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Chapter 6
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allow the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream (many-to-one).
At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the
stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their
corresponding lines.
In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path.
The word channel refers to the portion of a link.

Frequency-Division Multiplexing
In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies.
Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated
signal.
These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth—guard bands—to prevent signals
from overlapping.
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Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of
fiber-optic cable.
The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share
the high bandwidth of a link.
TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data from different sources are
combined into one timeshared link.
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-
rate one.
TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical.
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Chapter7
Guided media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of
the medium.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.
Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together.
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.
The receiver uses the difference between the two.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twistedpair
cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor,
which completes the circuit.
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This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected
by a plastic cover
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
Chapter8
Virtual-Circuit Networks
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram
network.
It has some characteristics of both.
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data
transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on
demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the
header.
However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what the next switch should
be and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data-link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network
layer.
But this may change in the future.
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Chapter9
Framing
Definitely, the first service provided by the data-link layer is framing.
The data-link layer at each node needs to encapsulate the datagram (packet received from the
network layer) in a frame before sending it to the next node.
The node also needs to decapsulate the datagram from the frame received on the logical
channel.
Flow Control
If the producer produces items that cannot be consumed, accumulation of items occurs.
The sending data-link layer at the end of a link is a producer of frames; the receiving data-link
layer at the other end of a link is a consumer.
If the rate of produced frames is higher than the rate of consumed frames, frames at the
receiving end need to be buffered while waiting to be consumed (processed).
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Chapter10
Block coding
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called datawords.
We add r redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting n-bit blocks
are called codewords.
The receiver can detect a change in the original codeword.
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.

Checksum
Checksum is an error-detecting technique that can be applied to a message of any length.
In the Internet, the checksum technique is mostly used at the network and transport layer
rather than the data-link layer.
However, to make our discussion of error-detecting techniques complete.
At the source, the message is first divided into m-bit units.
The generator then creates an extra m-bit unit called the checksum, which is sent with the
message.
At the destination, the checker creates a new checksum from the combination of the message
and sent checksum.
If the new checksum is all 0s, the message is accepted; otherwise, the message is discarded.
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Chapter11
Simple Protocol
Our first protocol is a simple protocol with neither flow nor error control.
The receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives.
The receiver can never be overwhelmed with incoming frames.
Figure shows the layout for this protocol.
The data-link layer at the sender gets a packet from its network layer, makes a frame out of it,
and sends the frame.
The data-link layer at the receiver receives a frame from the link, extracts the packet from the
frame, and delivers the packet to its network layer.
The data-link layers of the sender and receiver provide transmission services for their network
layers.
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Stop-and-Wait Protocol
The Stop-and-Wait protocol, uses both flow and error control.
Everytime, the sender sends one frame it starts a time and waits for an acknowledgment before
sending the next one.
To detect corrupted frames, a CRC is added to each data frame.
If an acknowledgment arrives before the timer expires, the timer is stopped and the sender
sends the next frame (if it has one to send).
If the timer expires, the sender resends the previous frame, assuming that the frame was either
lost or corrupted.
The sender needs to keep a copy of the frame until its acknowledgment arrives.
The corresponding acknowledgment arrives, the sender discards the copy and sends the next
frame if it is ready.
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Chapter12
Random Access Method
In a random-access method, each station has the right to the medium without being controlled
by any other station.

ALOHA
ALOHA designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.

Reservation
In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data.
Time is divided into intervals.
In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval.
If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation minislots in the reservation
frame.
Each minislot belongs to a station.
When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a reservation in its own minislot.
The stations that have made reservations can send their data frames after the reservation
frame.
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Polling
Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station and the
other devices are secondary stations.
All data exchanges must be made through the primary device even when the ultimate
destination is a secondary device.
The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its instructions.
It is up to the primary device to determine which device is allowed to use the channel at a given
time.
The primary device, therefore, is always the initiator of a session.
Whenever the primary device has something to send.
Remember that the primary controls the link.
If the primary is neither sending nor receiving data, it knows the link is available.
If it has something to send, the primary device sends it.
Before sending data, the primary creates and transmits a select (SEL) frame, one field of which
includes the address of the intended secondary.
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