Digital Electronics Notes

UNIT-I : Fundamentals of Digital Electronics

1. 1. Introduction

Digital electronics is a type of electronics that deals with the digital systems which
processes the data/information in the form of binary(0s and 1s) numbers, whereas analog
electronics deals with the analog systems which processes the data/information in the form of
continuous signals.

Continuous signals
A Continuous signal is function f(t), whose value is defined for all time 't'.
in other words
Continuous signal a varying quantity with respect to independent variable time.
Example: Figure 1.1(a) shows the continuous signal.

Figure 1.1(a): Continuous signals.

Digital signals
A digital signal is a quantized discrete time signals.
Example: Figure 1.1(b) shows the discrete and digital signals.

Figure 1.1(b1): Discrete signal.

Figure 1.1(b2): Digital signal.

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1.2. Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is a branch of Algebra (Mathematics) that deals with operations on logical
values with Boolean variables, Boolean variables are represented as binary numbers which takes
logic 1 and logic 0 values. Hence, the Boolean algebra is also called two-valued logic, Binary
Algebra or Logical Algebra. The Boolean algebra was introduced by great mathematician George
Boole in 1847. The Boolean algebra is a fundamental for the development of digital electronic
systems, and is provided for in all programming languages. Set theory and statistics fields also
uses Boolean algebra for the representation, simplification and analysis of mathematical
quantities.

Logic levels are classified into two types

1. Positive logic
Logic 0 = False, 0V, Open Switch, OFF
Logic 1= True, +5V, Closed Switch, ON

2. Negative logic
Logic 0 = True, +5V, Closed Switch, ON
Logic 1= False, 0V, Open Switch, OFF

Boolean algebra differs from normal or elementary algebra. Latter deals with numerical
operations such as, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on decimal numbers. And
former deals with the logical operations such as conjunction (OR), disjunction(AND) and
negation(NOT).
In present context, positive logic has been used for the entire discussion, representation
and simplification of Boolean variables.

1.2.1. Rules and properties of Boolean Algebra

1. Boolean variables takes only two values, logic 1 and logic 0, called binary numbers.
2. Basic operations of Boolean algebra are complement of a variable, ORing and ANDing of two
or more variables.
3. Mathematical description of Boolean operations using variables is called Boolean expression.
4. Complement of variable is represented by an over-bar (-).
Example: 𝑌 = 𝐴̅, Y is the output variable
5. ORing of variables is represented by a plus symbol (+)
Example:𝑌 = 𝐴 + 𝐵, Y is the output variable
6. ANDing of variables is represented by a dot symbol (.)
Example:𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵, Y is the output variable
7. Boolean operations are different from binary operations.
Example : 1+1=10 in Binary Addition
1+1=1 in Boolean algebra.

Table 1.1, shows the complement operation of a variable, table 1.2 summarized the OR operation
and table 1.3, summarized the AND operation of two variables.

A ̅
𝒀=𝑨
0 1
1 0

Table 1.1: Complement of variable A

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 A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Table 1.2: OR operation on A and B

A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Table 1.3: AND operation on A and B

The present chapter deals with the simplification of Boolean expressions and
representation using sum of product form and product of sum forms.

1.2.2. Boolean Laws:

Law-1: Commutative law

The sequence of changing the variables does not effect on the result even after changing
their sequence while performing OR/AND operations of Boolean expression.

i. e. , A. B = B. A and A + B = B + A

Law-2: Associative law

The order of operations on variables is independent.

A. (B. C) = (A. B). C and A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

Law-3: Distributive Laws

𝐴. (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐶
𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶)

Law-4: AND Laws

𝐴. 0 = 0
𝐴. 1 = 𝐴
𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴
𝐴. 𝐴̅ = 0

Law-5: OR Laws
𝐴+0=𝐴
𝐴+1=1
𝐴+𝐴 = 𝐴
𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1

Law-6: Inversion/Complement/NOT Laws

0̅ = 1

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 1̅ = 0
𝐴̅ = 𝐴
Law-7: Absorption Law

𝑨(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑨
𝑨 + 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑨
𝑨+𝑨 ̅𝑩 = 𝑨 + 𝑩

Law-8: Demargon's Laws

De-Morgan's First Law

Statement: Sum of complement of two or more variables is equal to the product of the
complement of their variables.
i. e. , ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A + B + C + ⋯..= A ̅. B
̅. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
C…..
Proof:
consider three variables for the proof shown in figure 1.4

A B C ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 +𝑩+𝑪 ̅. 𝑩
𝑨 ̅
̅. 𝑪
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
Table 1.4: De-Morgan's First Law

De-Morgan's Second Law

Statement: Product of complement of two or more variables is equal to the sum of the
complement of their variables.
i. e. , ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ABC + ⋯ . . = ⋯ 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅ + 𝐶̅ ….
Proof:
consider three variables for the proof shown in figure 1.5

A B C ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩. 𝑪 ̅+B
A ̅ + C̅
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
Table 1.5: De-Morgan's Second Law

Boolean expressions must be simplified and evaluated using the order of operator precedence
shown in table 1.6

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 Operator Precedence
Parenthesis 1
NOT 2
AND 3
OR 4
Table 1.6: Operator precedence

Example:

𝒀 = (𝑨 (𝑪 +𝑩 ̅ 𝑫) + ̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⏟ 𝑩 ̅) 𝑬
⏟
𝑪 ̅
⏟ ⏟ ⏟
⏟
⏟⏟
1.2.3. Simplify the following expressions
1. 𝐘 = 𝐁𝐂 + 𝐁𝐂̅ + 𝐁𝐀
solution:
Y = BC + BC̅ + BA
Y = B(C + C̅) + BA
Y = B + BA (∵ C + C̅ = 1)
Y = B(1 + A) (∵ 1 + A = 1)
Y = B. 1
𝐘=𝐁

2. 𝐘 = 𝐀 + 𝐀̅𝐁 + 𝐀
̅𝐁̅𝐂 + 𝐀 ̅𝐁̅ 𝐂̅𝐃 + 𝐀 ̅ 𝐂̅𝐃
̅𝐁 ̅𝐄
Solution:
Y =A+A ̅B + A̅B
̅C + A ̅B
̅C̅D + A ̅B̅C̅D̅E
Y =A+A ̅ (B + B
̅C + B̅C̅D + B ̅C̅D̅ E)
̅C + B
Y = A + (B + B ̅C̅D + B ̅C̅D̅ E) ̅ B = A + B)
(∵ A + A
̅ ̅ ̅
Y = A + (B + B(C + CD + CDE))̅ ̅ B = A + B)
(∵ A + A
̅ ̅ ̅
Y = A + (B + (C + CD + CDE)) ̅
(∵ A + AB = A + B)
̅ ̅
Y = A + (B + (C + C(D + DE))) ̅ B = A + B)
(∵ A + A
Y = A + (B + (C + (D + D ̅ E))) ̅ B = A + B)
(∵ A + A
𝐘 = 𝐀+𝐁+𝐂+𝐃+𝐄

3. 𝐘 = 𝐂 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐁𝐂
Solution:
Y = C+B ̅ + C̅
Y = (C + C̅) + B̅
Y=1+B ̅
𝐘=𝟏

4. 𝐘 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐀𝐁(𝐀 ̅ + 𝐁)(𝐁
̅ + 𝐁)
Solution:
Y = (A̅+B ̅ + B)(1)
̅)(A
Y=A ̅A̅+A ̅B + B
̅A̅+B̅B
̅ ̅
Y = 0 + A(B + B) + 0
Y=A ̅ (1)
𝐘=𝐀 ̅

̅ ) + 𝐀𝐂 + 𝐂
5. 𝐘 = (𝐀 + 𝐂)(𝐀𝐃 + 𝐀𝐃
Solution:

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 ̅ )) + AC + C
Y = (A + C)(A(D + D
Y = (A + C)(A)(1) + AC + C
Y = AA + AC + AC + C
Y = A + AC + C
Y = A(1 + C) + C
𝐘 = 𝐀+𝐂

̅ (𝐀 + 𝐁) + (𝐁 + 𝐀𝐀)(𝐀 + 𝐁
6. 𝐘 = 𝐀 ̅)
Solution:
Y=A ̅A + A̅ B + BA + BB
̅ + AAA + AAB̅
̅
Y = 0 + AB + AB + 0 + A + AB̅
̅ + A) + A + AB
Y = B(A ̅
Y = B + A(1 + B̅)
𝐘 = 𝐀+𝐁

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
7. 𝐘 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐀 + 𝐁𝐂̅ + 𝐃(𝐄 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ 𝐅̅)
Solution:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Y = (A + BC̅) ( D(E + F̅))
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Y = (A + BC̅)( D ̅ + (E + F̅)
̅
𝐘 = (𝐀 + 𝐁𝐂)( 𝐃 ̅ + 𝐄 + 𝐅̅)

8. 𝐘 = 𝐀𝐁 + 𝐀(𝐁 + 𝐂) + 𝐁(𝐁 + 𝐂)
Solution:
Y = AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
Y = AB + AC + B + BC
Y = AB + AC + B(1 + C)
Y = AB + AC + B
Y = B(A + 1) + AC
𝐘 = 𝐁 + 𝐀𝐂

9. 𝐘 = 𝐀𝐁̅ + 𝐀(𝐁̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

+ 𝐂) + 𝐁(𝐁 + 𝐂)
Solution:
Y = AB ̅C̅) + BB
̅ + A(B ̅C̅
̅ ̅
Y = AB(1 + C)
𝐘 = 𝐀𝐁̅

̅ 𝐁𝐂 + 𝐀𝐁
10. 𝐘 = 𝐀 ̅ 𝐂̅ + 𝐀 ̅ 𝐂̅ + 𝐀𝐁
̅𝐁 ̅ 𝐂 + 𝐀𝐁𝐂
Solution:
Y=A ̅ BC + AB̅C̅ + A ̅B̅C̅ + AB̅C + ABC
Y=A ̅ BC + AB̅C̅ + A ̅B̅C̅ + AC(B̅ + B)
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Y = ABC + ABC + ABC + AC ̅
Y=A ̅ BC + B
̅C̅(A + A ̅ ) + AC
Y=A ̅ BC + B
̅C̅ + AC
̅
Y = (AB + A)C + B ̅C̅
Y = (A + B)C + BC̅
̅
𝐘 = 𝐀𝐂 + 𝐁𝐂 + 𝐁 ̅ 𝐂̅

̅ + 𝐁, 𝐀 = 𝐘 + 𝐗 and 𝐁 = 𝐗
11. If 𝐅 = 𝐀 ̅ + 𝐘, then 𝐅 =?
Solution:

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 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
F = (Y + X) + (X̅ + Y)
̅ ̅ ̅
F = Y. X + X + Y
𝐅=𝐘+𝐗 ̅

̅𝐘) = 𝐗 + 𝐘
12. If 𝐟(𝐀, 𝐁) = 𝐀 + 𝐁, then show that 𝐟(𝐟(𝐗, 𝐘𝐙), 𝐗
Solution:
f(A, B) = f(X, YZ)
∴ A = X and B = YZ
f(X, YZ) = X + YZ
̅Y) = f(A + B)
f(f(X, YZ), X
A = f(X, YZ)and B = ̅ XY
̅Y) = (X + YZ) + X
f(f(X, YZ), X ̅Y
̅Y) = (X + X
f(f(X, YZ), X ̅Y) + YZ
f(f(X, YZ), ̅
XY) = (X + Y) + YZ
̅Y) = (X + Y(1 + Z))
f(f(X, YZ), X
𝐟(𝐟(𝐗, 𝐘𝐙), 𝐗̅𝐘) = (𝐗 + 𝐘)

13. Let 𝐀 ∗ 𝐁 = 𝐀 ̅ + 𝐁 and 𝐂 = 𝐀 ∗ 𝐁 then 𝐂 ∗ 𝐀 is _______

Solution:
C ∗ A = C̅ + A
C ∗ A = (A̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∗ B) + A
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
C ∗ A = (A̅ + B) + A
C ∗ A = A. B̅+A
𝐂∗𝐀=𝐀

1.3. Realization of Boolean expressions using logic gates.

Logic gate is the basic building block of any digital circuits. The logic gates may have one
or more inputs and only one output. The relationship between input and output is based on a
certain logic, which is same as Boolean operations, such as AND, OR and NOT.
Based on the Boolean operations, the gates are named as AND gate, OR gate and NOT
gate. These three gates are called basic gates, and some more gates can be derived by using the
basic gates, they are named as NAND gate, NOR gate, EXOR gate and XNOR gate. NAND and
NOR gates are called universal gates, because by using only the NAND gates /NOR gates we can
realize all basic gates even all Boolean expression.
Logic gates, its truth table, expression and symbols are summarized in the table 1.7 as follows.

Sl. No. Gate name and Logic Symbol Truth table and Logical Expression
AND Gate
Inputs Output
A B 𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩
0 0 0
1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR Gate Inputs Output

2
A B 𝒀=𝑨+𝑩

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 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT Gate
Inputs Output
A 𝒀=𝑨̅
3
0 1
1 0

NAND Gate Inputs Output

A B Y
0 0 1
4
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR Gate Inputs Output
A B Y
0 0 1
5
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
EX-OR Gate
Inputs Output
A B Y
0 0 0
6
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
EX-NOR Gate Inputs Output
A B Y
0 0 1
7
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
1.3.1. Realize the following Boolean expression using basic gates.

Y = AB + BC + AC

Logic diagram

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1.3.2. Realize the following Boolean expression using only NAND gates.

Y = AB + BC + AC

Logic diagram
Step-1: Replace basic gates by NAND equivalents

Step-2: Eliminate two single input NAND gates are connected in series.

Step-3: Draw the resultant logic circuit.

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1.4. Representation of Boolean Expressions

The relationship between Boolean variables and output variable is called Boolean
expression, the Boolean expressions can be represented in two different forms, they are,
1. Sum of Products (SOP) form and
2. Product of Sums (POS) form

1.4.1. Sum of Product (SOP) form

The Boolean Expressions in which the product of input variables are summed together for output
high.
Example: Consider a truth table shown in table 1.8.

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Table 1.8: Truth table

The Boolean expression for Y is

Y=A ̅B ̅ BC̅ + AB
̅C + A ̅C̅ + AB
̅C + ABC − − − (1)

NOTE: A = 0 is represented as̅̅̅

A and A = 1 will be represented as A

Expression (1) is a standard or canonical sum of product form, which is directly derived from the
truth table.

Sum variable can be minimized using Boolean algebra rules.

Y=A ̅B̅C + A̅ BC̅ + AB ̅C̅ + AC(B̅ + B)
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Y = ABC + ABC + ABC + AC ̅
Y=A ̅B
̅C + A ̅ BC̅ + A(B̅C̅ + C)
Y=A ̅B̅C + A ̅ BC̅ + A(B ̅ + C)

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 Y=A ̅B̅C + A̅ BC̅ + AB̅ + AC
Y = ABC + AB + ABC̅ + AC
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ C + A)B
Y = (A ̅+A ̅ BC̅ + AC
Y = (C + A)B̅+A ̅ BC̅ + AC
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Y = AB + CB + ABC + AC − − − (2)

Expression (2) is the simplified form of canonical SOP form called, minimal SOP form.

NOTE:
1. Canonical SOP form to minimal SOP form and vice versa can also be derived using truth table.
2. Each product terms of SOP form is called minterms.
3. Canonical SOP form of Boolean expressions can also be written using decimal equivalent of
input variables for the output high.
Example: for the Boolean expression (1), the output is high for ABC=001, ABC=010 ABC=100,
ABC=101 and ABC=111.
The decimal equivalent of ABC=001 is '1', ABC=010 is '2', ABC=100 is '4', ABC=101 is '5' and
ABC=111 is '7'
Therefore, Y can also be expressed as
Y(A, B, C) = (m1 , m2 , m4 , m5 , m7 )
OR
Y(A, B, C) = ∑ m(1,2,4,5,7)

Problem: Refer the truth table shown in table 1.9., write the Boolean expression in canonical
SOP form and minimal SOP form. Also write the different ways of writing canonical SOP form.

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

Standard or canonical form representation

̅B
Y=A ̅ BC̅ + AB
̅C + A ̅C + ABC̅ + ABC
other representations
Y(A, B, C) = (m1 , m2 , m5 , m6 , m7 )
OR
Y(A, B, C) = ∑ m((1,2,5,6,7)

Simplification of Boolean expression using Boolean algebra rules

Y=A ̅B
̅C + A̅ BC̅ + AB̅C + ABC̅ + ABC
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Y = ABC + ABC + AB ̅C + AB(C̅ + C)
Y=A ̅B
̅C + A ̅ BC̅ + AB̅C + AB
Y=A ̅B
̅ C + AB ̅C + A̅ BC̅ + AB
̅ + A)B
Y = (A ̅C + A̅ BC̅ + AB

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 Y=B ̅ BC̅ + AB
̅C + A
̅
Y = BC + (A ̅ C̅ + A)B
Y=B ̅C + (C̅ + A)B
̅C + BC̅ + AB − minimal SOP form
Y=B

1.4.2. Product of Sum (POS) form

The Boolean Expressions in which the Sum of input variables are multiplied together for output
low.
Example: Consider a truth table shown in table 1.9.

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

Table 1.9: Truth table

The Boolean expression for Y is

̅ + C̅)(A
Y = (A + B + C)(A + B ̅+B
̅ + C) − − − (1)

NOTE: A = 0 is represented as A and A = 1 will be represented as ̅̅̅

A

Expression (1) is a standard or canonical Products of sum form, which is directly derived from the
truth table.

Sum variable can be minimized using Boolean algebra rules.

̅ + C̅)(A
Y = (A + B + C)(A + B ̅+B ̅ + C)
Y = (A + (B + C)(B ̅+B
̅ + C))(A ̅ + C) (∵ (A + X)(A + Y) = A + XY) Distributive law
Y = (A + C + BB ̅+B
̅)(A ̅ + C)
̅+B
Y = (A + C)(A ̅ + C)
̅+B
Y = (C + A)(A ̅)) − − − (2)

Expression (2) is the simplified form of canonical POS form called, minimal POS form.

NOTE:
1. Canonical POS form to minimal POS form and vice versa can also be derived using truth table.
2. Each Sum terms of POS form is called maxterm.
3. Canonical POS form of Boolean expressions can also be written using decimal equivalent of
input variables for the output high.
Example: for the Boolean expression (1), the output is low for ABC=000, ABC=011 and
ABC=110.
The decimal equivalent of ABC=000 is '0', ABC=011 is '3', and ABC=110 is '6'
Therefore, Y can also be expressed as
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 Y(A, B, C) = (M0 , M3 , M6 )
OR
Y(A, B, C) = ∏ M(0,3,6)

Problem: Refer the truth table shown in table 1.9., write the Boolean expression in canonical
POS form and minimal POS form. Also write the different ways of writing canonical SOP form.

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

Standard or canonical form representation

Y = (A + B + C)(A + B̅ + C̅)(A ̅ + B + C)
other representations
Y(A, B, C) = (M0 , M3 , M4 )
OR
Y(A, B, C) = ∏ M(0,3,4)

Simplification of Boolean expression using Boolean algebra rules

Y = (A + B + C)(A + B ̅ + C̅)(A
̅ + B + C)
Y= (A ̅
+ B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B ̅ + C̅)
̅ ̅
Y = (AA + B + C)(A + B + C) ̅
Y = (B + C)(A + B̅ + C̅) − − − Minimal POS form

1.5. K-Map simplification (Karnaugh Map simplification)

The simplification of Boolean expressions using Boolean algebraic rules is not unique and
most of the cases, the resultant expression is not in minimal form. In order to get the uniqueness
and final minimal form, K-map technique will be used. In the following section, the introduction
to K-maps, grouping of variables and simplification procedures are discussed with examples.

NOTE:
Number of cells in K-map = number of possible cases
No. of possible cases=2𝑁
N is the number of input variables.

Example: Number of input variables=2, then the number of cells in K-map is 4.

NOTE: K-maps can take wither POS form or SOP form, in SOP form 1's are need to be grouped
and in POS form 0's are need to be grouped.

NOTE: Only adjacent cells will be considered for grouping, diagonal cells should not be grouped.

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NOTE: grouping can be done using 2 variables, 4 variables, 8 variables, 16 variables etc.., highest
priority for grouping maximum variables in the above denomination. Variables are 0's for POS
form and 1's for SOP form.

Procedure:
1. Select the number of cells according to the number of input variables.
2. Identify whether the given problem is SOP or POS form, minterms for SOP form and
maxterms for POS form.
NOTE: In SOP form, fill the cells by 1's at corresponding minterms and otherwise
fill with 0's.
NOTE: In POS form, fill the cells by 0's at corresponding maxterms and otherwise
fill with 1's.
NOTE: In POS form, take the complement of the output variable to get the
resultant expression.
3. group the terms in the form of rectangular, the total number of terms is 2, 4, 8, etc.., try to
cover as many elements as you can in one group.
4. from the groups, find the Product terms for SOP from and sum terms for POS form.

Example:
Simplify the following canonical SOP form of Boolean expression using K-map technique.
Y(A, B, C, D) = ∑ m(0,2,3,4,6,9,11,13,15)

̅D
Simplified Boolean Expression 𝑌 = A ̅B
̅+A ̅C + AD

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