mathematics

Article
A Proposed Application of Fractional Calculus on Time
Dilation in Special Theory of Relativity
Ebrahem A. Algehyne 1 , Musaad S. Aldhabani 1 , Mounirah Areshi 1 , Essam R. El-Zahar 2,3 ,
Abdelhalim Ebaid 1, * and Hind K. Al-Jeaid 4

1 Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, P.O. Box 741, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia;
[email protected] (E.A.A.); [email protected] (M.S.A.); [email protected] (M.A.)
2 Department of Mathematics, College of Science and Humanities in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz
University, P.O. Box 83, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
3 Department of Basic Engineering Science, Faculty of Engineering, Menoufia University,
Shebin El-Kom 32511, Egypt
4 Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University,
Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: Time dilation (TD) is a principal concept in the special theory of relativity (STR). The
Einstein TD formula is the relation between the proper time t0 measured in a moving frame of
reference with velocity v and the dilated time t measured by a stationary observer. In this paper,
an integral approach is firstly presented to rededuce the Einstein TD formula. Then, the concept
of TD is introduced and examined in view of the fractional calculus (FC) by means of the Caputo
fractional derivative definition (CFD). In contrast to the explicit standard TD formula, it is found that
the fractional TD (FTD) is governed by a transcendental equation in terms of the hyperbolic function
and the fractional-order α. For small v compared with the speed of light c (i.e., v  c), our results
tend to Newtonian mechanics, i.e., t → t0 . For v comparable to c such as v = 0.9994c, our numerical
results are compared with the experimental ones for the TD of the muon particles µ+ . Moreover, the
influence of the arbitrary-order α on the FTD is analyzed. It is also declared that at a specific α, there
Citation: Algehyne, E.A.; Aldhabani, is an agreement between the present theoretical results and the corresponding experimental ones for
M.S.; Areshi, M.; El-Zahar, E.R.;
the muon particles µ+ .
Ebaid, A.; Al-Jeaid, H.K. A Proposed
Application of Fractional Calculus on
Keywords: fractional calculus; time dilation; special theory of relativity; muon decay
Time Dilation in Special Theory of
Relativity. Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343.
MSC: 83A05; 34A34
https://doi.org/10.3390/
math11153343

Academic Editors: Jagdev Singh and

Devendra Kumar 1. Introduction
Received: 21 June 2023 Fractional calculus (FC) is an extension of classical calculus (CC). FC has been used
Revised: 17 July 2023 to generalize/investigate numerous physical phenomena [1–3]. In the literature, various
Accepted: 23 July 2023 engineering and physical models have been studied in view of FC. Narahari et al. [4] applied
Published: 30 July 2023 FC to the dynamics of the fractional oscillator. In [5], Sebaa et al. investigated the ultrasonic
wave propagation in human cancelous bone in FC. Tarasov [6] discussed the fractional
Heisenberg equation. The fractional-order differential equation model of HIV infection
has been analyzed by Ding and Yea [7]. Wang et al. [8] introduced the time-fractional
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
diffusion equation and its applications in fractional quantum mechanics. Other interesting
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
models in different areas have been considered by Song et al. [9], Gomez-Aguilara et al. [10],
This article is an open access article
Machado et al. [11], Garcia [12], Machado [13], and Liaqat et al. [14].
distributed under the terms and
In addition, Ebaid [15] and Ebaid et al. [16] analyzed the fractional model describ-
conditions of the Creative Commons
ing the projectile motion by means of the Caputo fractional derivative (CFD). Moreover,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
Ebaid et al. [16] compared their results utilizing the CFD with the available experimental
4.0/).
data, while Ahmed et al. [17] imposed the Riemann–Liouville fractional derivative (RLFD)

Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343. https://doi.org/10.3390/math11153343 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics

Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 2 of 11

to analyze the same problem. In Refs. [17,18], the authors investigated the astronomical
model of the surface brightness in the Milky Way utilizing the CFD. Furthermore, it was
shown in Ref. [19] that the exact solution of such a model is available using an analytical
approach. El-Zahar et al. [20] extended the application of the RLFD to solve the same
astronomical model in a closed form. In Refs. [21–29], several ideas and applications of
FC have been introduced. Very recently, Aljohani et al. [30] studied the fractional chlorine
transport model, while Ebaid and Al-Jeaid [31] obtained the dual solution for a class of
engineering oscillatory problems via the RLFD.
The concept of time dilation (TD) may have appeared with the advent of the special
theory of relativity; see Refs. [32,33]. According to this concept, our understanding of
all physical phenomena that depend on the velocity of the observer has changed. Thus,
we have now what is called relativistic mechanics, which leads to the corresponding
results in the classical Newtonian mechanics in the case of small relative velocity of the
observer compared with the speed of light. A simple derivation of the TD formula has
been introduced in Ref. [34]. Indeed, empirical science has proven the truth of Einstein’s
predictions about time dilation. In fact, the validity of Einstein’s TD formula has been
demonstrated by conducting a variety of experiments. Consequently, relativistic mechanics
has become the cornerstone of modern physics, especially when studying the decay of
particles that move with velocities close to the speed of light, such as muons.
In this regard, the CERN experiment [35] revealed that the empirical results are in
agreement with the theoretical ones with 95% accuracy. But a question remains open:
Where did the rest of the accuracy (i.e., 5%) go? In other words, why do we not find
complete agreement between CERN’s results and Einstein’s TD formula? Perhaps the
answer lies in rededucing the TD formula through considering another approach like the
FC concept, as an example. This is the main motivation to put forward the current study.
Therefore, this issue will be rebranded in light of FC. To achieve this target, we rededuce
the Einstein standard TD formula using the concept of integration in the CC. Hence, a
proposed generalization of such an integral formula is addressed by incorporating FC. By
this, the concept of TD will be extended/generalized, and thus, a fractional TD formula
(FTD) is to be derived. Since the fractional integral depends mainly on an arbitrary order
α ∈ (0, 1], the influence of α on the results is addressed. Finally, several comparisons with
the standard TD formula are performed, as well as with the experimental results.

2. Concepts of the FC
The Riemann–Liouville fractional integral of order α is defined as [1–3]:
Z x
α 1 y(τ )
0 Ix y ( x ) = dτ, α > 0, x > 0. (1)
Γ(α) 0 ( x − τ )1− α

Let α 6= 0 denote the order of the derivative in such a way that n − 1 < α ≤ n. Then, the
Caputo fractional derivative (CFD) of a function y( x ) is defined by [1–3]
 Rx
1 n−α−1 y(n) ( τ ) dτ, if n − 1 < α < n,
 Γ(n−α) 0 ( x − τ )


C α
0 Dx y( x ) = (2)
 dn y( x ) ,


dx n if α = n.

Particularly, for 0 < α ≤ 1, the CFD of a function y( x ) is defined by

 Rx
1 −α 0
 Γ(1−α) 0 ( x − τ ) y (τ )dτ, if 0 < α < 1,


C α
0 Dx y( x ) = (3)
 dy( x) ,


dx if α = 1.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 3 of 11

One of the main important properties of the CFD is given by

Γ ( k + 1)
C α k
0 Dx x = x k−α , 0 < α < 1, (4)
Γ(k + 1 − α)

where Γ(k + 1) and Γ(k + 1 − α) are the Gamma functions. For k = 1, we have from
Equation (4) that
C α x 1− α
D
0 x x = . (5)
Γ (2 − α )
The hypergeometric function 2 F1 ( a, b; c; z) is defined by the integral:

Γ(c)
Z 1
2 F1 ( a, b; c; z ) = ψb−1 (1 − ψ)c−b−1 (1 − zψ)− a dψ. (6)
Γ(b)Γ(c − b) 0

The last two relations are used later to derive the formula of TD in view of FC, utilizing the
CFD, and are symbolized by FTD. However, the following lemmas facilitate the derivation
of the FTD formula.

Lemma 1. For c = b + 1, we have

Z 1
1
ψb−1 (1 − zψ)− a dψ = 2 F ( a, b; b + 1; z ). (7)
0 b 1

Proof. Setting c = b + 1 in Equation (6) yields

Γ ( b + 1)
Z 1
2 F1 ( a, b; b + 1; z ) = ψb−1 (1 − zψ)− a dψ, (8)
Γ ( b ) Γ (1) 0

i.e.,
Z 1
2 F1 ( a, b; b + 1; z ) = b ψb−1 (1 − zψ)− a dψ, (9)
0
and hence,
Z 1
1
ψb−1 (1 − zψ)− a dψ = 2 F ( a, b; b + 1; z ). (10)
0 b 1
which completes the proof.

Lemma 2. For r > 0, we have the integral:

Z 1p  
1 1 1
I= 1 + ηξ r dξ = F
2 1 − , ; + 1; − η . (11)
0 2 r r

Proof. The integral I can be rewritten as

Z 1p Z 1p
1
I= 1 + ηξ r dξ = 1 + ηξ r ξ 1−r dξ r , (12)
0 r 0

where
1 1−r r
ξ dξ , dξ = (13)
r
is implemented. Assuming a new variable ψ in the form:

ψ = ξr, (14)

then, Equation (12) leads to

Z 1
1 1 1
I= ψ r −1 (1 + ηψ) 2 dψ. (15)
r 0
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 4 of 11

From Equation (10), we have, for a = − 21 , b = 1r , and z = −η, that

Z 1  
1 1 1 1 1
ψ r −1 (1 + ηψ) 2 dψ = r 2 F1 − , ; + 1; −η . (16)
0 2 r r

Substituting (16) into (15) completes the proof.

3. Derivation of Standard TD Formula via Integral Technique

Consider a photon projected vertically toward the mirror in Figure 1. A stationary
observer will find the time t0 taken by the photon to cut the distances DA (up) and AD
(down after reflection) as
2 DA
t0 = . (17)
c
For another nonstationary observer moving with a relative velocity v in the x-direction, the
path of the photon is seen as the diagonal OA (before reflection) and then the diagonal AB
(just after reflection). Accordingly, the time t measured by the nonstationary observer is

2 OA
t= , (18)
c
where OA=AB. Based on the geometry of Figure 1, we have the following coordinates for
the points A, D, and B
   
vt ct0 vt
A= , , B = (vt, 0), D = ,0 . (19)
2 2 2

The relation between t and t0 was obtained by Einstein as t = r t0 and known as

2
1− v2
c
Einstein’s TD formula. It was basically derived from the fact that the triangle OAD is a
right-angled triangle. This relation is deduced in this section via integral formula. The first
step is to express the length of the hypotenuse OA in the integral form:
Z vt q
2
OA = 1 + [ f 0 ( x )]2 dx, (20)
0

where f ( x ) describes the straight line passing through the origin O = (0, 0) and the point
ct0
A = ( vt
2 , 2 ).

y
A

O D B
x
Figure 1. Geometrical figure for the derivation of the standard TD formula via an integral approach.

The equation of the straight line OA is given by

 
ct0
f (x) = x, (21)
vt
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 5 of 11

or  
t0 v
f (x) = x, where β= . (22)
βt c
Hence, Equation (20) gives
s 2
vt 
t0
Z
2
OA = 1+ dx,
0 βt
s
t2
 
vt
= 1 + 20 2 . (23)
β t 2

Substituting (23) into (18) yields

s
t20
t=β 1+ . (24)
β2 t2

Solving this equation for t, we obtain

t0
t= p , (25)
1 − β2

which is the Einstein’s TD formula in the special theory of relativity (STR).

4. The TD in FC (FTD)
In view of the FC, the first-order derivative f 0 ( x ) can be replaced by the generalized
derivative 0C Dxα f ( x ) of arbitrary-order α (α ∈ (0, 1]). It may be important here to refer
to the fact that the present CFD is chosen just to give an example for the application of
fractional derivative operators to extend the concept of TD in FC. On occasion, other
fractional derivative operators such as the RLFD [20] and the conformable derivative [21]
can be utilized in separate works. Accordingly, a generalized form of Equation (20) may be
defined by
Z vt q 2
2
1 + 0C Dxα f ( x ) dx.

OA = (26)
0
 
t0
Since f ( x ) = βt x, then
x 1− α
 
C α t0
0 Dx f ( x ) = , (27)
βt Γ (2 − α )
or  
δ
C α
0 Dx f ( x ) = x 1− α , (28)
βγ
where
t 1
γ= , δ= . (29)
t0 Γ (2 − α )
Inserting (28) into (26) gives
s 2
Z vt 
2 δ
OA = 1+ x2−2α dx. (30)
0 βγ

Suppose that  
vt
x= ξ, (31)
2
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 6 of 11

it then follows from (30) that

s 2  2−2α
Z 1 
vt δ vt
OA = 1+ ξ 2−2α dξ, (32)
2 0 βγ 2

When comparing the integral in the right-hand side of Equation (32) with the integral I in
(11), we find
 2  2−2α
δ vt
η= , r = 2 − 2α. (33)
βγ 2
Therefore,
s 2−2α
δ 2 vt 2−2α
Z 1 2  !
3 − 2α
    
δ vt 1 1
1+ ξ 2−2α dξ = 2 F1 − , ; ;− . (34)
0 βγ 2 2 2 − 2α 2 − 2α βγ 2

Consequently, Equation (32) becomes

 2  2−2α !
vt 1 1 3 − 2α δ vt
OA = 2 F1 − , ; ;− . (35)
2 2 2 − 2α 2 − 2α βγ 2

From (18) and (35), we obtain

 2  2−2α !
1 1 3 − 2α δ vt
β 2 F1 − , ; ;− = 1. (36)
2 2 − 2α 2 − 2α βγ 2

The last equation can also be written in terms of t and t0 as

2  2−2α !
3 − 2α

1 1 t0 vt
β 2 F1 − , ; ;− = 1. (37)
2 2 − 2α 2 − 2α tβΓ(2 − α) 2

It is noted from Equation (37) that the time t of the observer in motion cannot be obtained
explicitly in terms of other parameters. However, the numerical solution of Equation (37)
is available once the values of α, t0 , and v are assigned. In addition, the FTD formula (37)
reduces to the standard TD formula as α → 1. This is the subject of the next section.

5. Derivation of Standard TD Formula as a Special Case: α → 1

The objective of this section is to derive the standard TD formula from the fractional
one (37) as α → 1. To do so, we notice from Equation (33) that
 2  2−2α  2
δ vt δ
η= → , r = 2 − 2α → 0 when α → 1. (38)
βγ 2 βγ

Also,
 it is important here
 to mention the following property of the hypergeometric function
1 1 1
2 F1 − 2 , r ; r + 1; − η :

 
1 1 1 p
lim 2 F1 − , ; + 1; −η = 1 + η. (39)
r →0 2 r r

Therefore,
 2 ! s  2
1 1 1 δ δ
lim 2 F1 − , ; + 1; − = 1+
r →0 2 r r βγ βγ
s  2
t0
= 1+ , (40)
tβ
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 7 of 11

1
where δ = Γ (2− α )
→ 1 as α → 1. Equation (40) is equivalent to

2  2−2α ! s  2
3 − 2α

1 1 t0 vt t
lim 2 F1 − , ; ;− = 1+ 0 . (41)
α →1 2 2 − 2α 2 − 2α tβΓ(2 − α) 2 tβ

Based on the above, we have from Equation (37) as α → 1 that

s  2
t0
β 1+ = 1, (42)
tβ

which can be easily solved for t to give the standard TD formula:

t0
t= p . (43)
1 − β2

6. Results and Discussion

This section is devoted to extract some numerical results for the time t measured by
the observer in the moving frame with velocity v. Two cases for v are addressed here.
The first case considers small values of v compared with the speed of light c (v  c), i.e.,
nonrelativistic (NR) velocity. In this case, it is demonstrated that the present numerical
results agree with those of the classical Newtonian mechanics, i.e., t → t0 . The second case
considers those values of v that are comparable to c, such as v = 0.9994c, which was used
for studying the decay of muon particles [35]. In addition, the obtained numerical results
are compared with the experimental results for the TD of the muon particles. Furthermore,
the impact of the arbitrary-order α on the values of the FTD is analyzed. Before launching
to the main purpose of this discussion, we may rewrite Equation (37) as
2  2−2α !
3 − 2α

1 1 t0 vt
φ(α) = β 2 F1 − , ; ;− − 1 = 0. (44)
2 2 − 2α 2 − 2α tβΓ(2 − α) 2

Equation (44) is solved numerically at different values of α, and the results are tabulated in
Tables 1 and 2 for v = 5 × 10−6 c = 1.495 [km/s] and v = 10−5 c = 2.99 [km/s], respectively.
Two different values of the proper time t0 are selected to conduct the numerical values of
the time t in the moving frame. The obtained results in Tables 1 and 2 reveal that t → t0
for certain values of α, specifically, α ≥ 0.9. This means that the present results agree with
Newtonian mechanics when α is in the range 0.9 ≤ α ≤ 1 for NR velocities.

Table 1. The numerical values of t [s] (the proper time of observer’s reference frame) at different
values of α ∈ (0, 1) for NR velocity v = 5 × 10−6 c = 1.495 [km/s].

α Values of t at t0 = 1 [s] Values of t at t0 = 5 [s]

1/8 0.001250 488.270
1/4 0.062417 39.0105
3/8 0.225690 16.4981
1/2 0.422998 10.5750
5/8 0.609126 7.99943
3/4 0.768356 6.56935
7/8 0.897999 5.65066
9/10 0.920515 5.04528
99/100 0.992784 5.03833
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 8 of 11

Table 2. The numerical values of t [s] (the proper time of observer’s reference frame) at different
values of α ∈ (0, 1) for NR velocity v = 10−5 c = 2.99 [km/s].

α Values of t at t0 = 1 [s] Values of t at t0 = 3 [s]

1/8 0.159996 1049.74
1/4 0.499334 40.4461
3/8 0.716522 13.4138
1/2 0.845997 7.61397
5/8 0.923262 5.35450
3/4 0.968067 4.18858
7/8 0.991472 3.47986
9/10 0.994211 3.36987
99/100 0.999759 3.03275

However, at a relativistic velocity v = 0.9994c [km/s], the experiment [35] achieved

some numerical results which are used here for the purpose of comparisons.
The experimental work [35] showed that the lifetime t0 of the muon particles µ+ was
2.1966 [µs], while the corresponding lifetimes measured in the moving frame of µ+ and µ−
were 64.419 [µs]. In order to compare our results with the corresponding experimental ones
in Ref. [35] for the muon particles µ+ , we consider the same inputs as t0 = 2.1966 × 10−6 [s]
and v = 0.9994c [km/s]. Substituting these values into Equation (44) and solving the
equation numerically for t, we obtain the results presented in Table 3 at different values of
α. It can be seen from Table 3 that the present values of the FTD approach the experimental
value for the TD of muon particles µ+ when α = 0.99.

Table 3. Comparisons between the present results for t [s] and the experimental value [35] for
Muons particles µ+ at different values of α ∈ (0, 1) at relativistic velocity v = 0.9994c [km/s] at
t0 = 2.1966 × 10−6 [s].

α Present Values of t [s] The Experimental Value of t [s]

1/8 11.1279 64.419 × 10−6
1/4 12.0959 × 10−3 64.419 × 10−6
3/8 12.2091 × 10−4 64.419 × 10−6
1/2 38.2532 × 10−5 64.419 × 10−6
5/8 18.8608 × 10−5 64.419 × 10−6
3/4 11.6751 × 10−5 64.419 × 10−6
7/8 82.4427 × 10−6 64.419 × 10−6
9/10 77.7699 × 10−6 64.419 × 10−6
99/100 64.6015 × 10−6 64.419 × 10−6

One can expect that there is a certain value of α at which the congruence between our
theoretical results and the experimental value can occur. In order to detect such a certain value
of α, we plotted the behavior of φ(α) in different ranges of α in Figures 2 and 3 , specifically
α ∈ [0, 0.7] (Figure 2) and α ∈ [0.7, 1] (Figure 3), by implementing the experimental values for
v, t0 , and t. Let αexp denote the value of α at which the congruence between our theoretical
results and the experimental value occurs. Since the curve of φ(α) in Figure 2 lies above the
horizontal axis, there is no root for the equation φ(α) = 0 in the range α ∈ [0, 0.7]; this means
that αexp 6∈ [0, 0.7]. However, it is observed from Figure 3 that the equation φ(α) = 0 has a
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 9 of 11

single root in the interval [0.95,1], which means that αexp ∈ [0.95, 1]. Numerically, it is found
that αexp = 0.991519 through using MATHEMATICA12 to solve the equation φ(α) = 0. The
last result may give the answer to the question asked above. Hence, the current study sheds
some light on the concept of TD from the FC point of view. Finally, the present idea may deserve
further extensions by including other definitions in FC.

ΦHΑL

0.015

0.010

0.005

Α
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Figure 2. Plots of φ(α) in Equation (44) vs. α at v = 0.9994c [km/s], t0 = 2.1966 × 10−6 [s],
t = 64.419 × 10−6 [s] in the range α ∈ [0, 0.7].

ΦHΑL

0.0010

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0002

Α
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
Figure 3. Plots of φ(α) in Equation (44) vs. α at v = 0.9994c [km/s], t0 = 2.1966 × 10−6 [s],
t = 64.419 × 10−6 [s] in the range α ∈ [0.7, 1].

7. Conclusions
In this paper, the standard TD formula in the STR is rededuced utilizing an integral
approach. Based on such integral approach, the TD is extended in fractional calculus (FC)
using the CFD. It is shown that the fractional TD (FTD) is governed by a transcendental
equation in terms of the hyperbolic function and the fractional-order α, i.e., unlike the
Mathematics 2023, 11, 3343 10 of 11

explicit standard TD formula in the STR. In addition, it is demonstrated that the present
numerical results agree with those of the classical Newtonian mechanics, i.e., t → t0 ,
when v is not comparable to c (i.e., v  c). Moreover, the current numerical results are
compared with the experimental ones for the TD of the muon particles µ+ . The influence
of the arbitrary-order α on the variation of the FTD is investigated. The value of α at the
agreement between the present theoretical results and the corresponding experimental ones
is calculated for the TD of the muons particles µ+ . The present work may be introduced for
the first time to introduce the concept of TD in view of FC. The famous relation between
energy E and mass m, known as E = mc2 , may be considered as future directions and
potential applications in related fields. Furthermore, the present concept of TD may deserve
further extension through other different definitions in FC.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.A.A., M.A. and A.E.; methodology, E.A.A., M.S.A.,
M.A. and A.E.; software, M.S.A. and A.E.; validation, E.R.E.-Z. and A.E.; formal analysis, M.A., A.E.
and H.K.A.-J.; investigation, E.A.A. and M.S.A.; resources, A.E.; writing—original draft, H.K.A.-J.;
writing—review & editing, A.E.; visualization, H.K.A.-J.; supervision, E.R.E.-Z.; project adminis-
tration, E.R.E.-Z.; funding acquisition, E.R.E.-Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study is supported via funding from Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University project
number (PSAU/2023/R/1444).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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