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O Levels
Computer Science
CS 2210 – Notes

Chapter No. 3
Hardware

 Computer Architecture
 Input & Output Devices
 Data Storage
 Network Interface
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The CPU & Microprocessors

What is the purpose of the CPU?
 The purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is
to fetch, decode and execute instructions
 The CPU is the brain of the computer and its job is to take an input, process data and produce
an output
 It is central to all devices including:
o Laptops
o Desktops
o Games-Consoles
o Mobile Devices
 The words CPU and Microprocessor are interchangeable and can be used to mean the same
thing
 A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip
 Data and commands are inputted by the user using an input device, the central processing unit
(CPU) processes data by executing instructions and the results are outputted to an output
device
 Below is an example of data being inputted, processed and the results being outputted

Step Example

Input A keyboard is used to input a number

Process If the instruction being executed is ADD, the inputted value is added to an existing value

Output The result of the calculation is outputted to the user via the monitor

A diagram showing the input, process, output sequence followed by computer systems
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Von Neumann Architecture

What is the Von Neumann architecture?
 The Von Neumann Architecture is a design of the CPU which was proposed by
Mathematician John Von Neumann in the 1940s, which most general-purpose computers are
built upon
 The Von Neumann Architecture outlines how the computer memory, input/output devices and
processor all work together

The Von-Neumann architecture

 The Von Neumann architecture consists of:
o Control unit (CU)
o Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
o Registers
o Buses
What is the function of each component?
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
 Performs arithmetic operations
 Performs logical decisions
o IF X > 5 THEN
DO ……….
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Control unit (CU)

 Coordinates how data moves around the CPU by sending a signal to control the movement
of the data
 Decodes the instructions fetched from memory
Registers
 Extremely small, extremely fast memory located in the CPU
 Hold small amounts of data needed as part of the fetch-execute cycle
 Each register has its own specific purpose
 It consists of 5 main registers
o The Program Counter (PC)
o The Memory Address Register (MAR)
o The Memory Data Register (MDR)
o The Accumulator (ACC)
o Current Instruction Register (CIR)
 For each of the registers you must know
o The name of the register
o Its acronym
o The purpose of the register

Name Acronym Purpose

 Holds the memory address of the next instructions to be

Program Counter PC executed
 Increments by 1 as the fetch-decode-execute cycle runs

Memory  Holds the memory address of where data or instructions are to

MAR
Address Register be fetched from memory

 Stores the data or instruction which has been fetched from

Memory Data Register MDR
memory

Current Instruction  Stores the instruction the CPU is currently decoding or

CIR
Register executing

 Stores the results of any calculations that have taken place in the
Accumulator ACC
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Buses
 Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by buses
 A bus is a set of parallel wires through which data/signals are transmitted from one
component to another
 There are 3 types of bus:
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o Address - unidirectional, carries location data (addresses), data is written to/read

from
o Data - bidirectional, carries data or instructions
o Control - bidirectional, carries commands and control signals to tell components
when they should be receiving reads or writes etc..

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If asked to describe the purpose of the PC, MAR or the MDR make sure you explain how the data is
being fetched or written to memory
Worked Example
Describe the role of the control unit, the control bus, the data bus and the address bus when fetching
an instruction from memory [4]
Answer
 The address of memory (holding instruction) is placed on the address bus (1)
 The control unit sends a signal (1) on the control bus (to start a read operation) (1)
 The instruction is/the contents of the memory are placed on the data bus (1)
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Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle (FDE)

What is the purpose of the CPU?
 The purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is
to fetch, decode and execute instructions
 The CPU is the brain of the computer and its job is to take an input, process data and produce
an output
What is the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle?
 The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle is the cycle that the central processing unit (CPU) runs
through billions of times per second to make a computer work
 A computer takes an input, processes the input and then delivers an output for the user
o Input: Clicking a button on the gamepad
o Process: The CPU inside the console follows a set of instructions to carry out the task
o Output: The player moving on screen

The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle stages

Fetch stage
 During the fetch stage of the cycle, the program counter holds the address of the next
instruction to be fetched from memory
 The address of the next instruction or data to be fetched is copied into the memory address
register (MAR)
 The address of the instruction or data is then sent along the address bus and awaits a
signal from the control bus
 The signal sent along the control bus is sent from the control unit (CU) to the main memory
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 The data or instructions received from main memory is fetched to the memory data
register (MDR) via the data bus
 A copy of the instruction or data is stored in the current instruction register (CIR)
 The program counter (PC) increments by 1 so it is pointing to the next instruction to be
executed
Decode stage
 During the decode stage of the cycle, the CPU needs to work out what is required from the
instruction
 This is done as the instruction is split into two parts:
o Opcode - what the instruction is
o Operand - what to do it to
 This could be either data or an address where the data is stored
Execute stage
 During the execute stage of the cycle, the CPU will carry out the instruction that was
fetched
 Some examples that would take place at this stage are
o Performing a calculation
o Storing a result or data back in main memory (RAM)
o Going to main memory to fetch data from a different location
The important things to remember are:
 An instruction or data is fetched from memory
 The instruction is decoded
 The instruction is executed
 The cycle repeats billions of times per second
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Make sure you read the question carefully and look at the number of marks allocated to judge the
level of detail required. Often questions on the fetch-decode-execute cycle only require you to
describe the steps rather than explain how the registers and buses are used during each step
Worked Example
Explain how an instruction is fetched using Von Neumann architecture. [6]
Answer
 The Program Counter (PC) holds the address/location of the next instruction to be
fetched [1]
 The address held in the PC is sent to the Memory Address Register (MAR) [1]
 The memory address is sent using the address bus [1]
 The Program Counter is incremented [1]
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 The instruction is sent from the address in memory to the Memory Data Register
(MDR) [1]
 The instruction is transferred using the data bus [1]
 The instruction is sent to the Current Instruction Register (CIR) [1]

Characteristics of the CPU

What are the common characteristics of the CPU?
 There are 3 common characteristics
o Clock Speed
o Cache Size
o Number of Cores
 Each of these characteristics has a significant impact on the performance of the CPU

How do the characteristics of the CPU affect performance?

Clock speed
 The clock speed is measured in Hertz (Hz)
 The clock speed measures the number of fetch-decode-execute cycles that can take place in 1
second
 The faster the clock speed, the more instructions can be fetched and executed per second
 Modern computers have a clock speed in Gigahertz (GHz), meaning billion
 A clock speed of 3.5GHz can perform up to 3.5 billion instructions per second
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Cache size
 Cache is very small, very fast memory on or close to the CPU
 Cache is used as temporary storage to provide quick access to a copy of frequently used
instructions and data
 The larger the cache size, the more frequently used instructions or data can be stored
 This results in the CPU having to complete fewer fetch cycles from memory (RAM),
speeding up the performance
 Cache also has a significantly faster read/write speed than RAM, making it much quicker to
retrieve instructions from there instead of from memory (RAM)
Number of cores
 A core works like it is its own CPU
 Multiple core processors mean they have multiple separate processing units that can fetch,
decode and execute instructions at the same time
 For example, a dual-core processor would have 2 processing units, each with their own
o Control Unit (CU)
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Accumulator (ACC)
o Registers
 Multi-core processors can run more powerful programs with greater ease
 Multiple cores increase the performance of the CPU by working with the clock speed
o Example: A quad-core CPU (4 cores), running at a clock speed of 3Ghz
 4 cores x 3GHz
 4 x 3 billion instructions
 12 billion instructions per second
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Worked Example
One computer has a single core processor and the other has a dual core processor.
Explain why having a dual core processor might improve the performance of the computer.[2]
Answer Any 2 from:
 The computer with the dual core processor has two cores/double the amount of cores [1]
 Parallel processing can take place [1]
 Each core can execute a separate instruction at the same time [1]
 Each core can process instructions independently of each other [1]

CPU Instruction Sets

What is an Instruction set?
 An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
 Each command has a binary code which is called machine code
 The binary code is made up of an operation code (opcode) and an operand
o The opcode is the operation to be performed
o The operand is the location where the operation is to be performed in
 The table below shows an example instruction set
 Each instruction has a mnemonic that indicates what the instruction does alongside an
example binary code
 After an instruction is decoded into an opcode and an operand, the CPU finds the opcode in
the processor’s instruction set
 It then knows what operation to perform when executing the instruction

Instruction Mnemonic Binary code Command

Adds a value to the value currently stored in the accumulator

Add ADD 10100001
(ACC)

Subtract SUB 00100010 Subtract a value from the values stored in the accumulator

Load the value stored in a memory location into the

Load LDA 10111111
accumulator

Store the value in the accumulator in a specific location in

Store STA 01100000
memory

Stop HLT 00000000 Stop the program

 Instruction lists are machine-specific

o A program created using one computer’s instruction set would not run on a computer
containing a processor made by a different manufacturer
o For example, a computer program created using Intel’s instruction set would not run
on a device containing an ARM processor
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Worked Example
Using the instruction set in the table above what would be the operation if the instruction was
00100010 00000010? [1]
Answer
Either of:
 The operation would be SUB [1]
 If the operand was raw data the complete instruction would be to subtract 2 from the
value in the accumulator [1]

Embedded Systems
What is an embedded system?
 An embedded system is a computer system which is used to perform a dedicated function,
inside a larger mechanical unit
 Examples of embedded systems include
o Heating thermostats
o Hospital equipment
o Washing machines
o Dishwashers
o Coffee machines
o Satellite navigation systems
o Factory equipment
o Security systems
o Traffic lights
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What are the properties of an embedded system?

 They are small in size
 They use less power than a general-purpose computer
 They have a lower cost
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Always use key examples from the list above and don’t try to use different examples such as a fridge
or kettle as these will not appear on mark schemes because although they have a single purpose, most
fridges and kettles do not have a CPU.
Worked Example
1) Tick two boxes below to show which are an example of an embedded system. [2]

Is it an example of an embedded system

Laptop

Washing Machine

Mobile Phone

Car Engine Management System

2) Justify your choice to question 1. [2]

Answers
1) Tick two boxes below to show which are an example of an embedded system. [2]

Is it an example of an embedded system

Washing Machine ✓

Car Engine Management System ✓

2) Justify your choice to question 1 [2]

Any two of:
 A washing machine and car engine management system are not general-purpose
computers [1]
 A washing machine and car engine management system have a single purpose and are
both housed inside a larger mechanical unit [1]
 A washing machine and car engine management system have a microprocessor [1]
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Input Devices
What is an Input Device?

 Input devices are hardware components that allow users to interact with a
computer system
 They enable the user to input data or commands into the system, which
the computer then processes to produce an output

Types of input devices

Device What It Does Where It Is Used Why It Is Used

 Reads
barcodes to  Supermarkets
 Quickly and accurately retrieves product
Barcode capture  Warehouses
details for stock and checkout
Scanner product  Libraries
information.

 Captures
photographs  Photography
Digital or videos as  Smartphones  High-quality visual content
Camera digital  Webcams
images

 Inputs text
and  Computers  Type documents
commands  Tablets  Enter data
Keyboard
by pressing  Laptops  Control software
keys

 Captures
analogue  Recording
sound and studios  Audio recording
Microphone converts it  Smartphones  Voice communication
into digital  Computers
signals

 Moves the
cursor on
the screen
based on  Computers  Precise control and navigation on a
Optical
hand  Laptops computer screen
Mouse
movements
over a
surface

 Reads QR  Retail shops  Quickly retrieves data from QR codes

QR Code
codes to  Mobile apps  Website links or product information
Scanner
access
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stored
information

 Detects
 ATMs
touch by
Touch  Older
pressing a  Direct interaction with the device
Screen smartphones
flexible
(Resistive) and tablets
screen layer

 Detects
touch by
interrupting  Kiosks
Touch  Accurate touch detection
infrared  Large touch
Screen  Works well in various lighting conditions
light beams displays
(Infra-red)
across the
screen

 Detects
touch
 Modern
through
smartphones
Touch changes in  Smooth, responsive touch experience with
 Tablets
Screen electrical multi-touch capabilities
 Touch
(Capacitive) charge on
monitors
the screen
surface

 Captures
Two- flat, 2D  Offices
 Digitises documents and photos for
Dimensional images of  Libraries
storage, editing, or sharing
(2D) documents  Schools
Scanner or photos

 Captures
 Manufacturing
Three- detailed 3D
 Design  Creates digital models of objects for
Dimensional shapes and
 Medical design, analysis, or reproduction
(3D) dimensions
imaging
Scanner of objects
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Output Devices
What is an Output device?
 Output devices are hardware components that receive information from a computer system
and present it to the user in an understandable form
 They enable the computer to communicate the results of processed data or commands
Types of output devices

Name of device What does it do? Where is it used? Why is it used?

 Converts energy into motion

 Make a robot's
 Essential in
 Makes things move arm move
any system
Actuator
 Performs physical tasks based on  Open a valve that requires
instructions from a computer or movement
 Rotate a motor
control system

 Cinemas
Digital Light  Projects images onto a screen  High-
 Classrooms
Processing (DLP)  Shows images or video by shining quality
projector light through tiny mirrors  Large images
presentations

 Home  Low cost

 Prints text and images onto paper compared to
Inkjet printer  Schools
by spraying tiny droplets of ink other types
 Offices of printer

 High-
quality
 Heat from a laser fuses toner (fine  Offices
Laser printer prints
powder) onto paper  Schools
 Fast print
speed

 High-
quality
 Televisions images
Light Emitting  Displays images and video using  Computer  Bright
Diode (LED) screen tiny lights called LEDs monitors
 Energy
 Smartphones efficient
 Thin

 Bright
 Offices
Liquid Crystal  Projects images or video onto a  Excellent
Display (LCD) screen by shining light through  Classrooms balance of
projector liquid crystal panels quality and
 Home cinemas
affordability
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 Energy
 Televisions efficient
Liquid Crystal  Monitors  Thin
 Displays images and video using
Display (LCD)
liquid crystals with a backlight  Smartphones  Sharp
screen
images
 Laptops
 Lightweight

 Televisions
 Converts electrical signals into  Multiple
Speaker analogue sound waves to play  Radios shapes and
music sizes
 Smartphones

 Manufacturing
 Create
 Adds thin layers of plastic, one on  Medicine prototypes
3d printer top of another to form a three
dimensional object  Education  Custom
parts
 Home

Choosing the right device

When recommending a device for a specific situation, consider the following factors:
 User Needs
o What tasks will the user be performing? A graphic designer might need a graphics
tablet, while a data entry clerk might need a keyboard with a number pad
 User Skills
o Is the user comfortable with the device? A touch screen might be more intuitive for
some users, while others might prefer a mouse and keyboard
 Environment
o Where will the device be used? A wireless mouse might be suitable for a clutter-free
office, while a wired mouse might be better for a public computer lab to prevent theft
 Cost
o Higher-end devices often have more features but are also more expensive. Consider
the budget and whether the extra features are worth the cost
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Sensors
 Sensors are input devices
 They measure a physical property of their environment such as light levels, temperature or
movement
 Sensors can be used for monitoring systems and control systems
o A monitoring system tracks the state of a system, it gathers data and may
issue warning messages
o A control system will control the system based upon the input from sensors
o For example, if the water temperature in a fish tank fell below the acceptable level, a
control system would start up a heater
o The system will then continue to check the water temperature readings (outputs)
and when they are within the acceptable range it will switch off the heater
 A process where outputs are recycled and used as inputs, creating a continuous cycle is
called a feedback loop
Examiner Tips and Tricks
 You are likely to be given a scenario and asked to identify the sensors that would be used.
 The 14 sensors you need to be aware of are in the table below

Sensor type What it measures Typical use

To detect changes in sound levels of industrial

machinery
Acoustic Sound levels
To monitor noise pollution
In security system to detect suspicious sounds

Detecting sudden changes in vehicle movement and

Accelerometer Acceleration rate, tilt, vibration deploy safety features if needed
In mobile phones to detect orientation of the device

Detect changes in the flow through pipes in water

Flow Rate of gas, liquid or powder flow
system

Detect levels of gas in confined spaces

Gas Presence of a gas e.g. carbon monoxide
Detect gas levels when fixing gas leaks

Humidity Levels of water vapour Monitor humidity in greenhouses

Security systems detecting intruders who break the

beam
Infra-red Detecting motion or a heat source
Measures heat radiation of objects - used by
emergency services to detect people

Detects levels of petrol in a car tank

Level Liquid levels
Detect levels of water in a water tank
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Detect a drop in water levels due to a leak

Automatically switching on lights when it gets dark

Light Light levels
(street lights, headlights)

Anti-lock braking system

Magnetic field Presence and strength
Monitoring rotating machinery such as turbines

Monitoring moisture in the soil

Moisture Presence and levels of moisture
Monitoring dampness in buildings

Monitoring soil to ensure optimum growing

pH Acidity or alkaline conditions
Monitor ph levels in chemical processes

Monitoring tyre pressure

Pressure Gas, liquid or physical pressure Monitoring pressure in pipes during the
manufacturing process

Monitoring the position of objects in robotics

Proximity Distance Used in safety systems to prevent objects from
colliding

Temperature in Celsius, Fahrenheit or Used to maintain temperature in swimming pools

Temperature
Kelvin Used to control temperature in chemical processes

Worked Example
What type of sensor would be used to help drivers when reversing? [1]

A Motion

B Infra-red

C Light

D Proximity

Is this a monitoring system or a control system? [1]

A Monitoring

B Control

Answer

A Motion

B Infra-red

C Light

D Proximity

A Monitoring
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B Control

Primary Storage
 Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU
 Computer systems need both primary and secondary storage to operate
 Both types of storage play a crucial role in the operation of a computer system
 A quick comparison of primary and secondary storage shows:

Primary Secondary

Volatile (with the exception of ROM) Non-volatile

Small capacity Large capacity

Why do you need primary storage?

 A computer needs primary storage because access times are considerably faster than
secondary
 This means the time taken to complete operations such as the Fetch-Execute
Cycle is dramatically reduced
 Primary storage holds the data and instructions that the CPU needs to access whilst the
computer is turned on
 Due to the fast access times, primary storage is used as short-term, working memory, in
hardware that is directly connected to the CPU such as RAM, and components that reside
inside the CPU such as Cache and Registers
 Performance of primary storage means a much higher cost which limits the amount that is
used
 For example, RAM is commonly purchased in 16 or 32 gigabytes whereas secondary storage
such as a hard drive is in terabytes
RAM
What is RAM?
 RAM (Random Access Memory) is primary storage that is directly connected to the CPU
and holds the data and instructions that are currently in use
 RAM is volatile which means the contents of RAM are lost when the power is turned off
 For the CPU to access the data and instructions they must be copied from secondary storage
 RAM is very fast working memory, much faster than secondary storage
 RAM is read/write which means data can be read from and written to
 In comparison to ROM, it has a much larger capacity
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Just knowing what RAM is and what it stores is not enough, you must be able to apply your
understanding of RAM to real world contexts where RAM is a component, e.g. TVs, game consoles
and other smart devices
Worked Example
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A smart television allows the user to search the Internet and watch videos online.
The smart television uses RAM
Give two examples of data that the smart television could store in RAM [2]
How to answer this question
 Think about the main function of a smart television, watch channels, use apps to stream
content and browse the web etc
 For each function, try to think of what data would have to be in the RAM whilst you were
actually doing it (in use!)
Possible answers
 Current channel being watched
 Current volume
 Current video/file/tv program being watched
 Web browser/applications that are running
 Data being downloaded/buffered
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Examiners will accept anything reasonable when answering these style of questions BUT brand
names will not be be awarded without giving an example
ROM
What is ROM?
 ROM (Read Only Memory) is primary storage that holds the first instructions a computer
needs to start up (Bootstrap)
 ROM contains the BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
 ROM is a small memory chip located on the computers motherboard
 ROM is fast memory, much faster than secondary storage but slower than RAM
 ROM is non-volatile which means the contents of ROM are not lost when the power is turned
off
 ROM is read only which means data can only be read from
 In comparison to RAM, it has a much smaller capacity
Examiner Tips and Tricks
RAM & ROM are examples of primary storage, they can be referred to as Main Memory or Primary
Memory in the exam
Worked Example
Quinn has 512 kilobytes of ROM and 16 gigabytes of RAM in her computer
1. Describe the purpose of the ROM in Quinn's computer [2]
2. Describe the purpose of the RAM in Quinn's computer [2]
Answer
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1. ROM
 Store start-up instructions/bootstrap
 Used to start the computer
2. RAM
 Stores the parts of the OS / programs that are running
 Stores data currently in use
 ...for access by the CPU
Guidance
 Do not confuse the purpose with characteristics, describe what it does, not what it is

Secondary Storage
 Storage devices are non-volatile secondary storage, that retain digital data within a
computer system
 They provide a means of storing, accessing, and retrieving data, which can include software
applications, documents, images, videos, and more
 There are 3 types of storage:
o Magnetic
o Solid-state (flash memory)
o Optical
 Computer systems need both primary and secondary storage to operate
 Both types of storage play a crucial role in the operation of a computer system
 A quick comparison of primary and secondary storage shows:

Primary Secondary

Volatile (with the exception of ROM) Non-volatile

Small capacity Large capacity

Why do you need secondary storage?

 A computer needs secondary storage for long term storage of programs and data that
are currently not in use
 Secondary storage is needed as ROM is read only and RAM is volatile
 Secondary storage holds the programs and data whilst the computer is turned off (non-
volatile)
 Performance of secondary storage is slower than primary storage but capacity is
much higher which makes it perfect for backup & archive of data files
What are the characteristics of secondary storage?
 Capacity - What is the maximum amount of data that can be stored?
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 Speed - How fast can data be read from and written to? (R/W)
 Cost - How much does it cost?
 Portability - How easy is it to move around? What is the physical size? Weight?
 Durability - How robust is the storage?
 Reliability - What is the probability that the device will consistently perform its function?
Worked Example
A games console has secondary storage.
State, using an example, why the games console needs secondary storage [2]
How to answer this question
 They keyword is 'why', why does a games console need secondary storage? give an example,
do not just describe what secondary storage is!
Answer
 To store data once the power is turned off / permanently // for non-volatile storage
 Examples could include:
o Storing games
o Save games
o User data/profiles
o Downloaded content/applications/updates
Magnetic Storage
What is magnetic storage?
 Magnetic storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses magnets (polarity) to store binary
0s and 1s
 A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a magnetic material
o These are called platters
o Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1

 Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks and wedge shaped sectors
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 Where they intersect is a track sector

 The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically around 5400-7200 RPM)
using a motor
 A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface of the disc to
the location of the data
 The data is read/written using electromagnets

Advantages Disadvantages

Capacity - High storage Durability - Moving parts can get damaged if dropped

Portability - Heavy & bulky making them less convenient for

Cost - Low per gigabyte
transport

Speed - Moderate read/write access Reliability - Prone to mechanical failure

Noise - Loud (spinning disks)

Solid-state (Flash Memory)

What is solid state (flash memory)?
 Solid-state (flash memory) storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses electronic
circuits to store binary 0s and 1s
 Examples of solid state storage devices include:
o Solid state drives (SSD) - replacing magnetic hard drives as a computers primary
secondary storage device as capacity increases and cost decreases
o USB flash memory - most common form of portable storage device
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 It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently control the flow of
electrons

 Solid-state (flash memory) is memory made up of tiny cells that can contain one bit of
data (1 or 0)
 Each cell contains a transistor that acts as a switch that can be turned on or off
 The transistor contains two main parts:
o Control gate - top layer of transistor, connects to circuit and controls if current can
flow through the transistor
o Floating gate - can hold a charge (like a tiny rechargeable battery) and is sandwiched
between two layers of insulating material (Oxide)
 To store data a charge is placed on the floating gate
o A high voltage is applied to the control gate, which allows electrons to be pushed
through the oxide layer and onto the floating gate
 To remove data, a high voltage charge is applied in the opposite direction, pulling the
electrons off the floating gate

Advantages Disadvantages

Capacity - Medium/high storage Cost - Very high per gigabyte

Speed - Very fast read/write access Reliability - Limited read/write cycles

Durability - No moving parts

Portability - Small and no moving parts

Noise - Silent

Optical Storage
What is optical storage?
 Optical storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses lasers to burn the surface of a disk,
creating pits and lands suitable for storing binary 0s and 1s
 Examples of optical storage include:
o Blu-rays have the largest capacity
o CDs have the lowest capacity
o CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)
o CD-RW can be written to and read from
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o DVD-RW can be written to and read from

 All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the reflection
 An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
 In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by creating pits and lands
 The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
 When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa the light
scatters and is not reflected back as well.
 This is captured by a sensor and can be interpreted as a change in the binary value

Advantages Disadvantages

Cost - Very low per gigabyte Capacity - Very low

Durability - No moving parts Speed - Very slow read/write access

Portability - Small and no moving parts Reliability - Prone to scratches

Noise - Silent

Worked Example
Zarmeen has purchased a new tablet computer. The tablet has an internal secondary storage device.
The storage device is a solid state device.
1. Give three benefits of the tablet having a solid state device instead of a magnetic device [3]
2. Give two drawbacks of the tablet having a solid state device instead of a magnetic device [2]
Answers
 Benefits
o Faster access / read/write speeds
o Smaller in physical size
o More durable // no moving parts
 Drawbacks
o More expensive (per gigabyte)
o Smaller capacity (usually)
o Limited number of read/write cycles
Guidance
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 Portable is not enough on it's own

 No moving parts is not enough on it's own
Virtual Memory
What is virtual memory?

 Virtual memory is an extension of primary storage (RAM) located on secondary storage

 In situations where RAM is close to being full, virtual memory can be used so that the
computer remains operational
 Programs and data not currently being executed are transferred to virtual memory
 Programs and data are transferred back to RAM when they are needed
 Programs are stored as pages of data
 Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed
 Virtual memory is much slower than RAM and its use will impact negatively on system
performance
 To avoid the use of virtual memory, increase the size of the RAM
Example

 In the example above, the computer is turned on and the elements of the operating system are
loaded into RAM
 The user opens some spreadsheet and video editing software but RAM is full
 The program not currently being used (video editing) is transferred to virtual memory
 When the user wants to use the video editing software again, it is transferred back from
virtual memory to RAM
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Case Study
A student uses software to create 3D models.
 3D modelling often means processing large amounts of data
 This takes up a large amount of RAM
 If there is not enough physical RAM, virtual memory is used to:
o Extend the RAMs capacity
o Ensure the software does not freeze/crash when RAM gets full
Worked Example
A computer only has 4GB of RAM, Fynn says that virtual memory can be used instead of adding
more RAM.
1. Explain how virtual memory can compensate for the lack of RAM in Fynn's computer [3]
2. Explain why it would be beneficial for Fynn to get more RAM instead of relying on virtual
memory [2]
How to answer these questions
1. What is the definition of virtual memory? how does it work?
2. What is the downside of using virtual memory? turn this into an advantage of adding more
RAM
Answers
 How can Virtual Memory compensate
o Virtual Memory is used when RAM is full
o ...part of the secondary storage used as (temporary) RAM
o Data from RAM is moved to the secondary storage/Virtual Memory (to make space in
RAM)
o RAM can then be filled with new data
o When data in Virtual Memory is needed it is moved back to RAM
 Benefit of more RAM
o More RAM will improve the performance of the computer // More RAM will speed
up the access to data
o Virtual Memory is slower to access than RAM direct (because it has to go back to
RAM first)
o Moving data between RAM and VM takes processor time
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Cloud Storage
What is cloud storage?
 Cloud storage is a term to describe long-term (secondary) storage of data that resides in
a remote location, accessible only via a wide area network (Internet)
 Data is stored on remote servers, typically using magnetic storage (HDD), but increasingly
using solid state (SSD)

Advantages Disadvantages

Cost - Typically a
Reliability - Access data anywhere, any time, from any device monthly/yearly subscription
plan

Availability - No access
Security - Automatic backups
without an internet connection

Capacity - Endless storage space (cost permitting), uses less space on own
device

Collaboration - Multiple people can access the same file at the same time

Advantages of Cloud Storage

 Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local secondary storage device

Benefit Explanation

Accessibility  Data can be accessed from anywhere

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 Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant permissions, making it quick to
share files and collaborate with others
 Data can be accessed on any device with an internet connection

 Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or decrease their storage

Scalability
capacity as needed

 Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to store and backup data, reducing
Reliability
the risk of data loss due to hardware failure

 Cloud storage providers offer advanced security features, such as

data encryption and multi-factor authentication multi-factor authentication, to
Security protect user data from unauthorised access
 There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services being provided by the cloud
storage provider

 You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices

 One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of individual
servers
 There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
o If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have
problems accessing their files
o If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
 You have to pay the cloud storage provider
 You may need to commit to an annual subscription
 You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer limits
o Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
o Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the user does not
have complete control over it but is still legally responsible for ensuring
any personal and sensitive data is secure
Worked Example
A school currently stores all of their data on local servers. They are considering upgrading their
system to utilise cloud storage.
Explain two disadvantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
 You need a constant internet connection [1]
 if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access lesson files [1]
 if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access student data/take
electronic registers [1]
 if the internet connection failed, students would not be able to access their
work/coursework [1]
 Reliant on third party to carry out security procedures [1]
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 but the school is still legally responsible if data is accessed by unauthorised people [1]
 Data stored on the cloud could be hacked or intercepted [1]

Explain two advantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
 Additional storage can be purchased if needed [1]
 The cloud hosting company provides back up [1]
 The cloud hosting company provides security [1]
 Data can be accessed from anywhere and from any device provided there is an internet
connection [1]
 So teachers would be able to access data from home [1]
 So students would be able to access work from home [1]

Local Area Network Hardware: Network Interface Card (NIC)

 Network hardware is a selection of essential components that enable
the connectivity and communication of devices within computer networks
 Networks use a variety of hardware to function, some of which include:
o Router
o Wireless access point (WAP)
o Switch
o Transmission media
o Network interface card (NIC)
 The exam requires you to understand the purpose of the network interface card (NIC)
What is a network interface card (NIC)?
 The Network Interface Card (NIC) is required for a computer to connect to a network
 A NIC can be both wired and wireless and allows your computer to send and receive data
over a network
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MAC Addresses
What is a MAC address?
 A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier given to devices which
communicate over a local area network (LAN)
 A network interface card is given a MAC address at the point of manufacture
 MAC addresses are static, meaning they can never change
 MAC addresses make it possible for switches to efficiently forward data to the
intended recipient
 Any device that contains a Network Interface Card (NIC) has a MAC address assigned
during manufacturing
 A device connecting to a local network already has a MAC address, if it moves to a different
network then the MAC address will stay the same

 A MAC address is represented as 12 hexadecimal digits (48 bits), usually grouped in pairs
 The first three pairs are the manufacturer ID number (OUI) and the last three pairs are
the serial number of the network interface card (NIC)
 There are enough unique MAC addresses for roughly 281 trillion devices
IP Addresses
What is an IP address?
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 An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier given to devices which communicate

over the Internet (WAN)
 IP addresses can be static, meaning they stay the same or dynamic, meaning they can change
 IP addresses make it possible to deliver data to the right device
 A device connecting to a network will be given an IP address, if it moves to a different
network then the IP address will change
IPv4
 Internet Protocol version 4 is represented as 4 blocks of denary numbers between 0 and 255,
separated by full stops
 Each block is one byte (8 bits), each address is 4 bytes (32 bits)

 IPv4 provides over 4 billion unique addresses (232), however, with over 7 billion people
and countless devices per person, a solution was needed
IPv6
 Internet Protocol version 6 is represented as 8 blocks of 4 hexadecimal digits, separated
by colons
 Each block is 2 bytes (16 bits), each address is 16 bytes (128 bits)

 IPv6 could provide over one billion unique addresses for every person on the planet (2128)
Worked Example
Computers in a network can be identified using both IP addresses and MAC addresses.
Describe two differences between IP addresses and MAC addresses [2]
Answer
 IP address is dynamic/can change // MAC address is static/cannot change
 IP address is used to communicate on a WAN/Internet // MAC address is used to
communicate on a LAN
Router
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What is a router?
 The router is responsible for routing data packets between different networks
 An example of data the router can direct is, sending internet traffic to the correct
destination/devices in your home network
 The router connects networks together, local area networks (LAN) to the wider internet which
is a type of wide area network (WAN)
 The router can manage and prioritise data traffic, which can help to keep connections stable
 The router will assign IP addresses to the devices on the network

Image of a router

Image of how a router connects LANs to other networks

Worked Example
State 3 tasks carried out by a router [3]
To answer the question you must simply identify 3 tasks a router does
1 mark each to max 3 e.g.
 Send and Receive packets of data
 Connect a local network to the internet
 Assign IP addresses to nodes/devices
 Converts packets from one protocol to another