3 :Current Electricity 3.

2 Electric Current

 In this chapter we will study about electrical

current, resitance, ohm’s law, electrical power, Q-2 Explain Electric current.
series and parallel connection of resitance and  Suppose, there is a small area held normal to the
bettery, kishorff rule wheston bridge. direction of flow of charges. Both the positive
and the negative charges flow forward and
Learning outcomes backward across the area.
 in this chapter you will learn about  In a given time interval t, let , be the net
 3.1 Introduction amount (i.e. forward minus backward) of positive
charge that flows in the forward direction across
 3.2 Electric Current the area. Similarly, let be the net amount of
 3.3 Electric current in conductors negative charge flowing across the area in a
 3.4 Ohm’s Laws forward direction.
 Thus, net amount of charge flowing across the
 3.5 Drift of Electrons and the origin of area in the forward direction in time interval t
Ressistivity will be
 3.5.1 Mobility q=
 3.6 Limitations of Ohm’s law  This net charge is proportional to t for steady
 3.7 Resistivity of various materials current and So I = is defined to be the Electric
current across given area in forward direction.
 3.8 Temperature dependence of Resistivity  Currents are not always steady. Hence, we define
 3.9 Electrical Energy, power electric current as follows:
 3.10 Combination of Resistors –series and Let be the net charge flowing across the
parallel cross-section of a conductor during time interval
 3.11cells, emf, Internal Resistace [i.e. between time t and (t+ )].
 Then, the current at time t across the cross-
 3.12 Cells in series and in parallel section of the conductor is defined as the value of
 3.13 Kirchhoff’s Rules the ratio of to in the limit of tending to
 3.14 Wheatstone Bridge zero.
Thus, I(t) =

3.1 Introduction
Q-1 Explain in short the charge in motion.  Its SI unit is ampere (A).
 Domestic appliances have electric current in the
 Charges in motion constitute an electric current.
order of amperes. While lightning carries currents
 Such currents occur naturally in many situations.
of the order of tens of thousands of amperes, the
 Lightning is one such phenomenon in which
currents in. our nerves are in microamperes (μA).
charges flow from the cloud to the earth through
the atmosphere, sometimes with disastrous 3.3 Electric Currents in Conductors
results. The flow of charges in lightning is not
steady. Q-3 Explain behaviour of electric charge.
 In our everyday life, we see many devices where  An electric charge experiences force when an
charges flow in a steady manner, like water electric field is applied.
flowing smoothly in a river. A torch and a cell-  If it is free to move, it will move forming electric
driven clock are examples of such devices. current.
  In nature, free charged particles do exist like in  Then take two thin circular discs of a dielectric of
upper strata of atmosphere called the ionosphere. the same radius and put positive charge
 However, in atoms and molecules, the negatively distributed over one disc and similarly at the
charged electrons and positively charged nuclei other disc. Attach these two discs on the two flat
are bound to each other and are thus not free to surfaces of the cylinder. An electric field will be
move.
 Bulk matter is made up of many molecules.
These molecules are so closely packed that
electrons are no longer attached to the individual
nuclei. created and is directed from the positive towards
the negative charge.
 In some materials, electrons will still be bound
i.e. they will not accelerate even if an electric  When an electric field is applied to this cylinder,
field is applied. electrons will be accelerated due to this field
towards +Q.
 In other materials (especially metals), some
electrons are free to move within bulk material.  They will move to neutralize the charges.
 Materials called conductors, develop electric  As long as electrons are moving, electric current
currents in them when an electric field is applied. is formed.
 In case of solid conductors, atoms are tightly  In this situation, current will be there for a very
bound to each other so that current is carried by short time and thereafter no current will be found.
the negatively charged electrons.  Cells or batteries are such mechanisms which
 In other types of conductors like electrolytic supplies fresh charges to ends of cylinder to make
solutions, both positive and negative charges can up for any charges neutralized by electrons
move. moving inside conductor.
 In this case, there will be a steady electric field in
Q-4 Discuss the case of electric current through solid the body of the conductor. This will result in a
conductor in absence of electric field. continuous current rather than current for short
 In solid conductors, the current is carried by the period of time.
negatively charged electrons in background of
fixed positive ions. 3.4 Ohm’s Laws
 When electric field is not present, electrons will Introduction
be moving due to the thermal motion during Q-6 State and Explain Ohm's law.
which they collide with fixed ions.  It was presented by George Simon Ohm in 1828.
 An electron colliding with an ion emerges with  It gives the relation between I, V and R.
the same speed than before the collision.  Statement: "Under fixed physical conditions (i.e.
However, direction of its velocity after collision constant temperature), electric current (l) flowing
is completely random. through conductor is directly proportional to
 At a given time, there is no preferential direction potential difference (V) applied between two ends
for velocities of electrons. of conductor."
 Thus on an average, number of electrons  Thus, constant. This constant is
travelling in any direction will be equal to the
number of electrons travelling in the opposite called the Resistance (R) of a conductor.
direction. .
 So, there will be no net electric current across a  Now, R=
cross section in the absence of an electric field.
 Unit of resitance is (ohm) dimensional formula
Q-5 Discuss the case of electric current through is
a solid conductor in presence of an electric field.  It is circuit symbol of Resitor.
 Consider a conductor in the shape of a cylinder of
radius R. (Refer Fig )
 All metals, some insulators and many electrical Unit mho. orsiemens. .
components obey ohm’s law. Such devices are
 Dimensional formula :
called Ohmic devices.
 Graph of I against V is a straight line for a Q-9Write a note on current density. Obtain
conductor obeying Ohm’s law at constant Ohm’s law in vector from.
temperature. i.e. such relation is linear.  Current per unit area taken normal to the current
is called current density. It is denoted by j.
 Thus,
 Current density is a vector quantity.
 By Ohm’s law V = IR

Q-7 Explain dependence of resistance on

dimensions of conductor and define
conductance.
 It is found (length of conductor ) and
(area of cross section) But V= l

But
J= 6
 Here, is called resistivity of material Write in vector form
 Resitance depend on material of conductor
dimension of conductor and temperature of the
conductor Q-10Explain dependence of the resistance of
Conductance :- a material on its dimensions.
“ the reciprocal of resitance is called  We can determine the dependence of resistance
conductance” (R) on the dimensions of the conductor as follow
Conductance = :
a) Dependence on the length of the conductor:
Unit siemens (SI Unit)
Consider a conductor in the form of a slab of
Q-8 Write a short note on resistivity and
conductivity.
 Resistivity ( ) :Resitance of a conductor having
unit length and unit area of cross-section is called
the Resistivity of conductor. .
 Value of depends on the type of material and
length l and cross sectional area A as shown
temperature.
in the fig. (a)satisfying the relation, ,
 It does not depend on the dimensions of a
conductor. ……….(1)
 Unit of : ohm m (or m)  As shown in the Fig.
 Dimensional formula : (b), we imagine placing
 Conductivity : inverse of resistivity is called two such identical
slabs side by side, so that the length of the
conductivity,
combination is 21.
 The current flowing through the combination is ……(5)
the same as that flowing through either of the Where the constant of proportionality
slabs.
depends on the material of the conductor
 If V is the potential difference across the ends of but not on its dimensions. is called
the first slab, then V is also the potential resistivity.
difference across the ends of the second slab
since the second slab is identical to the first and
the same current I flows through both.
 Thus the potential difference across the ends of 3.5 Drift of Electrons and the origin of Ressistivity
the combination is the sum of the potential
difference across the two individual slabs and
hence it is equal to 2 V. Q-11Obtain the expression for drift velocity.
 The current through the combination is I and the  In a conductor, an electrons performs accelerated
resistance of the combination is, motion in the presence of an electric field.
Since = R, the resistance of either of the slabs,  Acceleration of electron is given as,
from equation (1), we get, where,
= 2R ……..(2) e = Charge on electron
 Thus, doubling the length of a conductor doubles m = Mass of electron
the resistance. E = Electric field intensity
 In general, resistance is proportional to the  During its motion, electron collides with
length, oscillation ions (which is the main cause of
………(3) resistance).
b) Dependence on the area of the conductor:  This collisions do not occur at regular time
 Imagine dividing the slab into two by cutting intervals. The time interval between two
lengthwise so that the slab can be considered and successive collisions is not same.
a combination of two identical slabs of length but  The average time interval between two successive
each having a cross sectional area of This is as collisions of electrons moving in a conductor is
called relaxation time. It is denoted by
shown in the Fig. 3.3 (c).
 For accelerated motion of electron between two
 For a given voltage Vacross the slab, if I is the
successive collisions,
current through the entire slab, then clearly the
………….(1)
current flowing through each of the two half-slab
 Here,
is . Drift velocity,
 The potential difference across the ends of the and
half-slabs is V and is same as across the full slab.
The resistance of each of the half-slab is,
Now, substituting these values in equation (1), we
get,
 Thus, by halving the area of the cross-section of a
conductor the resistance is doubled.
Q-12Obtain relation between resistivity and
 In general, the resistance R is inversely
relaxation time.
Proportional to the cross-sectional area,
……(4)
By combining equations (3) and (4), we have,

and hence for a given conductor,

 When an electric field is applied to a conductor, Hence, resistivity increases.
drift motion of electron occurs and thus, electric  Thus, resistivity increase with increase in
current arises. temperature
 Electric current,
3.5.1 Mobility
 Here, is amount of electric charge passing
Introduction
through conductor. Q-14Explain mobility of charge carriers.
 If the drift velocity of electron in a conductor is  Conductivity in any substance arises due to the
then distance covered in time interval will mobile charge carriers in it.
be . Substance Mobile charge carriers
 If cross-section area of conductor is A, then these Metals Electrons
electrons will occupy volume . Ionised gas Electrons and positively
 Also, number of free electrons per unit volume in charged ions
the conductor (called free electron density) is n, Electrolytes Positive and negative ions
then number of electrons in this volume will be  Mobility is defined as the drift velocity per
n , unit electric field intensity i.e.
 Thus, the amount of electric charge passing
 But,
through conductor will be,
where, e = charge on an electron
 Thus, electric current,
 Its SI unit is or C m
 and dimensional formula is
 But, (current density)  Mobility is positive.
….(1) 3.6 Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Also ….(2)
 Equating equation (1) and (2) equation we get,
….(3)
Also, ….(4) Q-15State the limitations of Ohm’s law.
 Substituting the values of equation in equation we  Limitations of Ohm’s law are as follows:
get, (a) graphs are non-linear especially for
semiconductor devices like diode and
transistor.

But, Resistivity,

The above equation is the required equation of

resistivity. (b) The relation between V and I depends on the
Q-13State the expression for resistivity and by sign of V, it means ifI is the current for a
using it, show how resistivity changes with certain voltage, then on reversing the
temperature. direction of V does not produce a current of
We know that, resistivity the same magnitude. E.g. semiconductor
With an increase in temperature, ions oscillate diode.
faster.
Hence, collisions of electrons also increases.
This reduces the relaxation time ( ).
 electricity (e.g. Ceramic, plastic) are bad
conductors of heat also.

3.8 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

Q-17Explain dependence of resistivity on

(c) Relation between v and I is not unique i.e. V
temperature of metals, alloys and
can have more than one value for a given value semiconductors.
of current I. e.g. Tunnel diode.
a) Temperature dependence of resistivity of
metals:
 The resistivity of metallic conductors increase

with temperature.

 For a limited range of temperature, of metal and

temperature are related by the following

empirical formula:

In terms of resistance
 Materials and devices not obeying Ohm’s law are as follows:
called non-ohmic devices. Such devices are
widely used in electronic circuits. Where, Resistivity at temperatureT
Resistivity at some reference
3.7 Resistivity of Various Materials
temperature
Temperature coefficient of
Q-16Explain classification of materials on the
basis of resistivity. resistivity Unit
OR :
Write a note on the resistivity of conductor -  For metals, is
semiconductors and insulators. positive.
 The materials are classified as conductors, semi  This means
conductors and insulators depending on their resistivity increases
resistivities with an increase in
 An ideal conductor has zero resistivity temperature.
( conductivity).  For good conductors (metals), graph of is
 An ideal insulator has infinite resistivity (zero as shown in Fig.
conductivity).  At lower temperature (up to 50° K), graph is non-
 Metals have low resistivity in the range of to linear.
while insulators like plastic, ceramic,  At near room temperature, graph is linear.
rubber, etc have resistivity almost times or  Also, at still higher temperature, graph again
more than that of metals. becomes non-linear.
 For semiconductors, resistivity lies between (b) Temperature dependence of resistivity of
conductor and insulator Resistivity of alloys:
semiconductor decrease with an increase in
temperature. It is also affected by the presence of  Metallic substances like Nichrome (an alloy of
impurities. nickel and chromium) exhibit a very high
 Usually, good conductors of electricity (e.g. resistivity and its dependence on temperature is
metals) are good conductors of heat (exception : relatively less.
super conductors). While bad conductors of
 Manganin (an alloy of vigorously. This manifests in the form of heat
copper, Manganese, energy in the conductor.
Nicke has resistivity  Heat energy is produced in the conductor when
almost independent of an electric current is passed through it.
temperature)  This is given by
 Resistivity of Nichrome does not become zero  Its unit is joule or J.
even at 0° K while resistivity of pure metal is  Heat produced in a conductor in time interval on
zero at 0° K. This is how purity of metals is passing electric current is given by,
tested.
(c) Temperature dependence of resistivity of semi  The energy dissipated per unit time is called
conductors: power dissipation in a conductor,

 For carbon and semiconductors like Silicon,

Germanium; is But, (Electrical power)
negative. This
mean resistivity
decreases with an
increase in
temperature  This electrical power heats up the conductor and
is dissipated out. Thus, it is called the power loss
or the “ohmic loss” e.g. in an electric bulb, the
Q-18 Explain Joul heating low. filament radiates heat along with the light.
 Suppose, an electric current I flows through a
conductor having end points A and B. 3.9 Electrical Energy, power
 When the current flows from A to B, the electric
potential at point A will be greater than that of Q-19 Explain where does power produced in a
at point B. conductor on passing electric current come
 If electric charge passes in time t through from.
this conductor then,  When an electric current is passed through a
 conductor, electrical power is produced.
 Change in potential energy of electric charge will  To maintain steady current through conductor, an
be, external sources is required.
 It is the source that supplies this power. Usually,
it is a chemical cell. Thus, chemical energy in the
cell supplies this power as long as it can.
But, and  Power is given by
Thus power dissipated depends on the resistance
 According to the law of conservation of energy, R of a conductor, the electric current passing and
Change in kinetic energy, the potential difference across two ends.

 Thus, the kinetic energy increases. Q-20Explain how to reduce power loss during
 For electric charge (electrons) moving in power transmission.
OR
conductor, drift velocity is constant. Thus, kinetic
Why transmission of power is carried out at a
energy of the electrons remains constant.
very high voltage ? Explain.
 Thus, the increase in kinetic energy is gained by
the atoms (oscillating ions). Hence, they oscillate  Electrical power is transmitted from power
station to homes and factories, which may be
 hundreds of miles away, through transmission  When there is no current, the electrolyte has the
cables. same potential throughout, so that the potential
 Electrical power difference between P and Nis - ( )= ( )
 This difference is called the electromotive force
 If the resistance of transmission cables is then
(emf) of the cell and is denoted by
the power loss in cables will be
 Thus, +
 Thus, emf is a potential difference between the
 In order to minimize this power loss voltage V positive and negative electrodes in an open
is to be increased. circuit, i.e., when no current is flowing through
 Thus, to reduce power loss, power is transmitted the cell.
at a very high voltage.  Note that is, actually, a potential difference and
 As high voltage is dangerous, danger signs are not a force.
kept on transmission lines.  The name emf, however, is used because of
 As this high voltage power is not safe for the use historical reasons, and was given at a time when
at homes and factories, it needs to be decreased. the phenomenon was not understood properly.
 To change the voltage, transformers are used.
Q-22 explain terminal voltage and internal
resistance of an electrolytic cell.
3.11 Cells, emf, Internal Resistace  As shown in fig. let us consider a resistor R
connected across the cell.
 A current I flows across R from C to D.
Q-21 what is an electrolytic cell ? Explain its  A steady current is maintained because current
construction and define emt. flows from N to P through the electrolyte.
 Clearly, across the electrolyte the same current
 Definition of Electrolytic Cell: Electrolytic cell
flows through the electrolyte but from N to P,
is a simple device to maintain a steady current in
whereas through R, it flows from P to N.
an electric circuit.
 The electrolyte through which a current flows has
 Construction and Working : As shown in Fig.
a finite resistance r, called the internal resistance.
3.18, a cell has two
 Consider first the situation when R is infinite so
electrodes, called the
that I,
positive electrode (P)
and the negative 
electrode (N). They  where V is the potential difference between P and
are immersed in an N.
electrolytic solution.
Now, V = Potential difference between P and A
 In an electrolytic cell, when electrodes are dipped
in an electrolytic solution, the electrodes + Potential difference between A and B
exchange charges with the electrolyte. + Potential difference between B and N
 The positive electrode has a potential difference =
between itself and the electrolyte  Thus, emf is the potential difference between the
solution immediately adjacent to it which is positive and negative electrodes in an open
marked as A in Fig. circuit, i.e. when no current is flowing through
 Similarly, the negative electrode develops a the cell.
negative potential- ( ) relative to the  If however R is finite, I is not zero.
electrolyte adjacent to it, which is marked as B in  In that case the potential difference between P
Fig. and Nis -
(where, Vis the terminal voltage of the
cell.)
 Thus, the terminal voltage (V) of the cell is the from negative electrode, emf is to be taken as
potential difference between the positive and negative.
negative electrodes in a closed circuit, i.e., when
Q-24 Explain Parallel connection of cells.
current is flowing through the cell.
 As shown in fig. two cells having emf and and
 The actual values of the internal resistances of
having internal resistance and are connected
cells vary from cell to cell.
in parallel across two points AandC.
 The maximum current that can be drawn from a
cell is for R = 0 and it is
 However, in most cells the maximum allowed
current is much lower than this to prevent
permanent damage to the cell.

3.12 Cells in Series and in Parallel

 If electric currents emerging from positive

electrode of is and that from is then at
Q-23Explain series connection of cells. the junction 1,
 As shown in fig two cells having emf and ……..(1)
and internal resistances and respectively are  As cells are in parallel connection, potential
connected in series. difference will be the same,
 Thus, for cell

and……..(2)
For cell
 Potential difference across cell will be
……..(3)
and that across cell will be
 Substituting equation (2) and equation (3) in
 Thus, effective potential difference across ends A equation (1),
and C of the combination will be,

…..(1)
 On replacing combination with a single cell of
emf and internal resistance between A and
C,we have  Hence, V is given by,
……(2)
 Comparing equations (1) and (2), we have, ….(4)

 If we replace the given combination by a single
 On connecting negative electrode of with
cell having emf and internal resistance then,
negative electrode of , the equivalent emf will
….(5)
be,
 Comparing equation (4) and equation (5), we

have
 Thus, in the combination, if current leaves from
and ….(6)
positive electrode, emf of cell is to be taken as
positive and when electric current leaves the cell ….(7)
 This can be written as,  The resistors are selected in such a way that for a
particular combination, galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
 Thus, for n cells in parallel,  In this condition, potential at points B and D are
same and hence, no current flows through the
galvanometer.
 When electric current passing through
And
galvanometer becomes zero, the bridge is said to
 If electric current emerges from the negative be in a balanced condition. (or in equilibrium
electrode of a cell, them emf of that cell should condition or in neutral condition or in null
be taken negative. condition)
Proof:
 Applying Kirchhoff's second law to loop ABDA
in clockwise direction,
3.13 Kirchhoff’s Rules

….(1)
Q-25Write law of Kirchorff.  Applying Kirchhoff's second law to loop BCDB
A. Junction rule.(kirchorff first law) in clockwise direction,
“At any junction the sum of the currents entering
the junction is equal to the sum of currents ….(2)
leaving the junction”.  Dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get,
B. Loop rule.(kirchorffSecond law)
“The algebraic sum of changes in potential
 Let us suppose that an unknown resistance is in
around any closes loop involving resistors and
the fourth arm . Keeping known resistances
cells in the loop is zero”.
and . in the first and the second arm, we go
on varying , till the galvanometer shows a null
3.14 Wheatstone Bridge deflection.
 The bridge is then in the balanced condition and
we can determine the value of the unknown
resistance given by, .
Q-26 Explain Wheatstone bridge.
 In 1843, Charles
wheatstone developed
a network to find the
value of unknown
resistance using
standard known
resistance. This
network is called the
wheatstone bridge.
 As shown in Fig four resistors and
are connected in four arms so as to form a closed
loop.
 A battery of emf E is connected across A and C.
A sensitive galvanometer is connected across B
and D.