COMPUTER SCIENCE

CLASS NOTES
Unit 3: Hardware

Computer Architecture
- Central Processing Unit

➔ It is also known as a microprocessor or processor

➔ A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip.

➔ Central to all modern computers systems and gadgets

➔ Often installed as integrated circuit on a single chip

➔ Has the responsibility of the execution and processing of all the instructions and data in a
computer application

➔ The CPU consists of a control unit (CU), arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), registers and buses,
and
a system clock

➔ CPU is a part of Von Neumann architecture

➔ Von Neumann architecture was introduced in the mid-1940s by John von Neumann.

➔ It had the following main features:

↳ concept of a CPU
↳ CPU could directly access the memory
↳ storage of programs and data by computer memories
↳ stored programs were made up of instructions that had to be followed or executed in a
sequential order

➔ The following are components of a CPU:

1) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

➔ Allows the required arithmetic or logic operations to be carried out

➔ A computer can have more than one ALU

2) Control Unit (CU)

➔ Reads instruction from the memory

➔ Address of the instruction’s location is found from Program Counter (PC)

➔ Instruction is interpreted using the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle

➔ The CU ensures the synchronisation of data flow and program instructions throughout the
computer by sending out control signals

➔ The CU decodes an instruction using an instruction set

➔ The system clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this vital
synchronisation takes place

➔ The RAM holds all the data and programs needed by the CPU

➔ RAM is also often referred to as the Immediate Access Store or IAS

➔ The CPU takes data and programs held in the Hard Disc Drive or backing store, and puts
them in
the RAM temporarily

➔ Why? Read/write operations work faster when carried out on the RAM rather than on the
Hard
Disc Drive since there are no moving parts in RAM

3) Registers

➔ The registers in our syllabus are:

Registers Full Form Function
CIR Current Instruction Register Stores the current instruction being decoded and
executed
ACC Accumulator Used when carrying out ALU operations; it stores
the data temporarily during the calculations
MAR Memory Address Register Stores the address of the memory location being
currently read or written to
MDR Memory Data Register Stores data which has just been read from memory
data or that which is about to be written to memory
PC Program Counter Stores the address of the next instruction to be
fetched
- Memory

➔ Computer memory is made of a number of partitions

➔ Each partition has an address with its content

➔ The address will uniquely identify every location in the memory and the contents will be
binary
values stored in each location

➔ In a READ operation, the memory address of the contents that are to be read and copied to the
MAR. This sends a READ signal to the computer memory, and it will put the contents of that
specific address into the MDR.

➔ In a WRITE operation, the memory content is first written into the MDR to be stored. A
WRITE
signal will be sent to the computer, and then the memory location’s address is written into the
MAR.
- Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle

➔ To carry out a set of instructions, the CPU first fetches some data and instructions from
memory
and stores them in suitable registers. The address and data bus are used in this.

➔ Once fetched, each instruction needs to be decoded before being executed

➔ This cycle is known as Fetch-Decode-Execute or FDE cycle

1 PC contains the address of the memory location of the next instruction that has to be
fetched
2 The memory address of the instruction is copied to MAR from the PC. The address
bus is used here
3 The contents/ instructions/data at the memory location or address in the MAR are
temporarily copied in the MDR from memory (RAM) using the data bus
4 The contents or instructions of the MDR are then copied and placed in CIR
5 The PC is incremented by 1. This means the next instruction is ready to be copied and
decoded.
6 The content or instructions stored in CIR/IR are decoded
7 The CPU sends out signals through the control bus to the respective components (e.g
Arithmetic and Logic Unit) of the computer to execute the instruction, if required

- Cores, Cache and Internal clock

➔ Other components that make up part of the CPU and can make a significant difference to the
overall operating speed of a computer

➔ While the CPU processes instructions and data extremely quickly, some factors can affect a
computer's performance
1) Clock Speed

➔ Is very important for a CPU’s performance capabilities

➔ Refers to the number of electrical pulses that the clock inside the CPU can produce each
second.
Usually measured in Hz or GHz.

➔ Increasing the clock speed can increase the processing speed as more instructions than before
will be addressed in the same time

➔ One issue of increasing the clock speed is overclocking. It can lead to serious un-
synchronisation of operations, causing the computer to glitch and crash. It will also cause serious
overheating of
the CPU.
2) Cores

➔ More cores will improve overall computer performance

➔ Each core includes an ALU, CU and registers

➔ Many computers are either dual core or quad core. Many operations are carried out
simultaneously.

➔ More cores lower the need of increasing the system clock speed

➔ However, this causes the time taken for the CPU to communicate with each core to increase,
as more cores are added
3) Cache

➔ Use of cache memory can also improve CPU performance

➔ Cache memory is located in the CPU itself, and hence has much faster data access time than
RAM

➔ It allows for faster data access as it stores the instructions and data that needs to be accessed
frequently, improving CPU performance

➔ When a CPU wishes to read the memory, it will first check the cache, and then move on to the
main memory/RAM if the required data isn't there

➔ The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU performance
- Instruction Set

➔ A set of common instructions have been developed by processor manufacturers so that CPUs
operate as efficiently as possible

➔ This instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU

➔ The instructions, called operations, are in machine code and are the most basic types of
commands that computers can process

➔ These operations can ensure that the control unit and arithmetic logic unit can carry out their
respective jobs easily

➔ Operations are made up of opcodes and operands

➔ Opcode stands for Operational Code, and it gives the CPU an operation that needs to be done

➔ Opcodes are stored on the computer's hard disc, and would usually be copied into the RAM
when the computer is powered on. The most regularly used opcodes would then be shifted from
RAM to the cache memory.

➔ Operand is the data that needs to be acted on

➔ The operand may be a piece of data itself, or it may be an address location within the main
RAM or register
- Embedded Systems

➔ Embedded systems are built into devices to carry out specific tasks. They run on firmware
and do not have additional peripherals.

➔ Embedded systems have a microprocessor, either analogue or digital input, a user interface
and output

➔ The data is input either manually (from a keypad or such) or is collected automatically from a
source, such as sensors

➔ The input data can be either analogue or digital

➔ The output will be the specific function of that embedded system. It can be sending signals to
problem-respective actuators, or more.

➔ Examples of embedded system include: motor vehicles, set-top box, security systems, lighting
systems, vending systems, washing machines
Benefits Drawbacks
Small in size and easy to fit in devices Can be difficult to upgrade certain devices to
new technology
Low cost to manufacture Troubleshooting faults
Dedicated to only one task and therefore have Interface appears simple, but it can still be
a simple interface and system more confusing for people
There is no requirement of an operating Any device is susceptible to attacks from
system hackers and viruses
Can be controlled remotely using a mobile Difficult to upgrade and troubleshoot; cause
phone or remote control devices to be thrown away rather than fixed
Fast reactions to changing inputs Throwing away can start a "throw away"
culture among users who will often discard
the devices when they become out of date
Operate in real time and are feedback -
orientated
Are mass produced and hence, reliable -
Less power consuming -

Input Devices
1) Barcode Scanners (Readers)

➔ Barcodes are a series of dark and light parallel lines that represent numbers from 0 to 9

➔ Barcode numbers are looked up in the stock database, and item details are sent back to
checkout

➔ Scanning allows automatic stock control and finding new values of stock items

➔ Benefits of using barcodes for the store management include easy and fast updates, automatic
stock control, and time-saving.

➔ Benefits of using barcodes for customers include faster checkout queues, less errors in
charging, itemised bills, cost savings visibility, and better track keeping of "sell by” dates

➔ How is a barcode scanned?

 1 A barcode scanner emits a red laser on LED in the barcode
2 The black and white parts of the barcode reflect light differently (The black parts reflect
little to no light, whereas the light parts reflect almost all of it)
3 White is 0 and Black is 1
4 This reflected light is captured by the sensors in the barcode scanner
5 A pattern is generated and it is converted into digital data

2) QR codes

➔ QR codes are a type of barcode made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
background

➔ They hold considerably more information than traditional barcodes

➔ QR codes are more complex due to the increased data capacity and the use of small squares,
known as pixels

➔ The three large squares in three corners of the QR code are for alignment, and the remaining
corner is for the camera angle and size

➔ QR codes are used for advertising products, accessing websites, phone numbers, and storing
boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations

➔ QR codes are being updated to frame QR codes that include advertising logos, but the
software
needed for this isn't free

➔ Advantages of QR codes include:

↳ ability to hold more information
↳ fewer errors
↳ easy and convenient to scan
↳ easy transmission as images
↳ can be encrypted

➔ Disadvantages of QR codes include:

↳ There is more than one QR code format available
↳ Malicious codes can be sent through QR codes; this is known as attagging

➔ How are QR codes scanned?

 1 Point a phone camera towards the QR code
2 The app will process the image taken by the camera by converting it into a readable
format.
3 White squares reflect more light while black squares reflect less light
4 Each pixel/small square will be converted to a binary value
5 Data will be read and necessary action will be taken by the phone (e.g. Redirects to a
website, phone app will be opened if a telephone number was within the QR code

3) Digital Cameras

➔ Modern digital cameras can connect to a computer system via USB or Bluetooth

➔ Cameras are controlled by an embedded system and perform tasks like adjusting shutter
speed, focusing on the image, operating the flash gun, adjusting the aperture size, adjusting the
image size, and removing red-eye

➔ When an image is taken, light passes through the lens onto a light-sensitive cell made up of
millions of tiny sensors acting as photodiodes

➔ The sensors are called pixels, which make up the image

➔ The image is converted into tiny electric charges using Charged Coupled Device (CCD) and
passed through an ADC to form a digital image array

➔ The ADC converts the electric charges from each pixel into levels of brightness

➔ The sensors also measure colour, which produces another binary pattern. Most cameras use a
24-bit RGB system

➔ The file size is determined by the number of pixels, and image quality depends on the device
used, the resolution, the levels of light, and the storage type of the image
4) Keyboard

➔ Most common method/input device used for data entry

➔ it can be physical: connected to a device through a USB connection or Bluetooth, or it can be

virtual, like on a touch screen

➔ How a computer recognises a letter pressed on the keyboard:

 1 There is a circuit board at the base of the keys, composed of conductive layers with an
insulating layer present between them.
2 A character key is pressed. Now, as there is a gap between the conductive layers right
below the character; the conductive layers touch each other when the character is
pressed. This completes a circuit.
3 When the circuit is completed, the CPU/microprocessor determines which character’s
key was pressed
4 CPU refers to an index file to identify which character key was pressed by the user
5 Each character on the keyboard has a corresponding ASCII value, which also has a
binary value
6 This binary value can be processed by the CPU to, for example, show up on the screen

5) Microphones

➔ Are either build-in or connected through a USB or Bluetooth connection

➔ A microphone converts sound waves into an electric current

➔ Current is converted into a digital format to be processed by the computer

➔ How does a microphone work?

1 The air vibrates when sound is created
2 The diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations and starts to vibrate itself
3 A copper coil is wrapped around the cone and is connected to the diaphragm
4 When the diaphragm vibrates, the cone moves in and out, causing the coil to move
forwards and backwards
5 The coil's movement causes the it to cut the magnetic field around the permanent
magnet, changing magnetic flux
6 This induces an electric current
7 This current is analogue in nature
8 The electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device
9 Electric Current is converted to digital from using an ADC

6) Optical Mouse

➔ Captures 1500 images per second using tiny cameras

➔ Works on any surface with the help of a red LED and a CMOS sensor

➔ CMOS generates electric pulses that represent the red light and sends them to a digital signal
processor (DSP)

➔ The DSP calculates the coordinates of the mouse based on the changes in image patterns and
sends them to the computer
➔ An optical mouse has no moving parts and is more reliable, with no dirt traps or special
surface requirements

➔ A wired mouse doesn’t have the problem of continuous signal loss as it has a direct USB
connection, is cheaper to operate, and has fewer environmental issues (as compared to a
wireless mouse)
7) 2D Scanners

➔ Input devices that are used to convert paper documents to digital form

➔ How does a 2D scanner work?

1 The cover of the scanner is opened, a document is placed on the glass panel, and the
cover is closed
2 A xenon lamp or LED emits a bright light on the document
3 The document is moved from side to side, and then advanced slightly, until the whole
document is scanned
4 The document is scanned using a scan head
5 The reflected image is sent to a lens using a series of mirrors; the lens focuses the image
of the document
6 The focused image now falls on a CCD (Charge Coupled Device). This converts light
into electric current.
(a CCD is made up of thousands of light-sensitive pixels. Each pixel creates an electric
charge when light falls on it)
7 The scanned image has now turned into an electronic form

➔ Applications of 2D scanners:
↳ Used to read passports at airports
↳ Make use of OCR (Optical Character Recognition) technology to produce digital images that
represent the passport pages
↳ The person's image on the passport is scanned and stored in JPEG format and another picture
is taken of the person
↳ Both pictures are compared using a face recognition software, which will tell if the pictures
belong to the same person or not
8) 3D Scanners

➔ Scans solid, 3D objects in x, y, z directions

➔ Produces a digital image which represents the solid object that was scanned
➔ Scanned images are then either used in a CAD (Computer Aided Design) and/or sent to a 3D
printer, which will produce a working model of the scanned image

➔ Application of 3D scanning:
↳ Computed Tomographic (CT) scanners
↳ Used to create a 3D image of the solid object
↳ Based on tomography technology, in which the whole image is build upon the series of very
thin ‘slices’. All these slices come together to form an image. X-rays are used.
↳ Have other names, such as MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), which uses radio frequencies
to build the slices, and SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography), which uses
gamma rays
9) Touch Screens

➔ The common types of touch screen technologies are:

Capacitive Infra-red Resistive
➔ Composed of a layer of ➔ An invisible grid of infra- ➔ Uses multiple layers of
glass (protective layer), a red beams is made; infra-red material
transparent electrode beams are sent out from two ➔ These transmit electric
(conductive layer) and a glass edges of the screen currents
substrate ➔ When the screen is ➔ When the top layer/screen
➔ Current is sent/flows out touched, the infra-red beams is pushed into the
from all 4 corners of the are broken lower/bottom layer, a circuit
screen ➔ The microprocessor is able is completed
➔ When the finger/stylus to detect the coordinates of ➔ The voltage produced
touches the screen, the the touch enables the microprocessor to
current changes pinpoint the coordinates of
➔ The coordinates of the the point of contact
touch are calculated by the
microprocessor
 Screen type Advantages Disadvantages
Capacitive ➔ Better image quality ➔ Surface capacitive
➔ Don’t need to be screens work only with bare
calibrated fingers or a stylus
➔ Fast response times ➔ Sensitive to
➔ Register touch even when electromagnetic radiation
the screen is broken ➔ Screen will break upon
➔ Very durable screens that impact
have a high resistance to
scratches
➔ Allows multi-touch
➔ Good visibility in
sunlight
Infra-red ➔ Allows multi-touch ➔ Screen can be sensitive to
➔ Good visibility in water or moisture
sunlight ➔ Accidental activation if
➔ Has good durability the infrared beam is
➔ Don’t need to be disturbed in any way
calibrated ➔ Sensitive to light
➔ Fast response times ➔ Screen will break upon
➔ The operability isn't impact
affected if the screen is ➔ Expensive to manufacture
scratched or cracked
Resistive ➔ Good resistance to dust ➔ Low touch sensitivity;
and water need to press harder for it to
➔ Can be used with bare register touch
fingers, gloved, and a stylus ➔ Poor visibility in strong
➔ Easier to manufacture sunlight
➔ Cheaper to ➔ Vulnerable to scratches
manufacture/buy and cracks
➔ More weatherproof ➔ Low quality
➔ Screen is less likely to ➔ Does not support
shatter multitouch