Computer Graphics and Visualization

Chapter 1
Introduction and application

Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal
 Introduction and application [4 hours]
CONTENTS

History of computer graphics

• Overview of Graphic Systems

• Video Display Devices: Raster‐Scan Displays, Random-Scan Displays, Flat Panel Displays, 3D viewing
Devices
• Graphics Software and tools: Coordinate Representations, Graphics Functions, Software
Standards, PHIGS Workstations, DirectX, OpenGL, WebGL, Maya, Blender, Unity

• Graphics pipeline
• Two‐dimensional viewing pipeline
• Three‐dimensional viewing pipeline

• Applications in various fields like medicine, engineering, art, uses in augmented and
virtual realism.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 2

 Introduction
• Computer Graphics
• Computer Graphics is a field related to the generation of graphics
using computers
• It studies method for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual
content
• Broad sense: "roughly everything on computers which is not text or
sound"
• Computer graphics refer different things in different contexts:
• Images, scenes that are generated by a computer
• Tools used to make such pictures, software and hardware,
input/output devices
• The whole field of study that involves these tools and the pictures
they produce
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 3
• Computer graphics includes the creation, storage, and manipulation of images of
objects
• These objects come from diverse fields such as physical, mathematical,
engineering, architectural, abstract structures and natural phenomenon
• Examples: photographs, drawings, line art, mathematical graphs, line graphs, charts,
diagrams, typography (the art of arranging letters and text in a way that makes visually
appealing to the reader.), numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering
drawings, or other images
Main tasks:
• Imaging: Formation of an image
• representation of 2D images
• Modelling: Representing 3D images
• Rendering: Rendering or image synthesis is the process of generating a
photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model by means
of a computer program
• Animation: Stimulating changes over time
• That is the movement on the screen of the display device created by
displaying a sequence of still images
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 4
Computer Graphics is a modern and expansive field in computer science
John Whitney was regarded as a pioneer and one of the early computer
animators throughout the 1940s and 1950s
Verne Hudson and William Fetter, computer graphics researchers at
Boeing, came up with the term in 1960
It is frequently referred to as CG or, more commonly, as computer-
generated imagery (CGI) in the context of movies
Until 1980s computer graphics was a small, specialised field - expensive
hardware, only few easy to use graphics based application program

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 5

 History
• 1950 First Graphics Images were created by Ben Laposky
• 1951 CRT monitors on Main Frame computer were introduced
• 1959 CAD was used to design cars
• 1960 Term “computer graphics” is coined by William A. Fetter at Boeing
• 1961 First video game named “Space War “developed
• 1963 Ivan Sutherland develops Sketchpad, the first Computer-Aided Drafting and
Design (CADD) package
• 1963 First Hidden Line and Hidden surface removal algorithms developed

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 6

 • 1965 DDA algorithm developed by Jack Bresenham
• 1973 The entertainment feature film “Westworld” makes the first use
of 2D animation
• 1981 IEEE Computer Society starts publishing a new journal,
Computer Graphics and Applications
• 1982 Autodesk is founded and AutoCAD was released.
• 1992: Silicon Graphics Inc. (SGI) releases the Open Graphics Library
(OpenGL)
• 1995: Pixar Animation Studios produce Toy Story, the first computer-
animated full-length feature film

NOTE : OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) is a cross-language, cross-platform application programming interface (API) for
rendering 2D and 3D vector graphics. The API is typically used to interact with a graphics processing unit (GPU), to
achieve hardware-accelerated rendering.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 7

 2000s
• GPUs become programmable
• Large leaps in real-time graphics
• Movie industry rules graphics, drives research
• More realistic rendering, faster
• Physical simulation
• Motion capture

Data center GPUs can offer better support for parallel operations, AI, media, media analytics, and 3D rendering
solutions. Example Gaming, Machine learning, High performance computing, Creative production

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 8

 Related Studies

• Connected studies include:

• Image processing
• Computer vision
• Information visualization
• Scientific visualization
• Applied mathematics
• Computational geometry
• Computational topology

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 9

Application

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 10

Computer aided Design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology for the

design of objects, real or virtual
In CAD, graphics is used to design components and systems of mechanical,
electrical, electro-mechanical and electronic devices including structures
such as buildings, automobile bodies, airplane, VLSI chips, optical systems
and telephone and computer networks
These designs are more frequently used to test the structural, electrical,
and thermal properties of the systems

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 11

Digital Art/ Computer Art
Widely used in both fine art and commercial art applications
Fine art is drawn by artist hand and this kind of art is perfect to the artist
skill
Artist use a variety of computer methods including special purpose
hardware, artist's paints brush program, other paint packages, specially
developed software
Illustrator, coral draw, Photoshop, adobe muse and other different types of
applications for creating new designs
The impact of digital technology has transformed traditional activities such
as painting, drawing and sculpture, while new forms, such as net art, digital
installation art, and virtual reality, have been recognized artistic practices

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 12

Entertainment and Gaming
• Computer graphics methods are new commonly used in making
motion pictures, music videos and TV shows
• Images are drawn in wire-frame form and will be shaded with
rendering methods to produce solid surfaces
• Music videos use graphics in several ways

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 13

Education and Training
• Computer graphics is used in education and training for making it more
effective and more illustrative
• Computer generated models of physical, financial, and economic systems are
often used as educational aids
• Training with computer-generated models of specialized systems such as the
training of ship captains and aircraft pilots
• A student can learn surgery using data gloves and realistic computer graphics

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 14

Presentation Graphics

• It is used to produce illustrations for reports or to generate 35-mm slides

for use with projectors
• Examples of presentation graphics are bar charts, line graphs, surface
graphs, pie charts and displays showing relationships between parameters
• 3-D graphics can provide more attraction to the presentation

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 15

Image Processing

Image processing is to apply techniques to modify or interpret existing

pictures. It is widely used in medical applications

Image can be created using simple point program or can be fed into computer
by scanning the image

These picture/ images need to be changed to improve the quality

 image/pattern recognition systems, images need to be changed in specified

format so that the system can recognize the meaning of the picture

Currently computer graphics is widely used for image processing

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 16

Lenna: This image does contain a wide range of spatial frequencies as well as intensity
range, making it useful to "torture test" sensors and image processing algorithms.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 17

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

• GUIs have become key factors for the success of the software or operating system
• GUI provides point-and-click facilities to allow users to select menu items, icons,
and objects on the screen
• Word processing, spreadsheet, and desktop-publishing programs are typical
applications that take advantage of user interface technique

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 18

Visualization

• The numerical and scientific data are converted to a visual form for analysis and to
study the behaviour called visualization
• Converting data to visual form can help to understand mass volume of data very
efficiently
• Producing graphical representation for scientific data sets are called scientific
visualization
• Business visualization is used to represent the data sets related to commerce and
industry
• The visualization can be either 2D or 3D
• The weather department also uses visualization to obtain weather information. So
that the information about the data of a field can be studied properly.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 19

Cartography

• Cartography is the study and practice of designing maps using computer graphics
• Computer graphics is used to produce both accurate and schematic
representations of geographical and other natural phenomena from measurement
data
• Examples include geographic maps, exploration maps, for drilling and mining,
oceanographic charts, weather maps etc.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 20

Simulation

• A representation of a problem, situation, etc. in mathematical terms, using a computer is

called simulation
• Simulation is the imitation of the conditions like those, which is encountered in real life
• Simulation thus helps to learn or to feel the conditions one might have to face in near
future without being in danger at the beginning of the course
• Recently computer graphics is widely used to create simulated environment
• E.g. Robot Operation Simulation, Pilot Training, Military Training etc.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 21

Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR):
• Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Computer graphics
has enabled the development of VR and AR applications that extend
beyond gaming. In the realm of education, VR can transport students
to historical events or allow them to explore the human body in 3D. In
the field of engineering, AR glasses can overlay critical information on
physical machinery, making maintenance tasks more efficient and
reducing errors.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 22

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 23
 Application in Medical Field
Virtual and Augmented Reality in Medical Imaging

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 24

VR and AR are digital technologies that allow automation and can be
used in fields where repetitive tasks need to be performed and often
perfected .

A common example for the use of VR and AR in the medical field is

medical education and training, especially in surgery. For example,
using VR or AR in surgical procedure training allows the trainee to
perform steps on a virtual patient or having patient information
superimposed with reality.

There is some evidence that VR could be a useful tool in improving

surgical skills and reducing surgical procedure errors . Neurosurgery,
representing a traditionally complex surgical area, has been positively
affected by the development of virtual techniques.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 25

Image processing and AI in medical field
Medical imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) play a pivotal role in
providing clinicians with detailed and comprehensive visual information about the
human body.
These imaging modalities generate vast amounts of data that require efficient
analysis and interpretation, and this is where AI steps in.
AI, particularly deep learning algorithms, has demonstrated remarkable capabilities
in extracting valuable insights from medical images . Machine Learning, Deep
learning models, trained on large datasets, are capable of recognizing complex
patterns and features that may not be readily discernible to the human eye .
 These algorithms can even provide a new perspective about what image features
should be valued to support decisions . One of the key advantages of AI in medical
imaging is its ability to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of disease diagnosis.
 Through this process, AI can assist healthcare professionals in detecting
abnormalities, identifying specific structures, and predicting disease outcomes

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 26

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 27
By leveraging machine learning algorithms, AI systems can analyze medical
images with speed and precision, aiding in the identification of early-stage
diseases that may be difficult to detect through traditional methods.

This early detection is crucial as it can lead to timely interventions,

potentially saving lives and improving treatment outcomes .

Furthermore, AI has opened up new possibilities in image segmentation and

quantification. By employing sophisticated algorithms, AI can accurately
delineate structures of interest within medical images, such as tumors, blood
vessels, or cells.

This segmentation capability is invaluable in treatment planning, as it enables

clinicians to precisely target areas for intervention, optimize surgical
procedures, and deliver targeted therapies

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 28

 Computer vision
Computer vision is a scientific field which deals with how computers can be made as high
level devices which understand digital images and videos. In terms of engineering, it is an
automate task that the human visual system can do.
 Computer vision has methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing and understanding the
digital image. The most important task is to extract high dimensional data from the real
world which can produce numerical or symbolic information.
As a scientific discipline, computer vision is related to the theory of artificial system which
can extract information from images. The image data is used in the form of video
sequences which can be seen by a human.

Applications of Computer vision is as follows:

Robotics
Medicine
Security
Transportation (E.g.. Traffic Flow Analysis, License plate recognition, Vehicle
Classification, Driver Monitoring)
Industrial Automation
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 29
 Types of computer Graphics
• Computer graphics types:
• Interactive Computer Graphics
• Non-interactive Computer Graphics

Interactive Computer Graphics

Involves two way communication between computer and user.
User has full control over the content
In the Interactive Graphics, data / information shown in the display unit can be
interact by one or more input device
I/O Device request to system/ computer then O/P as a graphical content
Example: Simulator, User Interface, ping pong game etc.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 30

Non-interactive Computer Graphics

Involves one-way communication between user and computer /system

User has control over some parts of the contents and totally controlled by
program
Basically, user can see the produced image and cannot make any changes

Also called passive computer graphics

Example: Videos, Images etc.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 31

 Hardware and Software for CG

Hardware are the physical elements of the computer

Hardware can be classified as
• Input Devices
• Output Devices
Input Devices are
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light Pen
• Scanner
• Optical Character Reader
• Bar Code Reader

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 32

Output Devices are
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Flat Panel Display
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 33

 CG Terminologies
Pixel
• It is the fundamental building block of any image of graphics
• Also called picture elements
• It is the addressable smallest screen element
• Each pixel has its own intensity, name and address by which it can be
identified among several pixels
• For many very high-resolution displays, they become essentially invisible
• At a given time, each pixel can show only one colour
• Scan line: A row of pixel

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 34

• Bitmap
• It is a ones and zeros representation of the rectangular array of points on the
screen
• Each point is called a pixel
• In their simplest form, bitmaps have only two colors, with each pixel being
either black or white
• Single pixel-single bit-2 colors

• Pixel Map
• An image of more than two colors
• Single pixel-multiple bits- (2n) multiple colors

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 35

CG Terminologies

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 36

Resolution
• It is defined as the total number of pixel in our display screen
Resolution= No. of pixel in X-direction * No. of pixel in Y-direction
• 800*600 means
• Resolution =480000 pixels

Aspect Ratio
• It is defined as the ratio of total number of pixel in X-direction to the
total number of pixel in Y direction
Aspect Ratio = No. of pixel in X-direction / No. of pixel in Y-direction
Example
800*600 means, Resolution = 480000 pixels
Aspect Ratio= 4:3

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 37

CG Terminologies

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 38

Bit depth/color depth

Bit depth is defined as the number of bits assigned to each pixel in an image
(bpp or bits per pixel)

The number of different colours in an image is depended on the depth of

colour or bits per pixel

For eg. 1 bit per pixel represents, 21 = 2 colours for each pixel, similarly 1
byte i.e. 8 bits represents 28 = 256 colours for each pixel

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 39

Frame Buffer/Refresh buffer

It is the memory location where the intensity values of all pixels are
internally stored
It contains an internal representation of an image
The screen is redrawn many times per second, so that almost
immediately after the intensity values are changed in the frame
buffer, the intensity of the pixels on the screen will be changed to
match, and the displayed image will change
Memory in Mb is given by
x-resolution*y-resolution*bit per pixel / 8*1024*1024

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 40

A pixel in a frame buffer may be represented by one bit as in
monochromatic system where each pixel on CRT screen is either on ‘1’ or
off ‘0’ having 640 x 480 pixels will thus require (640 x 480 x 24) / 8 = 9kb
of RAM

It may be represented by eight bits resulting 28 = 256 gray levels for
continuous shades of gray on CRT screen

 In colour system each of the three colour red, green and blue is
represented by eight bits producing 224 = 16 million colours

A medium resolution colour display having 640 x 480 pixels will thus
require (640 x 480 x 24) / 8 = 9kb of RAM

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 41

Refresh Rate

• Light emitted by phosphor fades very rapidly, so to keep the drawn picture
glowing constantly; it is required to redraw the picture repeatedly and
quickly directing the electron beam back over the some point

• The no of times/sec the image is redrawn to give a feeling of non-flickering

pictures is called refresh-rate

• If refresh rate decreases, flicker develops

• Refresh rate above which flickering stops and steady it may be called as
critical fusion frequency (CFF)

• Normally 60 to 80 hz
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 42
 Hardware Concepts
• The display devices used in graphics system is video monitor. The most common
video monitor is based on CRT technology
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 43

• Components:
• Electron Gun: composed of heated metal cathode and control grid
• Accelerating Anode
• Focusing System
• Deflection system
• Phosphor Screen

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 44

A CRT is an evacuated glass tube, with a heating element on one end and
phosphor-coated screen on the other end

When current flows through heating filament, the electrons are piled
upon the filament. These electrons are attracted by accelerating systems
on the phosphor coated screen

When electron strikes on the screen, the phosphor emits a small spot of
light at each position contacted by the electron beam

The glowing positions are used to represent the picture in the screen

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 45

The negative voltage applied at cylindrical control grid controls the intensity
of electron beam by repelling electrons
 High negative voltage stops electron passing from the hole of control grid while
small negative voltage decreases electron passage

The amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends on the no. of
electrons striking the screen

The brightness of the display is controlled by varying the voltage on the

control grid

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 46

Phosphorescence

• It is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released slowly in the

form of light.

Persistence

• How long a phosphor continues to emit light after the electron beam is removed?
• Persistence of phosphor is defined as time it takes for emitted light to decay to
1/10 (10%) of its original intensity
• Range of persistence of different phosphors can react many seconds
• The phosphor used for graphics display device usually have persistence of 10 to
60 microsecond
• A phosphor with lower persistence is useful for animation and a higher–
persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex static picture
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 47
Classwork
• There is a system with 24 bits per pixel and resolution of 1024 by
1024. Calculate the size of frame buffer.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 48

Q1. There is a system with 24 bits per pixel and resolution of
1024 by 1024. Calculate the size of frame buffer.

• Solution:
Resolution = 1024 × 1024
Total number of pixel = 1024*1024 = 1048576 pixels
Per pixel storage = 24 bits
Total storage required in frame buffer = 1048576*24 = 25165824 bits
= 25165824/8 byte
= 25165824/(8*1024) kb
= 25165824/(8*1024*1024)Mb
= 3 Mb
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 49
Classwork
• Consider a RGB raster system is to be designed using 8 inch by 10
inch screen with a resolution of 100 pixels per inch in each direction.
If we want to store 8 bits per pixel in the frame buffer, how much
storage do we need for the frame buffer?

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 50

Classwork
• Q2. Consider a RGB raster system is to be designed using 8
inch by 10 inch screen with a resolution of 100 pixels per
inch in each direction. If we want to store 8 bits per pixel
in the frame buffer, how much storage do we need for the
frame buffer?
Solution:
Size of screen = 8 inch × 10 inch
Pixel per inch = 100
Total no. of pixel = (8*100)*(10*100) = 800000 pixels
Per pixel storage = 8 bit
Total storage required in frame buffer = 800000*8 bits = 6400000 bits
= 6400000/8 bytes = 800000 byte

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 51

 Display Technologies
1. Most of the display make use of CRT’s in past
2. Recent Flat Display, due to their low power consumption and
thinner designs

Types of CRT display technology are:

• Raster-Scan Display
• Random-Scan Display

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 52

 Raster/refresh Scan display
This technology based on television technology was developed in early 70s
Raster consists of a pixels organized into rows and columns (grid)

In this display, raster points are used as basic drawing primitive

In raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one
row at a time from top to bottom

As electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on
and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots

Home television and printers are example of system using raster scan
method

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 53

Picture definition is stored in memory called frame buffer or refresh
buffer
Frame buffer holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points
Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the frame buffer and
painted on the screen one row(scan line) at a time

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 54

The number of scan lines per second is called horizontal scan rate

Returning of electron beam from right end to left end after

refreshing each scan line is called horizontal retrace

At the end of each frame, the electron beam returns to the top
left corner to begin next frame called vertical retrace

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 55

 Raster Scan display …
• Interlaced vs. non-interlaced scan (refresh procedure)
• When referring to a computer monitor or another display, interlace or
interlacing is a description of how the picture is created
• In non-interlaced refresh procedure, electron beam sweeps over
entire scan lines in a frame from top to bottom in one pass
• In interlaced scan, each frame is displayed in two passes:
• First pass for odd scan lines and another for even ones
• This allows to see the entire screen displayed in one-half the time
it would have taken
• Interlacing is primarily used with slower refreshing rates. This is an
effective technique for avoiding screen flickering provided
adjacent scan line contains similar information

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 56

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 57
ADVANTAGES:
• Rendering of sharp and clear images with fine details, making it
suitable for applications requiring high-quality graphics
• Realistic images with different shades can be displayed
• Wide range of color available

DISADVANTAGES:
• Resolution is lower than random scan display
• May exhibit pixilation or aliasing effect
• More memory is required as data about the intensities of all pixel has
to be stored

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 58

 Architecture of Raster-Scan System

 It consists of central processing unit, a video controller, a monitor, system memory

and peripheral devices such as mouse and keyboard

 A fixed area of system memory is reserved for frame buffer

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 59
• CPU is the main processing unit of computer systems

• Besides CPU, it consists of a special purpose processor called video

controller or display controller

Video controller
• It controls the operation of the display device
• It has the direct access to the frame buffer for refreshing the screen
• It cycles through the frame buffer, one scan line at a time typically 50 times
per second or higher
• It brings a value of each pixel contained in the frame buffer and uses it to
control the intensity of the CRT electron beam

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 60

• Frame-buffer locations, and the corresponding screen positions, are
referenced in Cartesian coordinates

• The contents of the frame buffer at the specific pixel position(x,y) are
retrieved and used to set the intensity of the CRT beam

• There exists a one to one relationship between the pixel in the frame buffer
and that on the CRT screen

• After cycling through all pixels along the bottom scan line, the video
controller resets the registers to the first pixel position on the top scan line
and the refresh process starts over

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 61

Architecture of a raster-graphics system with a display processor

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 62

Display processor (graphics controller, display coprocessor)

• To free the CPU from the graphics chores

• In addition to system memory, separate display processor memory is also

provided

• Major task is to digitize a picture definition given in a application program

into a set of pixel intensity values to store in frame buffer. This process is
called scan conversion
• For line, pixel position closest to the line path is located and store the
intensity for each position in the frame buffer

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 63

• Display processors are also designed to perform a number of additional
operations

• These functions include generating various line styles (dashed, dotted, or

solid), displaying color areas, and applying transformations to the objects in a
scene.

• Also, display processors are typically designed to interface with interactive

input devices, such as a mouse

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 64

 Random-Scan (Vector) Display
• In a random scan display unit, electron beam directed towards only to
the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn

• Random-scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this
reason are also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or
calligraphic displays)

• Random scan system uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to
create a line image on the CRT

• The component line can be drawn or refreshed by a random scan display

system in any specified order

• Pen plotter is a random scanPrepared

hardBy: copy device
Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 65
The number of lines regulates refresh rate on random-scan displays

An area of memory called refresh display files stores picture definition as a set of
line drawing commands

Refresh display files also called display list,

Prepared By: Asst. display
Prof. Sanjivan Satyal program or refresh buffer66
The system returns back to first-line command in the list, after all the
drawing commands have been processed

Random scan displays are designed to draw all the components line of a
picture 30 to 60 times each second

High-quality vector systems can handle around 100,000 short lines at this
refresh rate

Higher resolution than raster system as the picture definition is stored as

the set of line drawing instructions and not a set of intensity values

Vector displays produce smooth line drawings because the CRT beam
directly follows the line path

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 67

Advantages:
• It can produce a smooth output primitives with higher resolution unlike
the raster display technology
• It is better than raster display for real time dynamics such as animation
• For transformation, only the end points has to be moved to the new
position in vector display
• But in raster display it is necessary to move those end points and at the
same time all the pixels between the end points must be scan
converted using appropriate algorithm
• No prior information on pixels can be reused

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 68

Disadvantages:

• A vector display can not fill areas with patterns and manipulate bits
• Time required for refreshing an image depends upon its complexity
(more the lines, longer the time) the flicker may therefore appear as
the complexity of the image increases

• The fastest vector display can draw about 100000 short vectors in a
refresh cycle without flickering

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 69

Architecture of Random-Scan System

FIG : Architecture of Vector Display System

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 70
 Architecture of Random-Scan System
It consists of a CPU, a display processor , a monitor, system memory and
peripheral devices such as mouse and key board

The display processor is also called as display processing unit or graphics

controller

The application program and graphics package both reside in the system
memory and execute on CPU

Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics

package into a display file/ display list stored in the system memory

This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the
screen

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 71

The display processor cycles through each command in the display
file program once during every refresh cycle

Display processor helps to converts the digital coordinate values to

analog voltages for circuits that displace an electron beam hitting on
the CRT’s phosphor coating

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 72

 Raster and Vector Graphics
• Raster Graphics

• A raster image is made up of pixels, each a different colour, arranged to display an

image
• Raster image pixels do not keep on their appearance as size increases- when you
zoom in a photograph, it becomes blurry for this reason
• The most common raster file types include JPG, GIF, PNG, TIF, BMP, and PSD

• Vector Graphics

• A vector image is made up of paths, each with a mathematical formula (vector), that
tells the path how it is shaped and what colour it is bordered with or filled by
• Vector images keep on appearance regardless of size, since the mathematical
formulas dictate how the image is rendered
• The most common vector file types are AI( Adobe Illustrator[logo]), CDR(Corel
DRAW) , and SVG( scalable vector graphic)
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 73
Random (Vector) Scan Display Raster Scan Display
1. The electron beam is directed to only 1. Electron beam is directed from top to
that part of screen where picture is bottom and one row at a time on
required to be drawn, one line at a time whole screen
2. RANDOM scan display has high 2. RASTER scan display has low resolution
resolution as it stores picture definition as picture definition is stored as a
as a set of line commands intensity value
3. Real life images cannot be displayed 3. Real life images can be displayed with
different shades
4. Refresh rate depends on the number 4. Refresh rate is around 60-80 frames
of lines to be displayed i.e. 30 to 60 times per seconds or hertz
per second
5. Smooth line is produced because 5. Zig-Zag line is produced because
directly the line path is followed by plotted values are discrete
electron beam Eg. CRT,TV, Printer
Eg. Pen plotter
6. More expensive 6. Less expensive
7. Vector images are constructed through 7. Raster images are constructed through
lines, curves, and fills. pixels.
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 74
 Color CRT
• Color depends on the light emitted by phosphor
• By combining the emitted light from the different phosphors, a range
of colors can be generated
• Chemical composition of most important CRT TV phosphors
• Red Phosphor Y2O2S:Eu
• Green Phosphor ZnS:Cu,Al,Au
• Blue Phosphor ZnS:Ag
• The two basic techniques for producing color displays with a CRT are:
1.Beam Penetration Method
2.Shadow Mask Method

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 75

 Beam Penetration Method

Used with random-scan monitors

Two layers of phosphor: red and green
The displayed color depends on how far the electron beam
penetrates into the phosphor layers
A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer
 A beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the red layer and
excites the inner green layer
At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light
are emitted to show two additional colors, orange and yellow

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 76

Beam Penetration Method

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 77

The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color at any point, is
controlled by the beam- acceleration voltage.

• Advantage
• Economical way to produce colors
• Limitations:
• Generation of only four colors is possible
• Poor picture quality

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 78

 Shadow Mask Method
Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems
(including color TV)

They produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration

method

A shadow Mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel location

One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits green light and the last
one emits a blue light

This type of CRT also has three electron guns one for each color dot and a
shadow-mask grid which is pierced with small round holes in a triangular
pattern just behind the phosphor-coated screen
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 79
2 types of arrangements are possible

• In-line method and delta delta method(Triad arrangement)

• Delta- Delta method
• Delta- Delta method is commonly used in color CRT system
• A shadow mask is often used to ensure that the electron beams from the
guns fall on the correct phosphors
• The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the
shadow mask

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 80

Shadow Mask Method

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 81

• When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they
activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small color spot on the screen

• The phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that each electron
beam can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through
the shadow mask

• Color variations in a shadow-mask CRT are obtained by varying the

intensity levels of the three electron beams

• The color of pixel is controlled by light intensity

• Different colors can be obtained by varying the intensity levels

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 82

• A white (or gray) area is the result of activating all three dots with
equal intensity

• A black is produced with zero intensity of all colors

• Yellow=Red+ Green
• Magenta=Red+Blue
• Cyan= Blue +Green

• This produce 8 colors

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 83

• In-line method

3 electron guns and the corresponding red - green-blue color dots on

the screen, are aligned along one scan line rather of in a triangular
pattern
This inline arrangement of electron guns is easier to keep in
alignment and is commonly used in high-resolution color CRT’s
In some low-cost systems, the electron beam can only be set to on or
off, limiting displays to eight colors
 More sophisticated systems can set intermediate intensity levels for
the electron beams, allowing several million different colors to be
generated

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 84

• Color CRTs in graphics systems are designed as RGB monitors

• These monitors use shadow mask method and take the intensity level for
each gun

• A RGB color system with 24 bits of storage per pixel is known as full color
system or true color system

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 85

• Advantages

• Produce realistic images

• Million different colors to be generated
• Shadow scenes are possible

• Limitations
• low resolution
• expensive

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 86

 Flat Panel Displays
• The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compare to CRT.
• Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop computers, an advertisement
board in elevator.

• 1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and LED (Light Emitting Diodes).
• 2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD (Liquid Crystal Device).
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 87
Plasma Panel Display:

Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array of

small lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature. The essential components of the
plasma-panel display are:
Cathode: It consists of fine wires. It delivers negative voltage to gas cells. The
voltage is released along with the negative axis.
Anode: It also consists of line wires. It delivers positive voltage. The voltage is
supplied along positive axis.
Fluorescent cells: It consists of small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is
applied to this liquid (neon gas) it emits light.
Glass Plates: These plates act as capacitors. The voltage will be applied, the cell will
glow continuously.
The gas will slow when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal
and vertical wires. The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts. Plasma
level does not require refreshing. Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.
Each cell of plasma has two states, so cell is said to be stable. Displayable point in
plasma panel is made by the crossing of the horizontal and vertical grid. The
resolution of the plasma panel can be up to 512 * 512 pixels.
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 88
LED (Light Emitting Diode):
In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in the display
and picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer.
Data is read from the refresh buffer and converted to voltage levels that are
applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern in the display.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

Liquid Crystal Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing polarized
light from the surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal
material that transmits the light.
LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is the right
angle to each other between plates liquid is filled. One glass plate consists of rows
of conductors arranged in vertical direction. Another glass plate is consisting of a
row of conductors arranged in horizontal direction. The pixel position is determined
by the intersection of the vertical & horizontal conductor. This position is an active
part of the screen.
Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy
degree Celsius. It is flat and requires very little power to operate.
Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 89
 Three-Dimensional Viewing Devices
• Three-Dimensional Viewing Devices Graphics monitors for the display of three-
dimensional scenes have been device using a technique that reflects a CRT image from a
vibrating, flexible mirror.
• As the varifocal mirror vibrates, it changes focal length. These vibrations are synchronized
with the display of an object on a CRT so that each point on the object is reflected from
the mirror into a spatial position corresponding to the distance of that point from a
specified viewing location.
• This allows us to walk around an object or scene and view it from different sides

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 90

 Graphics Software

Interactive graphics allow users to make change over the

displayed objects
There are two general classifications for graphics
software:
I. General programming packages
II. Special-purpose application packages

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 91

 General programming packages

• C, FORTRAN, Java etc. contain graphics functions that can be used

with high level programming languages

• Open GL (Graphics library)

• A general-purpose graphics package provides users with a variety of functions
for creating and manipulating pictures.
• These graphic functions include tools for generating picture components,
setting color, selecting views, and applying transformations.

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 92

 Special-purpose application packages
• Specifically designed for particular applications

• Maya, CINEMA 4D are particularly used for animations

• Different types of CAD applications are designed for medical and business
purposes

• Painting programs for artist

• These are primarily oriented to non-programmers

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 93

 Software standards

• Benefits of Standardized Graphics Functions

• Independence: Set of specifications independent of any programming
languages
• Ease of Movement: Software can be easily transferred between different
hardware systems
• Versatility: Usable in various implementations and applications
• Consistency: Standardized functions ensure consistent performance across
different systems
• Flexibility: Facilitates the use of graphics software in diverse environments
• Efficiency: Simplifies the development and deployment process by using
common standards

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 94

Graphical Kernel System (GKS)

GKS was the first graphics software standard adopted by the

international standards organization (ISO)

Provides standardized functions for graphical output across different

hardware platforms

It was originally designed as a 2-dimensional graphics package.

GKS supports the grouping of logically related primitives such as; lines,
polygons, character strings

GKS was widely adopted in the 1980s and 1990s for developing graphical
applications in various domains

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 95

Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System (PHIGS):

• It is an extension of GKS
• Increased capabilities in object modeling, color specifications, surface
rendering, and picture manipulations are provided in PHIGS
• PHIGS include all primitives supported by GKS, in addition it also includes
geometric transformations (Scaling, Translation, and Rotation)
• Widely used in the 1980s for interactive 3D graphics applications

PHIGS+
• Enhanced version of PHIGS with additional features and improvements
• 3-d surface shading capabilities are added to the PHIGS

Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal 96

 THANK YOU

97 Prepared By: Asst. Prof. Sanjivan Satyal