phy, which is representative of the Italian Renaissance: mythological stories.
The new Renaissance aesthetics takes a relevant space here, particularly as
far as social class differentiation is concerned; painting is presented as linked
to aristocracy, an array of social stratum consisting of monarchy, nobility and
clergy. Painting is appreciated, acquired and collected similarly as had hap-
pened in the dawn of the Italian Renaissance.22 The visual ideology which is
displayed goes accordingly with the artistic production of the age: Sebastiano
del Piombo’s (1511–12) or Titian’s (1554) Venus and Adonis, Correggio’s
(1531–32) or Paris Bordone’s (c.1550) Jupiter and Io and even Antonio da
Pollaiolo’s (c.1470) Apollo and Daphne. It is not that the writer is inspired by
the specific models generated by these painters but that he echoes the artistic
background of the time, including references to works which were trendy at
that point. Similarly, he might well have been influenced by the engravings
accompanying the illustrated editions of Ovid’s Metamorphoses – from the
first English translation in 1480 by William Caxton – scenes which, to some
extent, are biased by the moralizing, medievalist revision of classical mythol-
ogy.23 Therefore, what we can notice in this narration is the use of pictorial art
 The Presence of Ut Pictura Poesis 37
which is shaping the basic profile of the noble Englishman, even an attempt to
elaborate such an exercise of ekphrasis in the Lord’s mythological paintings.
In this sense, we can find a number of similarities in the artistic advices given
by Baldassare Castiglione to the idyllic gentleman in Il Cortigiano (1528):
the knowledge of art as something necessary in any Renaissance gentleman’s
perfect education.
In other Shakespearean works, a highly critical attitude is shown towards
subjects of specific interest related to the arts and literature. For example, in
Hamlet (c. 1599–1602), an interesting lesson on the limits of imitation may
be learnt, being valid both for literature and the figurative arts. This modus
operandi is conveyed by the main character to the comedians who are to take
part in the small play before Claudius and Gertrud:

HAMLET. Be not too tame neither. But let your own discretion be your
tutor. Suit the action to the world, the world to the action, with this special
observance, that you o’erstep not the modesty of nature. For anything so
overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and
now, was and is to hold, as ‘twere the mirror up to nature; to show virtue
her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the
time his form and pressure.
(III, ii, 17–26)24

Hamlet’s lesson becomes obvious: the action to be performed in the play must
not exceed nature’s boundaries since, in doing so, we would face a distorted
image of reality, a standard which is identical to that of the poetic arts of the
time or that of essays on pictorial art. Imitation must keep nature as an arche-
type. These same recommendations given on imitation of nature are applied
in some other exercises of ekphrasis throughout Hamlet, an example of it
being Gertrude’s narration of the death of Ophelia, addressed to her brother,
Laertes.25
If one of Shakespeare’s approaches to the theoretical aspects of the arts is to
be prioritized, then attention should be focussed on Timon of Athens (c. 1605).
As first explained by Blunt, assessing the paragone amongst the arts that are
explicit in this literary context becomes of special interest.26 The dialogue
between the painter and the poet in this play ends up offering a higher view of
painting, as opposed to poetry. Such a view contradicts the ideology of poetics
of that age, although it was in total accordance with the Italian artistic theory
of the fifteenth century, especially with Leonardo’s.27 We ought not to overlook
one of Shakespeare’s most significant approaches to the topic of Ut Pictura
Poesis in his poetry. Amongst the sonnets written by the author, under the
influence of the Italian metrics, there are numerous references to the pictorial
world, both at the constructive level of such poetry and as a main element of it.
A relevant example of this may well be found in the verses of the sonnet “Mine
eye hath play’d the painter and hath stell’d,” where Shakespeare describes the
beauty of his idyllic love by “painting” it.28
38 Alejandro Jaquero Esparcia
The Art of Painting in Miguel de Cervantes’ Work
Cervantes’ connection with the visual arts has also been consolidated by
research. His narrative works have abundant mentions and judgements con-
veying the humanistic spirit, which prevailed at the time; attraction to figu-
rative arts is well noticed in such works. The author, therefore, remains
consistent with those Spanish Golden Age writers who decided to shield and
exalt the art of painting.29 Due to the overwhelming amount of research aris-
ing from Cervantes’ literature and the visual arts, we have decided, as in the
previous instance, to highlight a number of aspects which allow us to confirm
Cervantes’ closeness to the Horatian platitude and help us contextualize them
within the methodology of the history of art.
Starting our path from the exegesis of the author’s most relevant works, the
use of the literary resource may be observed, not only at the level of consider-
ing the pictorial object a work of art but also as it is included in some theo-
retical speculations about the art of painting. This fact is well exemplified by
Maritornes’ description in the first part of El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote
de la Mancha where it is suggested that “she had the shades and the looks
of a Christian woman.”30 As pointed out by Allen in the Castilian edition of
the text, this term addresses evaluative features of painting. Distinctive jargon
arises from pictorial work, which will eventually refine the literary description
of a character. More relevant in this part becomes the author’s personal assess-
ment of imitation, as explained by Don Quixote to Sancho in Chapter XXV:

Digo asimismo que cuando algún pintor quiere salir famoso en su arte,
procura imitar los originales de los más únicos pintores que sabe. Y esta
mesma regla corre por todos los más oficios de cuenta que sirven para
adorno de las repúblicas, y así lo ha de hacer y hace el que quiere alcan-
zar nombre de prudente y sufrido, imitando a Ulíses, en cuya persona y
trabajos nos pinta Homero un retrato vivo de prudencia y de sufrimiento,
como también nos mostró Virgilio, en persona de Eneas, el valor de un
hijo piadoso y la sagacidad de un valiente y entendido capitán, no pintán-
dolo ni [describiéndolo] como ellos fueron, sino habían de ser, para quedar
ejemplo a los venideros hombres de sus virtudes.31

Cervantes replicates the imitative theories which were typical of the poetic
and pictorial arts and had been developed throughout the Renaissance – an age
where the motto Ut Pictura Poesis had emerged again. The imitative scheme is
equivalent to that established by Renaissance theorists: idealization of nature,
vying for the maximum expression of beauty, an idea which was put forward
in the episode El Caballero del Verde Gabán [The Knight of the Green Cloak],
well into Don Quixote’s second part:

También digo que el natural poeta que se ayudare del arte será mucho
mejor y se aventajará al poeta que solo por saber el arte quisiere serlo; la
razón es porque el arte no se aventaja a la naturaleza, sino perficiónala; así
 The Presence of Ut Pictura Poesis 39
que, mezcladas la naturaleza y el arte, y el arte con la naturaleza, sacarán
un perfetísimo poeta.32

Such creative processes arise from theoretical reflections which are almost
identical since exchange of ideas between poetic arts and essays on painting
were commonplace at the time.33 Don Quixote’s second part displays many a
mention of pictorial art. Likewise, it includes some references to painting from
a burlesque angle, much related to Cervantes’ narrative – for instance, refer-
ences to the story of Orbaneja, the hopelessly untalented painter, within Chap-
ters III and LXXI, where the same anecdote is described: the painter has such a
blatant lack of skill that he needs to accompany the description of his paintings
with words in order to facilitate their understanding, as stated in Chapter LXXI:

Yo apostaré – dijo Sancho – que antes de mucho tiempo no ha de haber bode-

gón, venta ni mesón, o tienda de barbero, donde no ande pintada la his-
toria de nuestras hazañas. Pero querría yo que la pintasen manos de otro
mejor pintor que el que ha pintado a estas. – Tienes razón, Sancho – dijo
don Quijote –, porque este pintor es como Orbaneja, un pintor que estaba
en Úbeda; q[u]e, cuando le preguntaban qué pintaba, respondía: “Lo que
saliere”; y si por ventura pintaba un gallo, escribía debajo: “Este es gallo”,
porque no pensasen que era zorra.34

Cervantes uses a parodic tale linked to the subject of fine arts in order to attack
Avellaneda, author of Don Quixote’s spurious second part.35 Also, parody and
painting will be embraced within other narrative arguments, thus emphasizing
the importance of humorous elements in building the narrative,36 which may be
exemplified by Sancho’s discussion with the farmer in Chapter XLVII, refer-
ring to him as a painter since the latter is describing the portrait of his beloved.
Another example may be found in Teresa Panza’s letter to her husband in which
she tells him about the news from home. Teresa reports La Berrueca’s daughter
being married to an unskilled painter who will soon become a farmer.37 It is
interesting to notice how the pictorial activity is trivialized in order to create a
comedy scene at a time where the opposite is sought to be conveyed.
Similarly, the use of words from the field of pictorial art with the purpose
of defining descriptions, such as painting, sketching, drawing, doodling and
designing, amongst other nuances, became evident in Cervantes’ style, an
event that García Berrio defined as “synaesthesia of the Arts.”38 Literature finds
a huge archetype, aimed at imitation, in the field of painting, consequently
entailing enhancement of the pictorial arts. Following this brief account, at the
beginning of the prologue of Novelas Ejemplares [Exemplary Novels] (1613),
the writer comments on his interest in having a portrait painted by a famous
artist to accompany the work’s edition:

Quisiera yo, si fuera posible, lector amantísimo, excusarme de escribir este

prólogo, porque no me fue tan bien con el que puse en mi Don Quijote,
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
valor no ejecuta. Por eso la sabia naturaleza dispuso que el corazón
y el celebro en la formación del hombre comenzasen á la par, para
que fuesen juntos el el pensar y el obrar.
Esto les estaba ponderando, cuando de repente interrumpió su
discurso una viva arma, que se comenzó á tocar por todas partes.
Acudieron prontos á tomar las armas y á ocupar sus puestos. Lo que
fué y lo que les sucedió nos dirá la Crisi siguiente.
 CRISI IX

Anfiteatro de monstruosidades.

Pasaba un río y río de lo que pasa entre márgenes opuestas,

coronada de flores la una y de frutos la otra; prado aquélla de
deleites, así como ésta de seguridades. Escondíanse allí entre las
rosas las serpientes, entre los claveles los áspides, y bramaban las
hambrientas fieras, rodeando á quien tragarse. En medio de tan
evidentes riesgos estaba descansando un hombre, si lo es un necio.
Pues pudiendo pasar el río y meterse en salvo de la otra parte, se
estaba muy descuidado, cogiendo flores, coronándose de rosas y de
cuando en cuando volviendo la mira á contemplar el río y ver correr
sus cristales.
Dábale voces un cuerdo, acordándole su peligro y convidándole á
pasarse de la otra banda, con menos dificultad hoy que mañana.
Mas él muy á lo necio respondía que estaba esperando acabase de
correr el río, para poderle pasar sin mojarse.
Oh, tú, que haces mofa del fabulosamente necio, advierte que
eres el verdadero, tú eres el mismo de quien te ríes: tanta y tan
solemne es tu demencia, pues instándote que dejes los riesgos del
vicio y te acojas á la banda de la virtud, respondes que aguardas
acabe de pasar la corriente de los males.
Si le preguntáis al otro por qué no acaba de Escusa
ajustarse con la razón, responde que está aguardando vulgar.
pase el arrebatado torrente de sus pasiones: que no
quiere comenzar el camino de la virtud hoy, si ha de volver al del
vicio mañana.
Si le acordáis á la otra sus obligaciones, la afrenta que causa á los
propios y la murmuración á los extraños, dice que corre con todas,
que así se usa, que con más edad tendrá más cordura.
 Consuélase aquél de no estudiar y dice que no piensa cansarse,
pues no se premian letras ni se estiman méritos.
Escúsase éste de no ser hombre de sustancia, diciendo que no
hay quien lo sea. Todo está perdido, que no se usa la virtud; todos
engañan, adulan, mienten, roban y viven de artificio. Y déjase
arrebatar de la corriente de la maldad.
El juez se lava las manos de que no hace justicia, con que todo
está rematado y no sabe por dónde comenzar. Así que todos
aguardan á que amaine el ímpetu de los vicios, para pasarse á la
banda de la virtud. Mas es tan imposible el cesar los males, el
acabarse los escándalos en el mundo, mientras haya hombres, como
el parar los ríos; lo acertado es poner el pecho al agua y con
denodado valor pasar de la otra banda al puerto de una seguridad
dichosa.
Peleando estaban ya los dos valerosos guerreros, que no es otra
cosa la vida humana, que una milicia á la malicia, y á
Milicia
esto les habían tocado arma trecientos monstruos, contra malicia.
causa deste rebato, que con los rayos de la razón
descubrieron sus ardides; las atalayas en atenciones avisaron á los
fuegos de su celo y éste al valor de ambos, que denodadamente los
fueron persiguiendo y retirando, tanto, que llevados de su ardor en
el alcance, se hallaron á las puertas de un hermosísimo palacio,
primer fábrica del mundo, el más artificioso y bienlabrado, que
jamás vieron, aunque habían admirado tantos. Ocupaba el centro de
un ameno prado, con ambiciones de paraíso, de aquellos que no
perdona el gusto. Su materia, aunque tierra, desmentida de los
primores del arte, dejaba muy atrás la misma solar esfera. Obra al
fin de grande artífice y fabricada para un príncipe grande.
¿Si sería éste, dijo Andrenio, el tan alabado alcázar de Virtelia?
Que una cosa tan perfecta no puede ser estancia, sino de su grande
perfección. Que tal suele ser el epiciclo, cual la estrella.
Oh, no, dijo Critilo, que éste está á los pies del monte y aquél
sobre su cabeza, aquél se empina hasta el cielo y éste se roza con el
abismo, aquél entre austeridades y éste entre delicias.
Esto ponderaban, cuando vieron asomar por su majestuosa
puerta, al cabo de muchas varas de nariz, un hombrecillo de media,
que viéndolos admirados, les dijo:
Yo no sé de qué; pues así como hay hombres de gran corazón y
de gran pecho, yo lo soy de grandes narices.
Toda gran trompa, dijo Critilo, siempre fué para mí señal de
grande trampa.
¿Y por qué no de sagacidad?, replicó él. Pues Varón sagaz.
advertí que con ésta os he de abrir camino. Seguidme.
Lo primero, que encontraron en el mismo atrio, fué un establo,
nada estable, aunque lleno de gente lucida, hombres de mucho
porte y de más cuenta, muy hallados todos con los brutos, sin
asquear el mal olor de tan inmunda estancia.
¿Qué es esto?, dijo Critilo. ¿Cómo éstos, que parecen personas,
están en tan vil lugar?
Por su gusto, respondió el Sátiro.
¿Pues desto gustan?
Sí, que los más de los hombres eligen antes vivir en la hedionda
pocilga de sus bestiales apetitos, que arriba en el salón dorado de la
razón.
No se sentía otro dentro, que malas voces y bramidos de fieras, ni
se oían sino monstruosidades. Era intolerable la hediondez que
despedía.
¡Oh, casa engañosa!, exclamó Andrenio: por fuera toda maravillas
y por dentro monstruosidades.
Sabed, dijo el Sátiro, que este hermoso palacio se
Palacio
fabricó para la Virtud; mas el Vicio se ha levantado con del alma.
él, hale tiranizado. Y así de ordinario veréis que hace
su morada en la mayor hermosura y gentileza, el cuerpo más lindo y
agraciado, criado para estancia hermosa de la Virtud, le toparéis
lleno de torpezas, la mayor nobleza de infamias, la riqueza de
ruindades.
Comenzaron con esto á rehusar el empeñarse, temiendo el
despeño, cuando uno de aquellos monstruos les dijo:
En esto no reparéis, que aquí siempre hay salida para todo y yo
soy el que á cuantos se empeñan, la hallo. Á la doncellita la
persuado su deshonra, diciéndola que no le faltará una amiga ó una
piadosa tía de quien fiarse. Al asesino que mate, que ya habrá quien
le haga espaldas. Al ladrón que robe. Al salteador que desuelle, que
ya se hallará un simple compasivo, que interceda por él á la justicia.
Al tahur que juegue, que no faltará un amigo enemigo, que le
preste. De suerte que por grande que sea el despeño, le pinto fácil
el salto; por entrincado que sea el laberinto, le hallo el ovillo de oro;
y á toda dificultad, la solución. Así que bien podéis entrar. Fiaos de
mí, que os desempeñaré.
Fué á meter el pie Critilo y al punto encontró con un monstruo
horrible, porque tenía las orejas de abogado, la lengua de
procurador, las manos de escribano, los pies de alguacil.
Escápate, gritó el Sátiro, de todo pleito; aunque sea dejándoles la
capa.
Íbanse retirando con recelo, cuando con mucho Cortesía
agrado se llegó á ellos otro monstruo muy cortés, engañosa.
suplicándoles fuesen servidos de entrar por cortesía,
que no serían los primeros, que se habían perdido de puro corteses.
Y si no, preguntadle á aquél, que parece hombre circunspecto y de
juicio, cómo se jugó la hacienda y tras ella la honra y el descanso de
su casa.
Y respondióles:
Señor, rogáronme que hiciese un cuarto, que les faltaba, y
deshice todos los de mi casa, porque no me tuviesen por grosero,
Púseme á jugar, piquéme y lastiméme á mí mismo. Pensé
desquitarme y acabé con todo por cortesía.
 Preguntadle á aquel otro, que se pica de entendido, cómo perdió
la salud, la honra y la hacienda, con la otra loquilla.
Y respondióles que por no parecer descortés, mantuvo la
conversación. De allí pasó á la correspondencia, hasta hallarse
perdido por cortesía.
La otra, porque no la tuviesen por necia, respondió al dicho y
luego al billete. El marido, por no parecer grosero, disimuló con los
muchos yentes y vinientes á su casa. El juez, obligado de la
intercesión del poderoso, hizo la injusticia. De suerte que son
infinitos los que se han perdido en el mundo por cortesía.
Y con esto y mil zalemas, que les hizo, les obligó á entrar. Érase
un tan espacioso atrio, que tomaba todo un mundo, célebre
anfiteatro de monstruosidades, tan grandes como muchas, donde
tuvieron más que abominar, que admirar y vieron cosas, aunque
muchas veces vistas, que no se podían ver.
Estaba en el primero y último lugar una horrible
Vicios
serpiente, coco de la misma hidra, tan envejecida en el encadenados.
veneno, que la habían nacido alas y se iba
convirtiendo en un dragón, inficionando con su aliento al mundo.
¡Terrible cosa, dijo Critilo, que de la cola de la culebra nazca el
basilisco y de los dejos de la víbora el dragón! ¿Qué monstruosidad
es ésta?
Como déstas se ven en el mundo cada día, respondió el Sátiro.
Veréis que acaba la otra con su deshonestidad propia y comienza la
ajena. No hace cara ya al vicio, por no tenerla. Da alas á la otra, que
comienza á volar, y hace sombra á los soles, que amanecen. Pierde
el tahur su grande herencia y pone casa de juego: da naipes,
despabila las velas abrasadoras, corta tantos para tontos. El farsante
para en charlatán y saltimbanco, el acuchillador en maestro de
esgrima; el murmurador, cuando viejo, en testigo falso; el holgazán,
en escudero; el malsín, en catedrático del duelo; el infame, en libro
verde; y el bebedor en tabernero, aguándoles el vino á los otros.
 Iban dando la vuelta y viendo portentosas fealdades. Fuélo harto
ver una mujer, que de dos ángeles hacía dos demonios, digo, dos
rapazas endiabladas. Y teniéndolas desolladas, las metió á asar á un
gran fuego y comenzó á comer dellas sin ningún horror, tragando
muy buenos bocados.
¡Qué fiereza es ésta tan inhumana!, ponderó Andrenio. ¿No me
dirás quién es ésta, que deja atrás los mismos trogloditas?
Pues advierte que es su madre. Mala madre.
¿La misma, que las echó á luz?
Y hoy las oscurece. Ésta es la que teniendo dos hijas tan
hermosas como viste, las mete en el fuego de su lascivia; dellas
come y traga los buenos bocados.
Salióles de través otro monstruo, no menos raro. Era de tan
exótica condición, de un humor tan desproporcionado, que, si le
pegaban con un garrote de encina y le quebraban las costillas ó un
brazo, no hacía sentimiento; pero, si le daban con una caña, aunque
levemente, sin hacerle ningún daño, era tal su sentimiento, que
alborotaba el mundo. Llegó uno y dióle una penetrante puñalada y la
tuvo por mucha honra. Y porque llegó otro y le pegó un ligero
espaldarazo con la espada envainada, sin sacarle una gota de
sangre, lo sintió de manera, que revolvió toda su parentela para la
venganza. Pególe uno á puño cerrado un tan fiero mojicón, que le
ensangrentó la boca y le derribó los dientes y no se alteró. Y porque
otro le asentó la mano estendida, coloreándole el rostro, fué tal su
rabia, que hundía el mundo, haciendo estremos. ¿Pues qué? Si le
arrojaban un sombrero, no sentía tanto, que le tirasen un ladrillo y le
polvoreasen los sesos. No tenía por afrenta el mentir, el no cumplir
su palabra, el engañar, el decir mil falsedades. Y porque uno le dijo;
mentís: pensó reventar de cólera y no quiso comer hasta tomar
venganza.
¡Qué raro humor de monstruo éste, celebró Critilo, entreverado
de necedad y locura!
 Así es, dijo el Sagaz, ¿y quién creerá que está hoy muy valido en
el mundo?
¿Será entre bárbaros?
No, sino entre cortesanos; entre la gente más ladina.
¿Y no sabríamos quién es?
Éste es el tan sonado Duelo: dígole, el El duelo.
descabezado, tan civil como criminal.
Pasaron á la otra banda, y registraron las monstruosidades de la
necedad, que eran otras tantas. Vieron que no osaba Monstruos
comer un camaleón por ahorrar, para que tragase de la necedad.
después el puerco de su heredero. Un melancólico,
pudriéndose del buen humor de los otros; muchos, que porfiaban sin
estrella; él de todos, si no de sí mismo. Admiráronse de uno, que
pretendía por mujer la que había muerto á su marido y él quería ser
el marivenido. Un soldado, muriendo en un barranco, muy consolado
de no gastar con médicos ni sacristanes. Un señor, que
encomendaba á otros el mandar.
Estaba uno encendiendo fuego de canela para asar un rábano; un
rico pretendiendo y un caduco enamorando. Aquí toparon con el de
cien pleitos y un prelado huyendo dél, porque no le metiese pleito
en la mitra. Vieron uno, que, habiéndole dicho fuese á descansar á
su casa, se equivocó y se iba á la sepultura. Aquí estaba también el
que hacía almohada del chapín de la Fortuna, y á su lado el que del
cogote de la Ocasión pretendía hacerse la barba; el que llevaba
descubiertas las perdices y no las vendía.
Íbase uno á la cárcel por otro. Pero el más aborrecido, era un
hombre bajo, descortés. Estaba uno parando lazos á los raposos
viejos y otro pasando del dar al pedir; el que compraba caro lo que
era suyo; y estaba otro papando lisonjas de sus convidados, el juglar
de las casas ajenas y en la suya cantimplora; el que decía que no es
de príncipes el saber; el que todas las cosas hacía con eminencia, si
no su empleo.
 Entraba en el lugar del que vivía de necio el que moría de sabio;
el que, pudiendo ser sol en su esfera, no era constelación en la
ajena; el que fundía en balas sus doblones. Estaban dos, el uno
jugando bien y siempre perdiendo, y el otro sin saberse dejar,
ganando. Un presumido con cuatro letras garrafales y el que
conociendo un temerario, le fiaba todo su ser. Y sobre todo, uno,
que viviendo de burlas, se iba al infierno de veras.
Todas estas monstruosidades y otras más estaban admirando,
cuando arrebató de nuevo su atención un monstruo, que, huyendo
de un ángel, se iba tras un demonio ciego y perdido por él.
Ésta sí que es portentosa necedad, dijeron; nada son las pasadas.
Éste es, dijo el Sagaz, un hombre, que, teniendo una consorte
que le dió Dios discreta, noble, rica, hermosa y virtuosa, anda
perdido por otra, que le atrazó el diablo, por una moza de cántaro,
por una vil y asquerosa ramera, por una fea, por una loca insufrible,
con quien gasta lo que no tiene. Para su mujer no saca el honesto
vestido y para la amiga la costosa gala. No halla un real para dar
limosna y gasta con la ramera á millares. La hija trae desnuda y la
amiga rozando lamas. ¡Oh, fiero monstruo, casado con hermosa y
amancebado con fea!
Veréis que unos vicios, aunque destruyen la honra, dejan la
hacienda. Consumen otros la hacienda y perdonan la salud. Pero
este de la torpeza con todo acaba, honra, hacienda, salud y vida.
Lado por lado estaban otros dos monstruos tan
Torpe
confinantes, cuan diferentes, para que campeasen monstruosida
más los estremos. El primero tenía más malos ojos d.
que un bizco, siempre miraba de mal ojo. Si uno
callaba, decía que era un necio; si hablaba, que un bachiller; si se
humillaba, apocado; si se mesuraba, altivo; si sufrido, cobarde; y si
áspero, furioso; si grave, le tenía por soberbio; si afable, por liviano;
si liberal, por pródigo; si detenido, por avaro; si ajustado, por
hipócrita; si desahogado, por profano; si modesto, por tosco; si
cortés, por ligero. ¡Oh, maligno mirar!
 Al contrario, el otro se gloriaba de tener buena vista, todo lo
miraba con buenos ojos, con tal estremo de afición, que á la
desvergüenza llamaba galantería, á la deshonestidad buen gusto, la
mentira decía que era ingenio, la temeridad valentía, la venganza
pundonor, la lisonja cortejo, la murmuración donaire, la astucia
sagacidad y el artificio prudencia.
¡Qué dos monstruosidades, dijo Andrenio, tan necias! Siempre
van los mortales por estremos, nunca hallan el medio de la razón: ¡y
se llaman racionales!
¿No sabríamos qué dos monstruos son éstos?
Sí, dijo el Sagaz: aquella primera es la mala
Pía, y impía
Intención, que toma de ojo todo lo bueno; esta otra al afición.
contrario, es la Afición, que siempre va diciendo:
Todo mi amigo es buen hombre.
Éstos son los antojos del mundo. Ya no se mira de otro modo y
así tanto se ha de atender á quien alaba ó á quien vitupera, como al
alabado ó vituperado.
Ruaba un otro bien monstruoso, muy tapado.
Éste, dijo Andrenio, parece monstruo vergonzante.
Antes, respondió el Sátiro, es de la desvergüenza.
¿Pues una mujer sin ella, cómo va atapada contra su natural
inclinación de ser vistas?
Ahí verás que, cuando más descaradas, esconden la cara.
¡He, que será recato!
No es sino correr el velo á sus obligaciones. Ayer iba al contrario,
tan escotada, que parece que descubriera más, si más pudiera.
Siempre van por estremos.
Venía ya un monstruo muy humano, haciendo reverencias á los
mismos lacayos, besando los pies aun á los mozos de cocina.
Llamaba señoría á quien no merecía merced, á todo el mundo con la
Á
gorra en la mano, previniendo de una legua la cortesía. Á unos se
ofrecía por su mayor afecto, á otros por su menor criado.
¡Qué monstruo tan comedido éste!, ponderaba Ambición
Andrenio, ¡qué humano! No he visto monstruo humilde cortés.
hasta hoy.
¡Qué bien lo entiendes!, dijo el Sátiro: no hay otro más soberbio.
¿No ves tú, que, cuanto más se abate, quiere subir más alto? Para
poder mandar á los amos, se humilla á los criados. Estas reverencias
hasta el suelo, son botes y rebotes de pelota, que da en tierra, para
subir al aire de su vanidad.
Al fin, si es que las necedades le tienen, apareció ya la más rara
figura, un monstruo, por lo viejo decano. Descubría la cabeza toda
pelada, sin cabellos de altos pensamientos, ni negros por lo
profundo ni blancos por lo cuerdo, sin un pelo de sustancia.
Movíasele á un lado y á otro, sin consistencia alguna. Los ojos, en
otro tiempo tan claros y perspicaces, ahora tan flacos y lagañosos,
que no veían lo que más importaba y de lejos poco ó nada, para
prevenir los males. Los oídos, algún día muy oidores, tan sordos y
tan atapados, que no percibían la voz flaca del pobre, sino la del
ricazo, la del poderoso, que hablan alto. La boca desierta, que no
sólo no gritaba con la eficacia que debía; pero ni osaba hablar. Y si
algo, entre los dientes, que no tenía. Las manos, antes grandes
ministras y obradoras de grandes cosas, se veían gafas, un gancho
en cada dedo, con que de todo se asían y nada soltaban. Los
humildes y plebeyos pies, tan gotosos y torcidos, que no acertaban á
dar un paso. De suerte que en todo él no había cosa buena ni parte
sana. Él se dolía y todos se quejaban; pero nadie se lastimaba,
ninguno trataba de poner remedio.
Seguíanle otros tres, altercando entre sí la tiranía universal de los
mortales. Traía el primero cara de veneno dulce y era escollo de
marfil, hermosa muerte, despeño deseado, engaño agradable, mujer
fingida y sirena verdadera, loca, necia, atrevida, cruel, altiva y
engañosa. Pedía, mandaba, presumía, violentaba, tiranizaba y
antojábansele bravos desvaríos.
 ¿Qué cosa puede haber en el mundo, decía, que para mí no sea?
Todo cuanto hay, al cabo se viene á reducir á mi gusto. Si se hurta,
es para mí; si se mata, por mí; si se habla, es de mí; si se desea, es
á mí; si se vive, conmigo; de suerte, que cuantas monstruosidades
hay en el mundo...
Eso no concederé yo, dijo él mismo, tan bizarro La Carne.
como vano rico, pero necio; altivo, pero ruin. Todo
cuanto hay y luce, todo es para mí, todo sirve á mi pompa y
ostentación. Si el mercader roba, es para vivir en el mundo; si el
caballero se empeña, es para cumplir con el mundo; si la mujer se
engalana, es para parecer en el mundo. Todos los vicios dan
treguas: el glotón se ahita, el deshonesto se enfada, el bebedor
duerme, el cruel se cansa; pero la vanidad del mundo, nunca dice
basta; siempre locura y más locura y no me enojéis, que lo daré
todo al diablo.
Aquí estoy yo, dijo éste, tomándolo todo, que no
El Mundo.
hay cosa, que no sea mía, por habérmela dado
muchas veces.
En enojándose el marido, dice luego:
¡Mujer de Bercebú!
Y ella responde:
Hombre del diablo.
Llévete Satanás, dice la madre al hijo.
Y el amo:
Válgante mil diablos.
Válganle á él, responde el criado.
Y hombre hay tan monstruo, que dice:
Válgame una legión de demonios.
De suerte que no se hallará cosa en el mundo, que El Diablo.
no se me haya dado ella á mí ó me la hayan dado
muchas veces. Y tú mismo, ¡oh mundo! ¿puedes negar que no seas
todo mío?
¿Yo? ¿De qué modo?
Maldito seas tú y qué poca vergüenza que tienes.
Y aun por eso, replicó él: que quien no tiene vergüenza, todo el
mundo es suyo.
Apelaron de su porfía para el monstruo coronado, príncipe de la
Babilonia común. Éste, oída su altercación, les dijo:
Ea, acabá, dejaos de pesares, venid, holguémonos, logremos la
vida, gocemos de sus gustos, de los olores y ungüentos preciosos,
de los banquetes y comidas, de los lascivos deleites. Mirá que se nos
pasa la flor de la edad. Pasemos la edad en flor, comamos y
bebamos, que mañana moriremos. Andémonos de prado en prado,
dando verdes á nuestros apetitos. Yo os quiero repartir las
jurisdiciones y vasallos, para que no estéis pleiteando cada día.
Tú, oh Carne, llevarás tras ti todos los flacos, ociosos, regalones y
destemplados; reinarás sobre la hermosura, el ocio y el vino; serás
señora de la voluntad.
Y tú, oh Mundo, arrastrarás todos los soberbios, ambiciosos, ricos
y potentados; reinarás en la fantasía.
Mas tú, Demonio, serás el rey de los mentirosos, de los que se
pican de entendidos; todo el distrito del ingenio será tuyo.
Veamos ahora en qué pecan estos dos peregrinos de la vida, dijo
señalando á Critilo y Andrenio, para que rindan vasallaje de
monstruosidad, que ni hay bestia sin tacha ni hombre sin crimen. Lo
que averiguaron de ellos se quedará para la siguiente Crisi.
 CRISI X

Virtelia encantada.

Aquel antípoda del cielo redondo, siempre rodando, jaula de

fieras, palacio en el aire, albergue de la iniquidad, casa á toda
malicia, niño caducando, llegó ya el mundo á tal estremo de
inmundo y sus mundanos á tal remate de desvergonzada locura, que
se atrevieron con públicos edictos á prohibir toda virtud. Y esto so
graves penas, que ninguno dijese verdades, menos de Leyes
ser tenido por loco; que ninguno hiciese cortesía, so del mundo.
pena de hombre bajo; que ninguno estudiase ni
supiese, porque sería llamado el estoico ó el filósofo; que ninguno
fuese recatado, so pena de ser tenido por simple; y así de todas las
demás virtudes.
Al contrario, dieron á los vicios campo franco y pasaporte general
para toda la vida. Pregonóse un tan bárbaro desafuero por las
anchuras de la tierra, siendo tan bien recibido hoy, como ejecutado
ayer, dando una gran campanada. Mas, ¡oh, caso raro é increíble!
cuando se tuvo por cierto que todas las virtudes habían de dar una
extraordinaria demostración de su sentimiento, fué tan al contrario,
que recibieron la nueva con extraordinario aplauso, dándose unas á
otras la norabuena y ostentando indecible gozo. Al revés, los vicios,
andaban cabizbajos y corridos, sin poder disimular su tristeza.
Admirado un discreto de tan impensados efectos, comunicó su
reparo con la Sabiduría, su señora y ella:
No te admires, le dijo, de nuestro especial contento. Porque este
desafuero vulgar está tan lejos de causarnos algún perjuicio, que
antes bien le tenemos por conveniencia. No ha sido agravio, sino
favor, ni se nos podía haber hecho mayor bien. Los vicios sí quedan
destruídos desta vez. Bien pueden esconderse y así con justa causa

É
se entristecen. Éste es el día en que nosotras nos introducimos en
todas partes y nos levantamos con el mundo.
¿Pues en qué lo fundas?, replicó el Curioso.
Yo te lo diré. Porque son de tal condición los Virtud
mortales, tienen tan estraña inclinación á lo vedado, vedada.
que, en prohibiéndoles alguna cosa, por el mismo caso
la apetecen y mueren por conseguirla. No es menester más, para
que una cosa sea buscada, sino que sea prohibida. Y es esto tan
probado, que la mayor fealdad vedada es más codiciada, que la
mayor belleza concedida. Verás que, en vedando el ayuno, se
dejarán morir de hambre el mismo Epicuro y Eliogábalo. En
prohibiendo el recato, dejará Venus á Chipre y se meterá entre las
Vestales. Buen ánimo, que ya no habrá embustes, ruines
correspondencias, malos procederes, agarros ni traiciones. Cerrarse
han los públicos teatros y garitos. Todo será virtud. Volverá el buen
tiempo y los hombres hechos á él. Las mujeres estarán muy casadas
con sus maridos y las doncellas lo serán de honor. Obedecerán los
vasallos á sus reyes y ellos mandarán. No se mentirá en la corte ni
se murmurará en la aldea. Verse ha desagraviado el sexto de todo
sexo. Gran felicidad se nos promete. Éste sí que será el siglo dorado.
Cuánta verdad fuese ésta, presto lo experimentaron Critilo y
Andrenio, que, habiéndose hurtado á los tres competidores de su
libertad, mientras aquéllos estaban entre sí compitiendo, marchaban
éstos cuesta arriba al encantado palacio de Virtelia. Hallaron aquel
áspero camino, que tan solitario se les habían pintado, lleno de
personas, corriendo á porfía en busca della. Acudían de todos
estados, sexos, edades, naciones y condiciones, hombres y mujeres.
No digo ya los pobres, sino los ricos, hasta magnates, que les causó
estraña admiración.
El primero con quien encontraron á gran dicha, fué
Varón
un varón prodigioso, pues tenía tal propriedad, que de luces
arrojaba luz de sí, siempre que quería y cuanta era
menester, especialmente en medio de las mayores tinieblas. De la
suerte que aquellos maravillosos peces del mar y gusanos de la
tierra, á quienes la varia naturaleza concedió el don de luz, la tienen
reconcentrada en sus entrañas, cuando no necesitan della y, llegada
la ocasión, la avivan y sacan fuera: así este portentoso personaje
tenía cierta luz interior, ¡gran don del cielo! allá en los más íntimos
senos del cerebro, que siempre, que necesitaba della, la sacaba por
los ojos y por la boca, fuente perene de luz clarificante.
Éste, pues, varón lucido, esparciendo rayos de inteligencia, los
comenzó á guiar á toda felicidad por el camino verdadero. Era muy
agria la subida. Sobre la dificultad de principio, dió muestras de
cansarse Andrenio y comenzó á desmayar y tuvo luego muchos
compañeros. Pidió que dejasen aquella empresa para otra ocasión.
Eso no, dijo el varón de luces, por ningún caso: que, si ahora no
te atreves en lo mejor de la edad, menos podrás después.
He, replicaba un joven, que nosotros ahora venimos al mundo y
comenzamos á gustar dél. Demos á la edad lo que es suyo; tiempo
queda para la virtud.
Al contrario, ponderaba un viejo. ¡Oh!, si á mí me Escusas
cogiera esta áspera subida con los bríos de mozo, ¡con de la virtud.
qué valor la pasara!, ¡con qué ánimo la subiera! Ya no
me puedo mover, fáltanme las fuerzas para todo lo bueno. No hay ya
que tratar de ayunar ni hacer penitencia; harto haré de vivir con
tanto achaque: no son ya para mí las vigilias.
Decía el noble:
Yo soy delicado, hanme criado con regalo. ¿Yo ayunar? Bien
podrían enterrarme al otro día. No puedo sufrir las costuras del
cambray, ¿qué sería el saco de cerdas?
El pobre por lo contrario, decía:
Bien ayuna quien malcome; harto haré en buscar la vida para mí
y para mi familia. El ricazo sí que las come holgadas; ése que ayune,
dé limosna, trate de hacer buenas obras.
De suerte que todos echaban la carga de la virtud á otros,
pareciéndoles muy fácil en tercera persona y aun obligación. Pero el
guión luciente:
Nadie se me exima, decía: que no hay más de un camino. Ea, que
buen día se nos aguarda.
Y echaba un rayo de luz, con que los animaba eficazmente.
Comenzaron á tocarles arma las horribles fieras pobladoras del
monte. Sentíanlas bramar rabiando y murmurando y tras cada mata
les salteaba una: que tiene muchos enemigos lo bueno. Los mismos
padres, los hermanos, los amigos, los parientes, todos son contrarios
de la virtud y los domésticos, los mayores.
Andá, que estáis loco, decían los amigos, dejaos de Enemigos
tanto rezar, de tanta misa y rosario, vamos al paseo, á domésticos.
la comedia.
Si no vengáis este agravio, decía un pariente, no os hemos de
tener por tal. Vos afrentáis á nuestro linaje. He, que no cumplís con
vuestras obligaciones.
No ayunes, decía la madre á la hija, que estás de mal color, mira
que te caes muerta.
De modo que todos, cuantos hay, son enemigos declarados de la
virtud.
Salióles ya al opósito aquel león tan formidable á los cobardes.
Arredrábase Andrenio y gritóle Lucindo echase mano á la espada de
fuego. Y al mismo punto, que la coronada fiera vió brillar la luz entre
los aceros, echó á huir: que tal vez piensa hallar uno un león y topa
un panal de miel.
¡Qué presto se retiró!, ponderaba Critilo.
Son éstas un género de fieras, respondió Lucindo, que en siendo
descubiertas, se acobardan, en siendo conocidas huyen.
Esto es ser persona, dice uno. Y no es sino ser un Tentación
bruto; aquí está el valer y el medrar, y no es sino descubierta.
perderse, que las más veces entra el viento de la
vanidad por los resquicios, por donde debiera salir.
 Llegaron á un paso de los más dificultosos, donde todos sentían
gran repugnancia. Causóle grima á Andrenio y propúsole á Lucindo:
¿No pudiera pasar otro por mí esta dificultad?
No eres tú el primero que ha dicho otro tanto. ¡Oh, cuántos malos
llegan á los buenos y les dicen que los encomienden á Dios y ellos
se encomiendan al diablo; piden que ayunen por ellos y ellos se
hartan y embriagan; que se deciplinen y duerman en una tabla, y
estánse ellos revolcando en el cieno de sus deleites! ¡Qué bien le
respondió á uno déstos aquel moderno apóstol de la Andalucía!:
Señor mío, si yo rezo por vos y ayuno por vos, también me iré al
cielo por vos.
Estando emperezando Andrenio, adelantóse Critilo y, tomando de
atrás la corrida, saltó felizmente. Volviósele á mirar y dijo:
Ea, resuélvete, que harto mayores dificultades se Dificultades
topan en el camino ancho y cuesta abajo del vicio. del vicio.
¿Qué duda tiene eso?, respondió Lucindo; y si no
decidme si la virtud mandara los intolerables rigores del vicio, ¿qué
dijeran los mundanos? ¿Cómo lo exageraran? ¿Qué cosa más dura,
que prohibirle al avaro sus mismos bienes, mandándole que no coma
ni beba ni se vista ni goce de una hacienda adquirida con tanto
sudor? ¿Qué dijera el mundano, si esto mandara la ley
Facilidades
de Dios? ¿Pues qué, si al deshonesto, que estuviese de la virtud.
toda una noche de invierno al yelo y al sereno,
rodeado de peligros por oir cuatro necedades, que él llama favores,
pudiéndose estar en su cama seguro y descansado? ¿Si al
ambicioso, que no pare un punto ni descanse ni sea suya una hora?
¿Si al vengativo, que anduviese siempre cargado de hierro y de
miedo? ¿Qué dijeran desto los mundanos? ¡Cómo lo ponderaran! Y
ahora, porque se les manda su antojo, sin réplica obedecen.
Ea, Andrenio, anímate, decía Critilo, y advierte que el más mal día
deste camino de la virtud es de primavera en cotejo de los
caniculares del vicio.
 Diéronle la mano, con que pudo vencer la dificultad.
Dos veces fiero les acometió un tigre en condición y en su mal
modo; mas el único remedio fué no alborotarse ni inquietarse, sino
esperalle mansamente. Á gran cólera, gran sosiego, y
Victoria
á una furia, una espera. Trató Critilo de desenvolver su de la espera.
escudo de cristal, espejo fiel del semblante y, así como
la fiera se vió en él tan feamente descompuesta, espantada de sí
misma, echó á huir con harto corrimiento de su necio exceso. De las
serpientes, que eran muchas, dragones, víboras y basiliscos, fué
singular defensivo el retirarse y huir las ocasiones. Á los voraces
lobos con látigos de cotidiana diciplina los pudieron rechazar. Contra
los tiros y golpes de toda arma ofensiva se valieron del célebre
escudo encantado, hecho de una pasta real, cuanto más blanda,
más fuerte, forjado con influjo celeste, de todas maneras
impenetrable: y era sin duda el de la paciencia.
Llegaron ya á la superioridad de aquella dificultosa montaña, tan
eminente, que les pareció estaban en los mismos azaguanes del
cielo, convecinos de las estrellas. Dejóse ver bien el deseado palacio
de Virtelia, campeando en medio de aquella sublime corona, teatro
insigne de prodigiosas felicidades. Mas, cuando se Mansión
esperó que nuestros agradecidos peregrinos le de la virtud.
saludaran con incesables aplausos y le veneraran con
afectos de admiración, fué tan al contrario, que antes bien se vieron
enmudecer, llevados de una impensada tristeza, nacida de estraña
novedad. Y fué sin duda que, cuando le imaginaron fabricado de
preciosos jaspes, embutidos de rubíes y esmeraldas, cambiando
visos y centelleando á rayos, sus puertas de zafir con clavazón de
estrellas, vieron se componía de unas piedras pardas y cenicientas,
nada vistosas, antes muy melancólicas.
¿Qué cosa y qué casa es ésta?, ponderaba Andrenio. ¿Por ella
habemos sudado y reventado? ¡Qué triste apariencia tiene! ¿Qué
será allá dentro? ¡Cuánto mejor exterior ostentaba la de los
monstruos! Engañados venimos.
Aquí Lucindo suspirando:
 Sabed, les dijo, que los mortales todo lo peor de la tierra quieren
para el cielo, el más trabajado tercio de la vida. Allá, á la achacosa
vejez dedican para la virtud, la hija fea para el convento, el hijo
contrahecho sea de iglesia, el real malo á la limosna, el redrojo para
el diezmo, y después querrían lo mejor de la gloria. De más que
juzgáis vosotros el fruto por la corteza. Aquí todo va al revés del
mundo: si por fuera está la fealdad, por dentro la belleza; la pobreza
en lo exterior, la riqueza en lo interior; lejos la tristeza, la alegría en
el centro: que eso es entrar en el gozo del Señor.
Estas piedras tan tristes á la vista son preciosas á la Bajo el sayal,
experiencia, porque todas ellas son bezares, hayal.
ahuyentando ponzoñas. Y todo el palacio está
compuesto de pítimas y contravenenos, con lo cual no pueden
empecerle ni las serpientes ni los dragones, de que está por todas
partes sitiado.
Estaban sus puertas patentes noche y día; aunque allí siempre lo
es, franqueando la entrada en el cielo á todo el mundo. Pero asistían
en ellas dos disformes gigantes, jayanes de la soberbia, enarbolando
á los dos hombros sendas clavas muy herradas, sembradas de
puntas para hacerla. Estaban amenazando á cuantos intentaban
entrar, fulminando en cada golpe una muerte. En viéndolos, dijo
Andrenio:
Todas las dificultades pasadas han sido enanas en parangón
désta. Basta que hasta ahora habíamos peleado con bestias de
brutos apetitos; mas éstos son muy hombres.
Así es, dijo Lucindo: que ésta ya es pelea de personas. Sabed
que, cuando todo va de vencida, salen de refresco estos monstruos
de la altivez, tan llenos de presunción, que hacen desvanecer todos
los triunfos de la vida. Pero no hay que desconfiar de la vitoria: que
no han de faltar estratagemas para vencerlos. Advertid que de los
mayores gigantes triunfan los enanos y de los mayores los
pequeños, los menores y aun los mínimos. El modo de hacer la
guerra ha de ser muy al revés de lo que se piensa. Triunfo
Aquí no vale el hacer piernas ni querer hombrear. No de la
se trate de hacer del hombre; sino humillarse y humildad.
encogerse y, cuando ellos estuvieren más arrogantes
amenazando al cielo, entonces nosotros transformados en gusanos y
cosidos con la tierra hemos de entrar por entre pies, que así han
entrado los mayores adalides.
Ejecutáronlo tan felizmente, que sin saber cómo ni por dónde, sin
ser vistos ni oídos, se hallaron dentro del encantado palacio, con
realidades de un cielo.
Apenas, digo á glorias, estuvieron dentro, cuando sintieron
embargar todos sus sentidos de bellísimos empleos en folla de
fruición, confortando el corazón y elevando los espíritus. Embistióles
lo primero una tan suave marea, exhalando inundaciones de
fragancia, que pareció haberse rasgado de par en par los camarines
de la primavera, las estancias de Flora, ó que se había abierto
brecha en el paraíso. Oyóse una dulcísima armonía, alternada de
voces é instrumentos, que pudiera suspender la celestial por media
hora. Pero, ¡oh cosa estraña! que no se veía quién gorjeaba ni quién
tañía: con ninguno topaban, nadie descubrían.
Bien parece encantado este palacio, dijo Critilo. Sin duda que aquí
todos son espíritus, pues no se parecen cuerpos. ¿Dónde estará esta
celestial reina?
Siquiera, decía Andrenio, permitiérasenos alguna de sus muchas
bellísimas doncellas. ¿Dónde estás?, ¡oh, justicia! dijo Hallazgo
en grito, y respondióle al punto Eco vaticinante desde de las
un escollo de flores: virtudes.

En la casa ajena.
¿Y la verdad?
Con los niños.
¿La castidad?
Huyendo.
¿La sabiduría?
En la mitad y aun.
¿La providencia?
Antes.
¿El arrepentimiento?
Después.
¿La cortesía?
En la honra.
¿Y la honra?
En quien la da.
¿La fidelidad?
En el pecho de un rey.
¿La amistad?
No entre idos.
¿El consejo?
En los viejos.
¿El valor?
En los varones.
¿La ventura?
En las feas.
¿El callar?
Con callemos.
¿Y el dar?
Con el recibir.
¿La bondad?
En el buen tiempo.
 ¿El escarmiento?
En cabeza ajena.
¿La pobreza?
Por puertas.
¿La buena fama?
Durmiendo.
¿La osadía?
En la dicha.
¿La salud?
En la templanza.
¿La esperanza?
Siempre.
¿El ayuno?
En quien malcome.
¿La cordura?
Adivinando.
¿El desengaño?
Tarde.
¿La vergüenza?
Si perdida, nunca más hallada.
¿Y toda virtud?
En el medio.
Es decir, declaró Lucindo, que nos encaminemos al centro y no
andemos como los impíos rodando.
Fué acertado, porque en medio de aquel palacio de perfecciones,
en una majestuosa cuadra, ocupando augusto trono, descubrieron,
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