DEFINITION:

IS THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING AND MAINTAINING

A TEMPERATURE OF A SPACE LOWER THAN THAT OF
SURROUNDING BY THE REMOVAL OF HEAT.
High Temperature
Reservoir

Heat Rejected

R Work
Input

Heat Absorbed
Low Temperature
Reservoir
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
The unit of refrigeration is Tonnes of Refrigeration.
It is the amount of heat removed from 1 ton (1000 kg) of pure
water supplied at 00C to form at 00C in 24 hours.
This heat is the latent heat of pure water (334.5 X 1000 kJ/day).

1 TR = 334.5 X 1000 /24 = 14000 KJ/hr

= 233 KJ/min
= 3.889 KW
Co-efficient of Performance:
It is the ratio of net refrigerating effect to the work required to
produce that effect.

Refrigeration effect (or) T2

COP = ---------------------------------------------------------------
Work Required (OR) ( T1 – T2)
Where,
T2 = Sink Temperature
T1= Source Temperature
Heat and Work Interactions in refrigeration systems
Applications of Refrigeration:
Food and milk Preservations
Ice Formation
Comfort and industrial air conditioning
Storage of liquid fuels in rockets
Treatment of metals in processing
industries.
Processing of Beverages and Transportation
of food below freezing.
Medical and surgical aids especially in
preserving human bloods and tissues.
Refrigerant:
is the working substance in Refrigeration systems
Properties of ideal Refrigerant:

It should have low boiling point and low freezing point.

It must have low specific heat and high latent heat
It should have high thermal conductivity to reduce the heat transfer in
evaporator and condenser.
It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
It should be non- flammable, non- explosive, non- toxic, and non- corrosive.
It should have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power
requirements
It should give high COP to reduce the running cost of the system.
It must be cheap and must be readily available.

Refrigerant are Ammonia, Sulpher-di-Oxide, Freon -11, Freon -12,

Carbon-di-Oxide, etc.,
R12 = CCl2F2 = Dichloro –Diflouro Methane
R22 = CHCl2F2 = Dichloro – Diflouro Methane
Types of Refrigeration cycles:

Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Vapour absorption Refrigeration cycle

Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor

1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
T – S diagram for Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Schematic diagram and T-S Cycle
P-H diagram for VCR
systems
Vapour Compression Refrigeration system:
The refrigerant undergoes a change of phase
from vapour to liquid and liquid to vapour
during the cycle.

In condenser, the latent heat of refrigerant

is removed which is used for absorbing the heat
from the cold body in the evaporator, and hence
the constant temperature would be maintained.
Vapour compression Refrigeration System:
IT CONSISTS OF
1. Compressor
Compresses the refrigerant to high pressure and temperature from
low pressure and temperature.
2. Condenser
The latent heat of refrigerant is removed by circulating water or
atmospheric air.
3. Expansion Valve
In the throttle valve where the pressure is reduced at a controlled
rate.
4. Evaporator
A liquid-Vapour mixture refrigerant then enters the evaporator at low
pressure where the latent heat of evaporation is converted into
vapour and the cycle repeats.
Determination of COP:

Assumptions made for drawing T-S and P-h Diagram:

1. The refrigerant leaving the evaporator is dry and saturated.

2. The compression of vapour in the evaporator is isentropic.
3. There is no sub cooling of the refrigerant in the condenser.
4. There is no pressure losses in the system.

Conditions of vapour at the end of compression:

There are three different conditions at which the refrigerant from the
compressor.
a. Vapour is dry and saturated.
b. Vapour is wet condition.
c. Vapour is superheated condition.
 a. Vapour is dry and saturated condition:
Process 1-2 – Adiabatic compression
Process 2-3 - Constant pressure condensation
Process 3-4 - Throttling
Process 4-1 - Constant pressure evaporation.
Determination of COP:
Condenser COP = RE/WD
T 3 2
Where,
Throttling Compression
work RE = Refrigeration Effect
4 Evaporator1 = h1 – h4
WD = Work done = h1 – h2
Therefore,
COP = (h1 – h4)/(h1 – h2)
= (h1 – h3)/(h1 – h2)
S
 b. Vapour being Wet condition:
Determination of COP:
Process 1-2 – Adiabatic compression
Process 2-3 - Constant pressure condensation COP = RE/WD
Process 3-4 - Throttling Where,
Process 4-1 - Constant pressure evaporation.
RE = Refrigeration Effect

Condenser = h1 – h4
3 2
T WD = Work done = h1 – h2
Compression
Throttling work Therefore,

4Evaporator1 COP = (h1 – h4)/(h1 – h2)

= (h1 – h3)/(h1 – h2)
Where,
h2 = hf2+X2 hfg2 , also,
h4 = h3 (Since throttling
process)
S
 c. Vapour being Super heated condition:
Process 1-2 – Adiabatic compression Determination of COP:
Process 2-3 - Constant pressure condensation COP = RE/WD
Process 3-4 - Throttling
Where,
Process 4-1 - Constant pressure evaporation.
RE = Refrigeration Effect
2
3 Condenser = h1 – h4
T
Compression WD = Work done = h1 – h2
Throttling work
Therefore,
4 Evaporator 1 COP = (h1 – h4)/(h1 – h2)
= (h1 – h3)/(h1 – h2)
Where,
h2 = hg2 + Cp ln (Tsup – Tsat)

S h4 = h3 (Since throttling
process)
Advantages of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:
1. COP is better due to constant temperature
2. NO expander is present
3. Heat transfer coefficient is high.
4. Same refrigerant can be used again and again.

Sub-cooling effect:
When a liquid is cooled below its saturation temperature at
the given pressure, the liquid is said to be sub-cooled or
under-cooled.
The difference between the saturation temperature and sub-
cooling temperature at that pressure is called degree of sub-
cooling.
This is done to reduce the mass of vapour during the
expansion.
Vapour absorption Refrigeration System:
It is a heat operated unit which uses a refrigerant that is
alternatively absorbed and liberated from the absorbent.
In this system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber generator
and a pump involving the less mechanical work.
Aqua – Ammonia Refrigeration Systems:
This is most commonly used cycle.
Ammonia – is used as Refrigerant
Water – as Absorbent.
The following components are used in this refrigeration system.
Analyzer:
It removes the water vapour partially by passing strong solution into it,
otherwise it will lead freezing at the throttle valve.
Rectifier:
Rectifier removes the remaining water vapour by providing water
cooling.
Absorber:
When ammonia dissolves in water, heat is released which reduces the
absorption capacity. So, Water is circulated around the absorber by
spraying the cooled weak NH3, solution. This external cooling increases
the absorption capacity of the weak NH3 Solution.
Lithium Bromide – Water systems:
Refrigerant – Water ; Absorbent – Lithium Bromide
Lithium bromide has strong affinity for water vapour due
its low vapour pressure.
It absorbs the water vapour as fast as it is released in the
evaporator.

Advantages of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems:

1. Less noise
2. Low maintenance cost due to very little wear.
3. System does not depend upon electric power.
4. Suitable for above 1000 TR.
 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Systems

1. Moving part is pump only. Hence less

1. Moving parts are in compressor
wear and operation is quiet. makes more noise, wear and tear.
2. More equipments like Absorber, 2. Less components like Compressor,
rectifier, analyzer, pump, generator, condenser, expansion valve, and
evaporator, condenser, heat exchanger evaporator are required.
are required. 3. The compressor consumes more
3. It doesn’t depend on electricity. It can be power.
operated using solar system also. 4. Maintenance cost is high.
5. The liquid traces from the
4. Maintenance cost is low.
evaporator to the compressor may
5. The liquid traces from the evaporator damage the compressor.
constitute no danger. 6. Automatic operation for controlling
6. Automatic operation for controlling the the capacity is difficult.
capacity is easy. 7. More space is required.
7. Less floor space is required. 8. The system has poor performance
at partial load.
8. It is not affected by load variation.
9. Suitable for only small capacities
9. It can be built in capacities above 1000 only.
tons.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
INTRODUCTION:

It is the study of the

properties of air – water
mixture under prevailing
conditions.

It is mostly used in heating

and ventilating of building,
ships, air crafts, and cold
storages., etc.,
Terminology used in pschrometry:
a. Dry air:
is the mixture of gases like N2, O2, CO2, Ar, Ne,
He etc.,
major gases are 21% of O2, and 79% of N2 by
volume.
major gases are 23% of O2, and 77% of N2 by
mass.
The molecular mass of dry air is 28.966 kg and
gas constant (Ra) is equal to 0.287 kJ/kgK.
b. Moist Air:
It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour.
c. Saturated air:
It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour,
when air contains the maximum amount of
water vapour.
The vapour pressure is equal to the saturation
pressure of water at the same temperature of
the mixture,
Unsaturated air:
is the mixture of unsaturated air and water
vapour.
PVapour < PSaturation of water

Relative humidity (Ø):

is the ratio between partial pressure of water
vapour in a mixture to the saturation
pressure of pure water at the same
temperature of mixture.
RH (Ø) = (Pw /Psat)

Specific Humidity (W) or Humidity Ratio:

is the ratio of mass of water vapour or
moisture to the mass of the dry air in a
mixture of water vapour and air.
W = mW/ma
Degree of saturation (µ):
is the ratio of the actual humidity
and the saturated specific
humidity at the same temperature
and of the mixture.
it varies from 0 to 1.
W = Pw (P-Ps)/Ps (P-Pw)

Dew point Temperature: (Tdp)

The temperature at which the water
vapour starts condensing is called
dew point temperature.

is a measure of specific humidity.

is equal to saturation temperature

at the partial pressure of water
vapour in the mixture.
Dry bulb Temperature: (DBT)
The temperature recorded by the
thermometer with a dry bulb.
is the measure of sensible heat.
The DBT cannot affected by the
moisture present in the air.
Wet Bulb Temperature: (WBT)
The temperature recorded by the
thermometer when its bulb is
covered by cotton wick (wet)
saturated with water.
is measure of enthalpy of air.
is the lowest temperature recorded
by the moistened bulb.
For saturated conditions of air, the
DBT, WBT, DPT of air are equal.
Dew point Depression:

is the difference between dry bulb

temperature and dew point
temperature of the air mixture.

DPD = DBT - DPT

PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES:

a. Sensible heating or cooling

Process

b. Cooling and
dehumidification process C W

c. Heating and humidification

process a1 a

DBT
 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
Air conditioning systems:

is defined as the assembly of

different parts of a system
which is meant for producing
a specified conditions of air
within a required space or
building.

An ideal air - conditioning

system should maintain
correct temperature,
humidity, air purity, air
movement and noise level.
 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Types of air conditioning systems:

Human comfort conditions as 240C and 60% RH.

a. Summer air conditioning systems

In summer, the atmospheric air is high temperature at low relative
humidity, hence it has to be cooled and humidified it to achieve require
condition.

b. Winter air conditioning systems

In summer, the atmospheric air is low temperature at high relative
humidity, hence it has to be heated and dehumidified it to achieve require
condition.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
Structural Health Monitoring
 What is Structural Health Monitoring
(SHM)

“The process of implementing a damage

detection and characterization strategy for
engineering structures”

SHM Involves:
 Health monitoring
 Operational Evaluation
 Data Feature Extraction
 Statistical Models Development
2
 Objective of Structural Health Monitoring

 Performance enhancement of an existing structure

 Monitoring of structures affected by external factors
 Feedback loop to improve future design based on
experience

 Assessment of post-earthquake structural integrity

 Decline in construction and growth in maintenance needs
 The move towards performance-based design philosophy

3
Steps of Structural Health Monitoring

Determination of damage existence

Determination of damage’s geometric location

Quantification of damage severity

Prediction of remaining life of the structure

4
 Success of ongoing Health Monitoring
Infrastructure 2005 2013
Grade Implication
Aviation D+ D
Bridge C C+ A. Exceptional
(fit for the future)
Dams D D
B. Good
Drinking Water D- D (adequate for now)
Energy D D+ C. Mediocre
Hazardous Waste D D (requires attention)
Inland D- D- D. Poor
Waterways (at risk)
Ports C- C E. Failing
Public Parks and C C- (unfit for purpose)
Recreation
Rail C- C+ 2005 2013
Roads D D Estimated Investment 1.6 trillion 3.6 trillion
Schools D D needed (by 2010) (by 2020)

Solid Waste C+ B- Overall Condition D D+

Transit D+ D
5
Waste Water D- D [http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/a/#p/grade-sheet/gpa]
Need for Structural System Identification

Courtesy: Google Im6 age

Worldwide Monitoring Projects

7
 How to Do SHM in practice?

• Visual Inspection
 Fully experience-based
 Subjective/Non-quantitative

• Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE)

 Various technologies for different purposes
 Demands a high degree of expertise
 Time consuming and costly
 Usually requires a priori knowledge of the potentially
damaged region
 Works only in accessible regions of the structure
 Interruption and downtime
 Labour intensive and risky 8
C urrent Practice : Visual
Inspection

vibration-based methods are gaining popularities in

structural health monitoring and damage detection 9
 NDT

Visual Inspection
Magnetic Particle Testing

10
Dye Penetration Test Radiography Test
 NDT

Eddy Current Test Ultrasonic Test

Acoustic Emission Test

Thermal Infrared Test
11
 How to Do SHM in practice?
Static-Based SHM
• Based on the premise that damage will alter the static
properties of the structure.
– e.g. displacements, rotations

• Drawback
Considerable static deflection requires large amount of
static force

12
 How to Do SHM in practice?
Vibration-Based SHM
• Based on the premise that damage will alter the dynamic
properties of the structure.
– e.g. structural response, frequencies, mode shapes, damping
or modal strain energy change

• By measuring the structural response by means of sensors

strategically placed on the structure, and intelligently
analyzing these measured responses, it is possible to
identify damage occurrence.

• It can be done either in modal domain or physical domain

13
 Vibration Based SHM: Sensors
• Different forms of dynamic structural response:
– Displacement, Velocity,Acceleration, Strain.
– Which ones to measure depends on monitoring conditions and
objectives.

• Sensing technology: an ever emerging field of study

• Based on what to measure, different sensors available:
– Laser Displacement Sensors (LDS)
– Velocity Transducers
– Seismometers
– PiezoelectricAccelerometers
– Strain Gauges

• Most of these sensors can be wirelessly connected 14

 Collection of Sensory Information

Load Cell (Force)

LVDT (Displacement)

Accelerometer (Acceleration)
Strain Gauge (Strain) 15
 Vibration Based SHM: Sensors
Pros and cons of various types of sensors:

– Bandwidth:
• displacement sensors capture low frequency
modes
• acceleration sensors capture high frequency
modes
– Global vs. Local:
• strain gauges capture local dynamics better
• accelerometers/displacement sensors measure
global dynamics
16
 Vibration Based SHM: Model-Based
Techniques
*Based on a model (e.g. F.E.) of the monitored structure.
*Optimization based methods:
• An initial model is updated using measured structural response.
Also called FE model updating
• Optimization algorithms are run by iteratively changing the values
of some structural properties (e.g. Young’s modulus), so that the
FEM parameters match measured parameters.
• Measured parameters: Measured responses or some parameters
obtained from measured responses (e.g. modal properties).
• Usually require repeatedly solving the forward problem.

17
 Vibration Based SHM: Model-Based
Techniques
Alternatively, inverse problem solution approach:
• Identify modal parameters using some system
identification method.
• Use identified modal parameters to obtain physical
parameter (mass, damping, stiffness) matrices.
• Does not require repeatedly solving the forward
problem, but is more complicated.

18
 Vibration Based SHM: Model-Based
Techniques
• PROS:
• Allow damage detection, as well as damage location and extent
estimation. May even be used to assess the damage type and to
estimate the structure’s remaining life, though research is still at its
onset in this regard
• CONS:
• Require high user expertise
• Affected by modelling assumptions (e.g. boundary
conditions, number of DOFs, material properties, etc.)
• Often too many unknowns
• Usually computationally expensive

19
 Vibration Based SHM: Data-Based
Techniques
Data-Based techniques are based on statistical, rather
than physical models of the structure. These methods
are called data-based because the features extracted
from the structural response are obtained by simple
operations performed on the response time histories
itself, and do not require any physical model
assumptions. These approaches are often said to “let the
data speak by themselves”.

20
 Vibration Based SHM: Data-Based
Techniques
PROS
• Do not require high user expertise.
• Often coined using machine learning knowledge: highly
computationally efficient and ideal to be automated.
• Take into account uncertainties inherently present in SHM.
• Free from modeling assumption induced errors.

CC ONS
• Without a physical model, can at most reach the second level of the
damage detection hierarchy (damage location).
• Being based on a statistical model of the features, they
require sufficient data to be available.
21
 Vibration Based SHM: Uncertainties
Many sources of uncertainty in the different stages of SHM:
During data acquisition:
• Measurement noise,
• Environmental effects (different temperature, humidity levels),
• Unknown and nonstationary inputs (traffic, wind, earthquake;
may excite different frequency regions),
• Missing data (not every point on the structure observed).
During feature extraction/modeling/identification:
• Modeling assumptions,
• Errors associated with any numerical method,
• Non-unique identification (many models may fit the measured data
equally well).
22
SHM by Structural System Identification

23
 Structural Monitoring Challenges

Infrastructure is expected to provide:

reliable service for long periods of time,
Undergoing major technology changes,
spanning several generations and experiencing dramatic
evolutions

Develop Wireless Sensor Networks

Reliable
Energy aware
Smart
24
 Some Barriers in SHM up today

 C onventional cables

 High installation costs

 Vulnerable to ambient signal noise corruption

 Vulnerable to earthquake conditions

Size and complexity of large structures require a large

number of sensing points to be installed.
25
 Monitoring Metrics

Measure: Identify
• Acceleration  Corrosion
• Strain  Cracking
• Climatic Conditions  Strength
• Curvature  Tension
• Displacements  Location of
• Load rebar/delaminations

• Tilt/Slope
• Scour
26
 Smart Sensor concept

Earthquake Event

Events Recorded
and stored in BS
Sensors Wake-up
(unique IDs)

Sensors go back
to sleep
27
Future of SHM

28
 Study-1: G+8 storey RCC BSNL building in
Guwahati (Borsaikia, Dutta, Deb 2011)

• 1st Earthquake (11th Feb,2006) –Depth 33 Km in

Arunachal Pradesh-Tibet Border.
• 2nd Earthquake (12th Aug,2006) –Depth 66 Km in India-
Bangladesh Border. 29
 Study-1: G+8 storey RCC BSNL building in
Guwahati (Borsaikia, Dutta, Deb 2011)
2 triaxial force balance in
ground and top floor, 4
uniaxial accelerometers in
1st, 3rd, 7th and top in
shorter direction and 3
uniaxial accelerometers in
1st, 5th and top of longer
direction.

• Damage has been localized using Parametric State Space

Modeling.
• Stiffness of Each storeys has been computed. 30
Study-2: Milikan Library, CalTech (Clinton et al
2006)
The current (2006) forced vibration
fundamental frequency of east–west is
22% and of north-south is 12% lower than
that originally measured in 1968

• forced vibrations using varying forces.

• minor earthquake shaking.
• weather conditions (rain and wind
events, extremes in temperature)

Plan dimension is 21m × 22.9m and height

from basement is 48.9m

Sensors are densely mounted on the

building and these are continuously
monitored 31
 Study-3: Long Beach Public Safety Building
(LBPSB), California (Chassiakos et al 2006)
• Six storey rectangular steel building built
in 1950s, having plan dimension of
82.3m × 21.3m.
• Due to 1994 Northridge earthquake this
facility need significant seismic
mitigation measures.
• So health of this structure was monitored
and it was retrofitted.
• The ambient vibration data collected
before, during, and after the structural
retrofit.

Mode Freq before Retrofit Freq after Retrofit % change

1 0.94 Hz 2.09 Hz 122.34 %
2 1.20 Hz 2.52 Hz 110.00%
3 1.47 Hz 2.87 Hz 95.24%
4 3.00 Hz 5.21 Hz 73.67%
32
5 4.25 Hz 7.60 Hz 78.82%
Study-3: Long Beach Public Safety Building
(LBPSB), California (Chassiakos et al 2006)
Finite element
model of pre-
retrofit Long Beach
Public Safety
Building

Finite element model of

post-retrofit Long Beach
Public Safety Building.

33
 Application of SHM in ‘Housing for All’
Project
 North-East India is prone to earthquake hazards
 So monitoring is important to reduce seismic hazard
 Proposed Idea: One house will be properly instrumented among a
colony of houses
 Sensor data will be taken once in a year and the health of that
colony can be estimated
 Visual inspection and NDTs will be done in a regular basis
 This will also be used for post-earthquake health assessment and
validate retrofitting operations

34
 Sensor Technology

Ultrasonic Sensor

Fibre Optics Laser Vibrometer

36
 Structural Monitoring Challenges

Develop Design-to-service Solutions

Efficient Monitoring
Digital Signal Processing strategies
Evaluation Criteria
Knowledge bases
Develop Smart Control Units
Real-time Feedback
Centralized (or not)

37
 Technological Solutions

– Wireless Sensors
• Accelerometers/Inclinometers etc
– Laser Scanning
– RFIDs (Radio Frequency Identification)
– Acoustic Emissions
– MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems)
– Increase of Computation capabilities
– Fiber technologies

38
Case Study Automotive Applications: Sensors and Actuators
 Types of Sensors:
 Airflow rate sensor, Position sensor, Throttle angle
sensor, Temperature sensor, MAP sensors,
Knock/Detonation Sensor, Load cell, Lambda
Sensor(Exhaust gas O2 Sensor), yaw rate sensor, sensor
feedback control,
 Electronic Control Unit (ECU),
 Principle of actuator,
 Types of actuators, engine control actuators, Solenoid
actuators, motorized actuators (Stepper motors).
 Sensors:
 Sensors are the components of
the system that provide the inputs
that enable the computer (ECM)
to carry out the operations that
make the system function
correctly.
 In the case of vehicle sensors it is
usually a voltage that is
represented by a code at
the
computer’s processor. If this
voltage is incorrect the processor
will probably take it as an invalid
input and record a fault.
 Types of Sensors used
1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate
2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)
3. Throttle plate angular position
4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
5. Coolant temperature
6. Intake air temperature
7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
9. Vehicle speed
10. Transmission gear selector position
 Mass air flow (MAF) rate sensor
 Airflow sensors are used on engines with multiport
electronic fuel injection. This is because the amount of fuel
delivered by an EFI system is controlled by a computer
(powertrain control module or PCM) which turns the fuel
injectors on and off.
 The airflow sensor keeps the computer informed about how
much air is being pulled into the engine past the throttle
plates. This input along with information from other engine
sensors allows the computer to calculate how much fuel is
needed.
 The computer then increases or decreases injector duration
(on time) to provide the correct air/fuel ratio.
 Types: 1. Vane type Air Flow Rate Sensor
2. Hot Wire type Air Flow Rate Sensor
  Vane type air flow (MAF) rate sensor

 An engine requires the correct air–fuel

ratio to suit various conditions. With
electronic fuel injection the ECM controls
the air–fuel ratio and in order to do this it
needs a constant flow of information about
the amount of air flowing to the engine.
 With this information, and data stored in its
memory, the ECM can then send out a
signal to the injectors, so that they provide
the correct amount of fuel.
 Air flow measurement is commonly
performed by a ‘flap’-type air flow sensor.
The air flow sensor shown in Figure A.
uses the principle of the potential divider
(potentiometer).
 Figure B. shows the theoretical form of a simple
potential divider. A voltage, say 5 V, is applied across
terminals A and B. C is a slider which is in contact with
the resistor and a voltmeter is connected between A and
C. The voltage VAC is related to the position of the slider
C in the form VAC =VAB * x/l.
 In the air flow sensor, the moving probe (wiper) of the
potential divider is linked to the pivot of the measuring
flap so that angular displacement of the measuring flap
is registered as a known voltage at the potentiometer.
 Figure shows a simplified form of the air
flow sensor. The closed position of the
measuring flap will give a voltage of
approximately zero, and when fully open the
voltage will be 5 V.
 Intermediate positions will give voltages
between these values. In practice, it is not
quite as simple as this, because allowance
must be made for other contingencies.
 A vane airflow sensor is located ahead of
the throttle and monitors the volume of air
entering the engine by means of a spring-
loaded mechanical flap. The flap is pushed
open by an amount that is proportional to
the volume of air entering the engine.
 The flap has a wiper arm that rotates against a sealed
potentiometer (variable resistor or rheostat), allowing the
sensor's resistance and output voltage to change according to
airflow.
 The greater the airflow, the further the flap is forced open.
This lowers the potentiometer's resistance and increases the
voltage return signal to the computer.
 A compensation plate acts as a shock absorber to prevent
rapid movement or vibrations of the measuring plate.
 A sealed idle mixture screw is also located on the airflow
sensor. This controls the amount of air that bypasses the flap,
and consequently the richness or leanness of the fuel
mixture.
 VANE AIRFLOW SENSOR PROBLEMS
 Vane airflow sensors as well as all the other types of airflow
sensors can't tolerate air leaks. Air leaks downstream of
the sensor can allow "unmetered" or "false" air to enter the
engine. The extra air can lean out the fuel mixture causing a
variety of driveability problems, including lean misfire,
hesitation and stumbling when accelerating, and a rough
idle.
 Dirt can also cause problems. Unfiltered air passing
through a torn or poor fitting air filter can allow dirt to build
up on the flap shaft of a vane airflow sensor causing the flap
to bind or stick. The operation of the flap can be tested by
gently pushing it open with a finger. It should open and close
smoothly with even resistance. If it binds or sticks, a shot of
carburetor cleaner may loosen it up otherwise the sensor will
have to be replaced.
 Backfiring in the intake manifold can force the flap
backwards violently, often bending or breaking the
flap. Some sensors have a "backfire" valve built into the
flap to protect the flap in case of a backfire by venting
the explosion. But the anti-backfire valve itself can
become a source of trouble if it leaks. A leaky backfire
valve will cause the sensor to read low and the engine to
run rich.
 Hot Wire Type MAF:
 The hot wire MAF sensor is a variation
of a classic air flow sensor that was
known as a hot wire anemometer and
was used, for example, to measure wind
velocity for weather forecasting.
 In this MAF, the hot-wire, or sensing,
element is replaced by a hot-film
structure mounted on a substrate.
 On the air inlet side is mounted a
honeycomb flow straightener that
“smooths” the air flow (causing
nominally laminar air flow over the film
element). At the lower portion of the

structure is the signal processing

circuitry.
 The film element is electrically heated to a constant
temperature above that of the inlet air.
 The hot-film element is incorporated in a Wheatstone bridge
circuit (Figure at top).
 The power supply for the bridge circuit comes from an
amplifier.
 The Wheatstone bridge consists of three fixed resistors R1,
R2, and R3 and a hot-film element having resistance RHW.
With no air flow the resistors R1, R2, and R3 are chosen such
that voltage va and vb are equal (i.e., the bridge is said to be
balanced).
 As air flows across the hot film, heat is carried away from
the film by the moving air. The amount of heat carried away
varies in proportion to the mass flow rate of the air.
 The heat lost by the film to the air tends to cause the
resistance of the film to vary, which unbalances the bridge
circuit, thereby producing an input voltage to the amplifier.
 The output of the amplifier is connected to the bridge circuit
and provides the power for this circuit. The amplified
voltage changes the resistance in such a way as to maintain a
fixed hot-film temperature relative to the inlet temperature.
 The amplifier output voltage vc varies with MAF and
serves as a measure of Rm. Typically the conversion of
MAF to voltage is slightly nonlinear, as indicated by the
calibration curve depicted in Figure.
 Fortunately, a modern digital engine controller can
convert the analog bridge output voltage directly to mass
air flow by simple computation.
 Hot Wire MAF sensors have no moving parts. Unlike a vane
airflow meter that uses a spring-loaded flap, mass airflow sensors
use electrical current to measure airflow.
 The sensing element, which is either a platinum wire (hot wire)
or nickel foil grid (hot film), is heated electrically to keep it a
certain number of degrees hotter than the incoming air.
 In the case of hot film MAFs, the grid is heated to 75oC above
incoming ambient air temperature. With the hot wire sensors, the
wire is heated to 100 oC above ambient temperature.
 As air flows past the sensing element, it cools the element and
increases the current needed to keep the element hot. Because the
cooling effect varies directly with the temperature, density and
humidity of the incoming air, the amount of current needed to
keep the element hot is directly proportional to the air "mass"
entering the engine
 Positions Sensors:
 The positions sensors are generally speed sensors of
different working principle used for detecting the
position of different parameters.
 Parameters Measured,
1. Crankshaft Position Sensor
2. Camshaft Position Sensor
3. ABS Wheel Sensors
4. Vehicle Speed Sensor
 Working Principles used,
1. Magnetic Reluctance (Variable Reluctance) type
2. Hall Effect type
3. Optical Type
 Crankshaft Position Sensor:
 A crank position sensor is a component used in an
internal combustion engine to monitor the position or
rotational speed of the crankshaft. This information is
used by engine management systems to control ignition
system timing and other engine parameters.
 Magnetic Reluctance (or Variable Reluctance)
type sensor
 This type of sensor is used in many vehicle
applications, such as ignition systems, engine
speed sensors for fuelling, and wheel speed
sensors for anti-lock braking etc.
 Air has a greater reluctance (resistance to
magnetism) than iron and this fact is made use of
in many sensors. The basic principle of operation
of a variable reluctance type sensor (Fig. 5.1) may
be understood from the following description.
 The principal elements of the sensor are:
 an iron rotor with lobes on it;
 a permanent magnet;
 a metallic path (the pole piece) for carrying the magnetic
flux;
 a coil, wound around the metallic path, in which a voltage
is induced.
 The reluctor disc has a number of tabs on it and these tabs
are made to move through the air gap in the magnetic circuit.
 The movement of the reluctor tabs, through the air gap is
achieved by rotation of the reluctor shaft. The voltage
induced in the sensor coil is related to the rate of change of
magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit.
 The faster the rate of change of magnetic flux the larger will
be the voltage that is generated in the sensor coil. When the
metal tab on the reluctor rotor is outside the air gap, the
sensor voltage is zero.
 As the tab moves into the air gap the flow of magnetism
(flux) increases rapidly. This causes the sensor voltage to
increase, quite quickly, to a maximum positive value. Figure
5.2 shows the approximate behavior of the voltage output as
the reluctor is rotated.
 Figure 5.2(a) shows the reluctor tab moving into the air gap.
As the metal tab moves further into the gap the voltage
begins to fall and, when the metal tab is exactly aligned with
the pole piece, the sensor voltage falls back to zero
(Although the magnetic flux is strongest at this point, it is
not changing and this means that the voltage is zero.)

 Figure 5.2(b) shows that

there is zero voltage when
the reluctor tab is in
alignment with the pole
piece.
 As the metal tab continues to rotate out of the air gap
and away from the pole piece, the rate of change of the
magnetic flux is rapid, but opposite in direction to when
the tab was moving into the air gap.
 This results in the negative half of the voltage waveform
as shown in Fig. 5.2(c). When the tab has moved out of
the air gap the sensor voltage returns to zero. While the
rotor shaft continues to turn another tab will enter the air
gap and the above process will be repeated.
 If the sensor coil is connected to an oscilloscope the
pattern observed will be similar to that shown in Fig.
5.2(d).
 Hall Effect:
 The Hall effect is the production of a voltage
difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the
conductor and to an applied magnetic field
perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by
Edwin Hall in 1879.
2. Hall Effect type sensor:
 Figure shows the principle of a Hall type sensor. The
Hall element is a small section of semiconductor
material such as silicon.
 When connected as shown in Fig.(a), the battery will
cause current to flow through the semiconductor Hall
element and battery circuit, but there will be no current
in the circuit which is at right angles to the battery
circuit, as shown by a zero reading on the voltmeter.
  When a magnetic field is imposed on the Hall element,
as shown in Fig. (b), a current will flow in circuit 2.
 When the magnetic effect is prevented from reaching
the Hall element, as in Fig.(c), the current will cease to
flow in circuit 2.
 The result is that the current in circuit 2 can be switched
on and off by shielding the Hall element from the
magnetic field.

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 When the metal plate that is inserted between the magnet
and the Hall element is mounted on a rotating shaft, the
Hall current can be switched on and off at any desired
frequency.
 The Hall type sensor produces an output power that is
virtually constant at all speeds.
 Hall effect sensors are used wherever other
electromagnetic sensors are used, e.g. engine speed and
crank position, ABS wheel sensors, camshaft (cylinder)
identification (for ignition and fuelling) etc.
 The voltage from a Hall element is quite small and it is
common practice for Hall type sensors to incorporate an
amplifying and pulse-shaping circuit. The result is that
the sensor produces a digital signal, i.e. it is a
rectangular waveform as shown in Fig. 5.7.
 Optical Sensor:
 In a sufficiently clean environment a shaft position can also
be sensed using optical techniques. Figure below illustrates
such a system. Again, as with the magnetic system, a disk is
directly coupled to the crankshaft.
 This time, the disk has holes in it that correspond to the
number of tabs on the disks of the magnetic systems.
 Mounted on each side of the disk are fiber-optic light pipes.
The hole in the disk allows transmission of light through the
light pipes from the light-emitting diode (LED) source to the
phototransistor used as a light sensor.
 Light would not be transmitted from source to sensor
when there is no hole because the solid disk blocks the
light.
 As shown in Figure below, the pulse of light is
detected by the phototransistor and coupled to an
amplifier to obtain a satisfactory signal level. The
output pulse level can very easily be standard transistor
logic levels of +2.4 V for the high level and +0.8 V for
the low level.
 One of the problems with optical sensors is that they
must be protected from dirt and oil; otherwise, they
will not work properly.
 They have the advantages that they can sense position
without the engine running and that the pulse amplitude
is constant with variation in speed.
 Throttle Position Sensor:
 When an engine is idling the exhaust gas
scavenging of the cylinders is poor. This
has the effect of diluting the incoming
mixture.
 The ECU must detect when the throttle is
in the idling position, so that alteration of
the air–fuel ratio can occur to ensure that
the engine continues to run smoothly.
 At full engine load and full throttle, the
mixture (air–fuel ratio) needs enriching,
so the ECU also needs a signal to show
that the throttle is fully open.
 These duties are performed by the
throttle position switch. Figure 5.12
shows how the action of a throttle
position sensor is based on the principle
of the potential divider.
 The sensor produces a voltage which
is related to throttle position. The
voltage signal is conducted to the
ECU where it is used, in conjunction
with other inputs, to determine the
correct fuelling for a given condition.
 Thermistor:
 Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:
 With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as
temperature rises. An NTC is commonly used as a
temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush
current limiter.
 With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as
temperature rises. PTC thermistors are commonly
installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect
against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses
 Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs) in that the material used in a thermistor is
generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure
metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs
are useful over larger temperature ranges, while
thermistors typically achieve a greater precision within a
limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C
 Temperature sensor
 A commonly used device used for sensing
temperature is the thermistor. A
thermistor utilizes the concept of negative
temperature coefficient.
 Most electrical conductors have a positive
temperature coefficient. This means that
the hotter the conductor gets the higher
is its electrical resistance.
 This thermistor operates differently; its
resistance gets lower as its temperature
increases and this is a characteristic of
semiconductor materials.
 There is a well-defined relationship
between temperature and resistance.
 This means that current flow through the
thermistor can be used to give an accurate
representation of temperature.
 Figure shows the approximate
relationship between temperature and
resistance.
 The coolant temperature sensor provides
the ECU with information about engine
temperature and thus allows the ECU to
make alterations to fuelling for cold starts
and warm-up enrichment.
 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor:
 Several MAP sensor configurations have been used in
automotive applications.
 The earliest sensors were derived from aerospace
instrumentation concepts, but these proved more expensive
than desirable for automotive applications and have been
replaced with more cost-effective designs.
 It is interesting to note that none of the MAP sensors in use
measure manifold pressure directly, but instead measure the
displacement of a diaphragm that is deflected by manifold
pressure.
 The details of the diaphragm displacement and the
measurement of this displacement vary from one
configuration to another.
 Strain Gauge MAP Sensor
 One relatively inexpensive MAP sensor
configuration is the silicon diaphragm
diffused strain gauge sensor shown in
Figure.
 This sensor uses a silicon chip that is
approximately 3 millimeters square.
Along the outer edges, the chip is
approximately 250 micrometers (1
micrometer = 1 millionth of a meter)
thick, but the center area is only 25
micrometers thick and forms a
diaphragm.
 The edge of the chip is sealed to a pyrex
plate under vacuum, thereby forming a
vacuum chamber between the plate and
the center area of the silicon chip.
 A set of sensing resistors is formed around the edge of this
chamber, as indicated in Figure. The resistors are formed by
diffusing a doping impurity into the silicon.
 External connections to these resistors are made through
wires connected to the metal bonding pads. This entire
assembly is placed in a sealed housing that is connected to
the intake manifold by a small-diameter tube.
 Manifold pressure applied to the diaphragm causes it to
deflect.
 The resistance of the sensing resistors changes in proportion
to the applied manifold pressure by a phenomenon that is
known as piezoresistivity.
 Piezoresistivity occurs in certain semiconductors so that the
actual resistivity (a property of the material) changes in
proportion to the strain (fractional change in length).
 The strain induced in each resistor is
proportional to the diaphragm
deflection, which, in turn, is
proportional to the pressure on the
outside surface of the diaphragm. This
pressure is the manifold pressure.
 An electrical signal that is proportional
to the manifold pressure is obtained by
connecting the resistors in a circuit
called a Wheatstone bridge, as shown
in the schematic of Figure a.
 The voltage regulator holds a constant
dc voltage across the bridge.
  The resistors diffused into the diaphragm are denoted R1, R2,
R3, and R4 in Figure a.
 When there is no strain on the diaphragm, all four
resistances are equal, the bridge is balanced, and the voltage
between points A and B is zero. When manifold pressure
changes, it causes these resistances to change in such a way
that R1 and R3 increase by an amount that is proportional
to pressure; at the same time, R2 and R4 decrease by an
identical amount.
 This unbalances the bridge and a net difference voltage is
present between points A and B. The differential amplifier
generates an output voltage proportional to the difference
between the two input voltages (which is, in turn,
proportional to the pressure), as shown in Figure b.

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  Variable-Capacitance type MAP Sensor
 Figure below gives an indication of the principle of operation
of the variable capacitance type of MAP sensor.
 Capacitance C = eo A/d, where eo = permittivity in a vacuum,
A = area of the metallized plates and d = the distance between
the plates.
 The metallized plates of the capacitor are placed on each side
of an evacuated capsule.
 This capsule is placed in a chamber which is connected to
manifold pressure and, as the manifold pressure changes, the
distance d between the capacitor plates changes.
 This change in distance between the capacitor plates causes
the value of the capacitance C to change. The capacitor is
connected into an electronic circuit that converts changes in
capacitance into an electrical signal.
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 Variable-Inductance type MAP Sensor:
 The variable-inductance type of MAP sensor relies on the principle
that the inductance of a coil is altered by varying the position of an
iron cylinder placed in the center of the coil. Figure illustrates the
principle involved.
 In this simplified version, the
iron cylinder moves in or out of
the coil under the influence of
the diaphragm
and spring.
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  Variations in manifold absolute pressure increase or decrease
the ‘suction’ force acting on the diaphragm and the resultant
changes in inductance are related to the manifold absolute
pressure.
 The coil (inductance) forms part of an electronic circuit and
this circuit is designed so that the changes in frequency of
the square-wave output are accurate representations of
manifold absolute pressure. Figure shows the approximate
form of the variable frequency output of sensors of this type.

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  Knock Sensor:
 A knock sensor that is commonly used in engine control systems
utilizes the piezoelectric generator effect, i.e. the sensing element
produces a small electric charge when it is compressed and then
relaxed.
 Materials such as quartz and some ceramics like PZT (a mixture
of platinum, zirconium and titanium) are effective in piezoelectric
applications.
 In the application shown, the knock sensor is located on the
engine block adjacent to cylinder number 3 (Fig. 5.10). This is the
best position to detect vibrations arising from combustion knock
in any of the four cylinders.
 Because combustion knock is most likely to occur close to TDC
in any cylinder, the control program held in the ECM memory
enables the processor to use any knock signal generated to alter
the ignition timing by an amount that is sufficient to eliminate the
knock.

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  When knock has ceased the ECM
will advance the ignition, in steps,
back to its normal setting. The
mechanism by which vibrations
arising from knock are converted
to electricity is illustrated in Fig.
5.11.
 The sensor is accurately designed
and the center bolt that pre-
tensions the piezoelectric crystal
is accurately torqued. The steel
washer that makes up the seismic
mass has very precise dimensions.
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  When combustion knock occurs, the resulting mechanical
vibrations are transmitted by the seismic mass, to the
piezoelectric crystal. The ‘squeezing up’ and relaxing of the
crystal in response to this action, produces a small
electrical signal that oscillates at the same frequency as the
knock sensor element.
 The electrical signal is
conducted away from the
crystal by wires that are
secured to suitable points
on the crystal.

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  The tuning of the sensor is critical because it must be
able to distinguish between knock from combustion and
other knocks that may arise from the engine mechanism.
This is achieved because combustion knock produces
vibrations that fall within a known range of frequencies.

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  Lambda Sensor (Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor)
 In order for the exhaust emissions catalyst to operate
correctly, the air–fuel ratio must be kept close to 15:1 (by
mass), and it is the exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor that
assists the ECM to keep the air–fuel ratio within the required
limits.
 The EGO sensor constantly monitors the oxygen content of
the exhaust gas, and hence the air–fuel ratio at the engine
intake, since the percentage of oxygen in the exhaust gas is
an accurate measure of the air–fuel ratio of the mixture
entering the engine cylinders.
 Figure 5.26 shows the relation between the oxygen content
of the exhaust gas and the air–fuel ratio of the mixture
entering the combustion chambers of the engine.

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  The information (voltage) from the EGO
sensor is fed back to the ECM so that the
amount of fuel injected into the engine
may be changed to ensure that the air–
fuel ratio is kept within the required
limits.
 It is common practice to refer to the air–
fuel ratio that gives chemically correct
combustion as lambda = 1.
 If the mixture is rich, lambda is less than
1 (probably lambda = 0.97), and if the
mixture is weak, lambda is greater than
1 (probably lambda = 1.03). For this
reason, the exhaust gas oxygen sensor is
often referred to as a lambda sensor.

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  THE VOLTAIC-TYPE EGO SENSOR
 The voltaic, or zirconia (ZrO2), type oxygen sensor operates
on the basis of a difference between the oxygen partial
pressure of atmospheric air and the partial pressure of
oxygen in the exhaust gas.
 At sea level, atmospheric air contains approximately 21%
oxygen by weight, and this gives the oxygen a partial
pressure of approximately 0.2 bar.
 The oxygen content of exhaust gas varies from zero in a rich
mixture, to about 10% in a weak mixture, as shown in
Fig.5.26.
 The partial pressure of the oxygen in the exhaust gas
therefore ranges from near zero to approximately 0.01 bar.
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 Figure 5.27 shows that the sensor element is essentially
a cell (battery). The plates are made from platinum and
they have a layer of ceramic zirconia between them
which acts as an electrolyte.
 The platinum plates act as catalysts for the oxygen
which makes contact with them, and they are also used
to conduct electricity away from the sensor.
  The catalyzing action that takes place when oxygen contacts
the platinum plates causes the transport of oxygen ions
through the electrolyte and this creates the electric current
that gives rise to the e.m.f. (voltage) of the sensor.
 This sensor voltage is an accurate representation of the
oxygen content of the exhaust gas.
 In practice the sensing element is formed into a thimble
shape as shown in Fig. 5.28.
 This type of construction exposes the maximum area of
platinum to the exhaust gas on one side and to the
atmospheric air on the other side. The platinum that is
exposed to the exhaust gas is covered with a porous ceramic
material.
 This allows the oxygen through to the platinum but protects
the platinum against harmful contaminants in the exhaust
products.
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  The greater the difference in oxygen levels
between the atmospheric air and the exhaust
gas, the greater is the voltage produced by
the EGO sensor.
 When the air–fuel ratio changes from slightly
rich, say 14:1 lambda = 0.93 to slightly
weak, 16:1 lambda = 1.06, there is a marked
change in the oxygen partial pressure of the
exhaust gas and this leads to a step change in
the EGO sensor voltage because the ceramic
electrolyte (zirconia) is very sensitive to
oxygen levels, as shown in Fig. 5.29.
 This sudden change in sensor voltage is used
to trigger an action by the ECM, that will
alter the fuelling, to maintain lambda=1
(chemically correct air–fuel ratio).

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  The result of this action is that the EGO sensor output cycles
up and down, at a frequency that ensures that the engine runs
smoothly and the exhaust catalyst is kept functioning
correctly.
 The actual frequency is determined by the program that the
designer places in the ROM of the ECM. All of this means
that a voltaic-type EGO produces a standard type of output
that can be measured by means of equipment that is readily
available to vehicle repairers
 The approximate shape of the voltage waveform from the
EGO sensor when in operation is shown in Fig. 5.30. This
waveform arises from the way that the ECM alters the
amount of fuel injected, i.e. lowering and raising the amount
of fuel injected, in an ordered way, so as to keep the air–fuel
ratio within the required limits.

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  The action of the oxygen sensor is dependent
on its temperature. The sensor needs to reach
a temperature of around 250oC before it
starts to function at its best.
 In order to assist the sensor to reach this
temperature as quickly as possible, from a
cold start, it is common practice to equip the
sensor with a resistive-type heating element as
shown in Fig. 5.31.
 This means that most oxygen sensors will be
equipped with four wires: a signal wire and an
earth for the sensor element, and a feed wire
and an earth for the heating element.
 This type of sensor is known as a heated
exhaust gas oxygen sensor (HEGO)

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  ON-BOARD MONITORING OF THE CATALYTIC
CONVERTER
 The USA OBDII and impending European legislation requires
that vehicle emissions systems are equipped with the facilities
to illuminate a warning lamp (malfunction indicator lamp or
MIL) should the catalytic converter cease to function correctly.
In order to meet this requirement it is current practice to fit a
second oxygen sensor downstream of the catalyst, as shown in
Fig. 5.34.

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  In Fig. 5.34, A represents the upstream oxygen which is
on the engine side of the catalyst.
 It is this sensor that provides the feedback signal that the
ECM uses to control the air–fuel ratio within the
required limits.
 The second sensor at B sends a signal to the ECM that is
used to determine the efficiency of the catalyst. The
voltage amplitude of this second sensor signal is the key
to assessing the catalyst efficiency.
 As the catalyst ages, or is damaged by incorrect fuel
etc., the voltage amplitude of this second sensor
increases.
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  Load Cell
 A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an
electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured.
 The various types of load cells include hydraulic load
cells, pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells.

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  The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as a
change in electrical resistance, which is a measure of the
strain and hence the applied forces.

Where,
R : Initial resistance of the strain gauge
ΔR : Resistance change caused by elongation or
contraction
K : Proportional constant (called the “gauge factor”)
(ΔR/R/ΔL/L)
ε : Strain

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  The working principle is based on the strain/resistance
relationship of electrical conductors.
 Any electrical conductor changes its resistance with
mechanical stress, e.g. through tension or compression
forces. The resistance change is partially due to the
conductor's deformation and partially due to the change
in the resistivity of the conductor material as a result of
microstructural changes.
 Operating Principle:
Welded Sensor utilizes bonded strain gages
connected in Wheatstone bridge circuit. The output is
derived from imbalance in the bridge circuit as load is
sensed by sensor.

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  Wheatstone Bridge:
 Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit suitable for
detection of minute resistance changes, therefore used
to measure resistance changes of a strain gage
 The bridge is configured by combining four resistors
as shown in Fig.
 Initially R1=R2=R3=R4, in this condition no output
voltage is there, e=0
 When one of the Resistances is replaced by strain
Gauge attached to the object whose strain is to be
measured and load is applied, then there is small
change in the resistance of gauge, hence some output
voltage is there which can be related to strain as

 From this, strain can be easily determined using the relation

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  Yaw Rate Sensor:
 The drive portion looks and acts exactly like a simple
tuning fork. Because the drive tines are constructed of
crystalline quartz, it is possible to electronically “ring”
this tuning fork.
 Each fork tine has a mass and an instantaneous radial
velocity which changes sinusoidally as the tine moves
back and forth.
 As long as the fork’s base is stationary the momenta of
the two tines exactly cancel one another and there is no
energy transfer from the tines to the base. In fact, it
takes only ~6µW of power to keep the fork ringing.
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  As soon as the tuning fork is
rotated around its axis of
symmetry, however, the Coriolis
principle exerts a profound
influence on the behavior of this
mechanism.
 By convention, (the “right-hand
rule”), the rotational vector, ωi,
is described by an arrow that is
aligned with the axis of rotation.
 The instantaneous radial velocity
of each of the tines will, through
the Coriolis effect, generate a
vector cross product with this
rotation vector.

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  The net effect is that each tine will generate a force
perpendicular to the instantaneous radial velocity of each of
the tines:
F = 2mωi * Vr
where:
– m = tine mass
– ωi = rotation rate
– Vr = radial velocity
 Note that this force is directly proportional to the rotation
rate, and since the radial velocity of the tines is sinusoidal,
the force on each tine is also sinusoidal.
 Because the radial velocities of the two tines are equal and
opposite, the Coriolis forces are equal and opposite,
producing an oscillating torque at the base of the drive tine
fork which is proportional to the input angular rate.
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  Actuators:
 Actuators are the devices, such as fuel injectors, ignition
coils, ABS modulators etc., that are operated by outputs
from the ECM.
 Actuators normally rely on one of two electrical devices for
their operation; they are either operated by a solenoid or by
an electric motor.
 Solenoid-operated actuators are normally controlled in one
of two ways. One is the duty cycle method, where the
solenoid is switched on for a percentage of the time
available, e.g. 20 or 80%.
 This means that pulses of varying width can be used to
provide the desired result. The other method of solenoid
control is known as pulse width modulation (PWM). Here
the solenoid current is switched on and off at frequencies
that change to suit operating requirements.
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  Electric motors that are used in actuators may be stepper
motors, or reversible permanent magnet d.c. motors.
 A stepper motor can be made to provide small movements of
valves by pulsing the current supply.
 Some stepper motors rotate 7.5° per step, which means that a
full rotation of the motor shaft takes 48 steps. A common
form of stepper motor uses two sets of windings.
 Current in one set of windings drives the motor shaft
forward and when this is switched off and current is applied
to the other set of windings, the motor shaft rotates in the
reverse direction.
 This means that accurate control over the position of a valve
can be achieved because the control computer determines
the valve position by counting the number of pulses applied
to the stepper motor windings.
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  A fuel injector is (in essence) a solenoid-
operated valve. The valve opens or closes to
permit or block fuel flow to the engine. The
valve is attached to the movable element of
the solenoid and is switched by the solenoid
activation.
Figure A
 In a fuel injector with no current flowing, the
solenoid movable element is held down against
the stop, covering the aperture or nozzle.
 Fuel is thereby blocked from flowing from the
pressurized fuel chamber into the aperture.
When current flows through the solenoid
coil, the
movable element is switched upward, the
aperture is exposed, and fuel (under pressure)
sprays through this aperture.
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  The fuel flow rate through the
nozzle is constant for a given
regulated fuel pressure and
nozzle geometry; therefore, the
quantity of fuel injected into
the air stream is proportional
to the time the valve is open.
 The control current that
operates the fuel injector is
Figure B
pulsed on and off to deliver
precise quantities of fuel.

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  Fuel Injector Signal
 Consider an idealized fuel injector
as shown in Figure B, in which the
injector is open when the applied
voltage is on and is closed when the
applied voltage is off.
 In this idealization, the control
voltage operating the fuel injector is
a binary pulse train (i.e., either on
or off ).
 For a pulse train signal, the ratio of
on time t to the period of the pulse T
(on time + off time) is called the
duty cycle.
Figure C
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  This is shown in Figure C. The fuel injector is energized
for time t to allow fuel to spray from the nozzle into the
air stream going to the intake manifold. The injector is
de-energized for the remainder of the period.
 Therefore, a low duty cycle, as seen in Figure C-a, is
used for a high air/fuel ratio (lean mixture), and a high
duty cycle (Figure C-b) is used for a low air/ fuel ratio
(rich mixture).

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  EGR Valve Actuator:
 The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is utilized to reduce NOx
emissions. The amount of EGR is regulated by the engine
controller.
 When the correct amount of EGR has been determined by the
controller based on measurements from the various engine control
sensors, the controller sends an electrical signal to the EGR
actuator.
 Typically, this actuator is a variable-position valve that regulates
the EGR as a function of intake manifold pressure and exhaust
gas pressure. Although there are many EGR configurations, only
one representative example will be discussed to explain the basic
operation of this type of actuator.
 The example EGR actuator is shown schematically in Figure.
This actuator is a vacuum-operated diaphragm valve with a spring
that holds the valve closed if no vacuum is applied.

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 )

 The vacuum that operates the diaphragm is supplied by the intake

manifold and is controlled by a solenoid-operated valve. This
solenoid valve is controlled by the output of the control system.
 This solenoid operates essentially the same as that explained in the
discussion on fuel injectors. Whenever the solenoid is energized
(i.e., by current supplied by the control system flowing through the
coil), the EGR valve is opened by the applied vacuum.

316482 Automotive Electrical & Electronics A J Bhosale

  The amount of valve opening is determined by the
average pressure on the vacuum side of the diaphragm.
 This pressure is regulated by pulsing the solenoid with a
variable-duty-cycle electrical control current.
 The duty cycle of this pulsing current controls the
average pressure in the chamber that affects the
diaphragm deflection, thereby regulating the amount of
EGR.

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  Petrol engine idle speed control
 Idle speed control is an important element of the control
strategy for any engine management system. The control
strategy for engine idling must take account of factors such
as engine coolant temperature, engine load, power assisted
steering, alternator load, etc.
 Many systems are fitted with an idle speed control valve that
provides a supply of air that by-passes the throttle valve,
whilst other systems may make use of the electronic throttle
control.
 Two types of valve are used to provide a computer
controlled idle air supply. One makes use of a stepper
motor, as shown in Fig. 6.12, and the other uses a solenoid
operated valve as shown in Fig. 6.15.
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  STEPPER MOTOR-OPERATED VALVE
 Figure 6.12 shows a simplified arrangement of the extra air
(air by-pass) valve that is built into the throttle body of some
petrol injection systems.
 The ECU pulses the transistor bases, in the correct sequence,
so that the stepper motor moves the air valve to provide the
correct air supply, for any given condition.
 In addition, other sensor signals will enable the ECU to
provide the correct amount of fuel to ensure that the engine
continues to run smoothly. Figure 6.13 shows the stepper
motor with the air valve attached.
 The multiple pin connection is typical of the type of
connection that is used to electrically connect the stepper
motor to the ECU. The stepper motor can normally be
checked by operating it with the diagnostic tool connected to
the serial communication port of the ECM.
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  An oscilloscope can also be used to check the pulses
that are sent to the motor from the ECM. Figure 6.14
gives an impression of the type of result that is to be
expected from the PMS 100 oscilloscope when used to
test a stepper motor.

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  SOLENOID-OPERATED VALVE
 This type of valve regulates the amount of air that by-passes the
throttle valve through the medium of a solenoid-operated valve
of the type shown in Fig. 6.15.
 In the rest position shown, the valve (4) is closed by the spring
(5) and the armature of the solenoid (2) is pushed back inside the
solenoid coil (3). When operating, the energized solenoid opens
the valve (4) and admits air to the induction system. The quantity
of air admitted is controlled by duty cycle pulses that are sent
from the ECM.

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