Build a summary for Unit 8 & 9

Unit 8
The ideas of denotation, reference, extension, and prototype are examined in this text in
connection to language and the outside world.
It is noted that denotation, which refers to the set of all things to which a predicate may be
applied, is frequently similar to extension (for example, "cat" denotes the set of all cats). It
can, however, also be applied more broadly to explain the meaning of predicates with less
obvious extensions (for example, "redness denotes the property common to all red things").
The text then links reference, extension, and prototype as concepts that explore the
connection between words and things. They highlight how language is used to make
statements about the external world and how these concepts help analyze this relationship.
 Help us understand how language connects to the world around us by examining
how words relate to objects, concepts, and categories.

Unit 9
Core Idea: The meaning of an expression (its "sense") is composed of its inherent properties
("sense properties") and its relationships to other expressions ("sense relations").
Sense Properties of Sentences: These include classifications like:
- Analytic: True by virtue of its meaning alone (e.g., "All bachelors are unmarried").
- Synthetic: Truth depends on how the sentence relates to the world (e.g., "The cat is on
the mat").
- Contradiction: Necessarily false (e.g., "A married bachelor").
The Role of Stereotypes: The term "stereotypes" is introduced to describe how individuals
tend to agree on word meanings even in the absence of exact definitions. Stereotypes are
common traits linked to an idea that enable common understanding even when not all traits
are applicable in every situation.
 The complexity of meaning, suggesting that it's not just about strict definitions but
also about relationships between concepts and shared understanding based on
typical examples.
Give responses to Exercises: 5, 9, 14, 17/ pp. 91-
92
Exercise 5: Distinguish between referent and extension.
Referent Extension
- The actual, specific entity in the real world - The set of all things to which that word or
that a word or phrase points to in a phrase can correctly apply. It's a broader,
particular use. It's context-dependent. more general concept than a referent.

- Example: In the sentence "The cat sat - Example: The extension of "cat" would
on the mat," the referent of "the cat" would be the set of all cats that exist, have
be a specific, individual cat present in the existed, or will exist in the universe.
scene at that moment.

Exercise 9: Describe briefly the extension of car.

- Different Types: Sedans, coupes, SUVs, trucks, convertibles, sports cars, vintage cars,
electric cars, etc.
- Makes and Models: Toyota Camry, Ford Mustang, Honda Civic, BMW X5, etc.
- Specific Instances: Your neighbor's red pickup truck, the taxi you took yesterday, the car in
your favorite movie.

Exercise 14: Briefly describe prototypical examples of the

following entities, along with one or two non-prototypical
examples that could also be referred to by each predicate.
Explain why the non-prototypical examples diverge from the
prototype.

Entity: Bird
- Prototypical Example: A robin or a sparrow. These birds fit the typical image of a bird:
small, with feathers, wings, the ability to fly, a beak, and they build nests.
- Non-prototypical Example 1: A penguin. Penguins are birds, but they don't fly, they swim,
and they live in cold climates. They diverge from the prototype in terms of flight and habitat.
- Non-prototypical Example 2: An ostrich. Ostriches are large, flightless birds with long
necks and legs. They differ significantly in size and ability to fly from the prototypical small,
flying bird.

Entity: Fruit
- Prototypical Example: An apple or a banana. These are commonly thought of as fruit, are
sweet, and are typically eaten as snacks or desserts.
 - Non-prototypical Example 1: A tomato. While botanically a fruit (it develops from a flower),
it's typically used in savory dishes as a vegetable due to its low sugar content and culinary
usage.
- Non-prototypical Example 2: An avocado. Avocados are fruits with a large seed and a
high fat content, unlike the sweet and lower-fat prototype fruits.

Exercise 17: Examples of Ostensive Definition and its

Limitations
Ostensive Definition: Learning the meaning of a word by pointing to or showing examples
of the concept it refers to

Examples Likely Learned via Ostensive Definition:

- Colors: Especially for basic colors like "red," "blue," "green." You point to objects of that
color and say the word.
- Simple Objects: "Ball," "tree," "car," "house" - Pointing and naming is a natural way to
teach these.
- Body Parts: "Nose," "ear," "finger," "toe" - Touching or pointing while naming.
- Animals (Young Children): "Doggy," "kitty," "birdie" - Showing pictures or real animals.
- Foods: "Apple," "banana," "milk" - Showing the food while naming.
- Basic Actions (For Very Young Learners/ELLs): "Eat," "sleep," "walk" - Demonstrating the
action.

Examples NOT Likely Learned via Ostensive Definition:

- Abstract Concepts: "Justice," "love," "freedom," "democracy" - These cannot be physically
pointed to.
- Emotions: "Sadness," "happiness," "anger" - While facial expressions can help, the
internal feeling is not directly observable.
- Complex Processes: "Photosynthesis," "digestion," "evolution" - These require explanation
and understanding of underlying mechanisms.
- Theoretical Terms: "Quantum mechanics," "relativity," "algorithm" - These are based on
complex models and theories.
- Function Words: "The," "a," "in," "on," "but" - These grammatical elements don't have
concrete referents.
- Past/Future Concepts: "Yesterday," "tomorrow," "next week" - Time is not directly visible.
- Hypothetical Concepts: "If," "might," "could" - These deal with possibilities, not concrete
realities.
Give responses to Exercises 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9/ p.
104
Exercises 2
Bachelor Example: If "John is a bachelor" is true, then:
a. John is male: TRUE. A bachelor is defined as an unmarried man.
b. John is unmarried: TRUE. This is part of the definition of a bachelor.
c. John is human: TRUE. While not explicitly part of the definition of bachelor, it's a generally
understood and necessary implication. Bachelors are human.
d. John is adult: TRUE. Bachelors are, by definition, adults.

Exercises 3
a. All bachelors are unmarried: A (Analytic) - Being unmarried is part of the definition of a
bachelor.
b. All bachelors are happy: S (Synthetic) - Happiness is not part of the definition of a
bachelor; some bachelors might be happy, others not.
c. All bachelors are married: C (Contradiction) - This directly contradicts the definition of a
bachelor.

Exercises 4
a. All misers are stingy: A (Analytic) - Stinginess is a core characteristic of a miser.
b. All misers are rich: S (Synthetic) - While some misers might be rich, it's not a defining
feature. A miser could be poor but still reluctant to spend.
c. All misers waste money: C (Contradiction) - This is the opposite of what a miser does.
d. All misers are miserable: S (Synthetic) - Misers are often depicted as miserable, but it's
not a defining characteristic. Some might find joy in hoarding.

Exercises 5
a. All carnivores eat meat: A (Analytic) - The definition of a carnivore is a meat-eating
animal.
b. All mammals produce live young: S (Synthetic) - While most mammals do, there are
exceptions (like the platypus) that lay eggs. So, it's not true by definition.
Exercises 6
a. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor: C (Contradiction) - If she's your sister and
unmarried, she cannot be married to anyone, let alone a bachelor.
b. This stool has a broken back: S (Synthetic) - It's a statement about the physical state of
the stool, which could be true or false.

Exercises 7
a. Kings are monarchs: A (Analytic) - The terms are synonymous.
b. Kings are male: S (Synthetic) - While traditionally kings are male, it's not a strict definition
(consider queens regnant).
c. Kings are fathers: S (Synthetic) - Not all kings have children.
d. George Washington was the first president: S (Synthetic) - A historical fact that could be
verified.
e. Witches are wicked: S (Synthetic) - A common stereotype, but not a defining feature.
Definitions of "witch" vary, and "wicked" is subjective.
f. My brother is an only child: C (Contradiction) - If you have a brother, he cannot be an only
child.
g. Puppies are human: C (Contradiction) - Puppies are young dogs, not humans.

Exercises 9. Give some necessary conditions for the

following lexical items.
a. table: Must have a flat(ish) surface and be supported by legs or a pedestal. (Note: This
is difficult, as "table" can have many forms).
b. carpet: Must be a textile floor covering.
c. sister: Must be female and share at least one parent with another person.
d. teacher: Must instruct or educate others.