Polynomial and Rational Functions

Linear and quadratic functions are special cases of the more general class of polynomial
functions. Polynomial functions are a special case of an even larger class of functions, the
rational functions.

Polynomial Functions

Definition (Polynomial Function). A polynomial function is a function that can be written in

the form

for n a nonnegative integer, called the degree of the polynomial. The coefficients
are real numbers with . The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real
numbers.

In the case when the leading coefficient (that is, the coefficient of the highest-degree
term) is positive, the odd-degree polynomial graphs start negative, end positive, and cross the x
axis at least once; the even-degree polynomial graphs start positive, end positive, and may not
cross the x axis at all. If the leading coefficient is negative, then the graph will be similar but
reflected in the x axis.

A polynomial of degree n can have, at most, n linear factors. Therefore, the graph of a
polynomial function of positive degree n can intersect x axis at most n times. An x intercept of a
function is also called a zero or root of the function.

The graph of a polynomial function is continuous, with no holes or breaks. That is, the
graph can be drawn without removing a pen from the paper. Also, the graph of a polynomial has
no sharp corners.

Rational Functions

Definition (Rational Function). A rational function is any function that can be written in the
form
,

where and are polynomials. The domain is the set of all real numbers such that
.

The number of vertical asymptotes of a rational function is at most

equal to the degree of . A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote.
Moreover, the graph of a rational function approaches the horizontal asymptote (when one
exists) both as x increases and decreases without bound.

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Example. Given the rational function

(A) Find the domain.

(B) Find the x and y intercepts.
(C) Find the equations of all vertical asymptotes.
(D) If there is a horizontal asymptote, find its equation.

Solution.

(A) , so the denominator is 0 if x = -2 or x = 2. Therefore the domain is the

set of all real numbers except -2 and 2.

(B) x intercepts: only if 3x = 0, or x = 0. So the only x intercept is 0.

y intercept:
.
So the y intercept is 0.

(C) Consider individually the values of x for which the denominator is 0, namely, 2 and -2.
(i) If x = 2, the numerator is 6, and denominator is 0, so f (2) is undefined. But for
numbers just to right of 2 (like 2.1, 2.01, 2.001), the numerator is close to 6, and the denominator
is a positive number close to 0, so the fraction is large and positive. For numbers just to the
left of 2 (like 1.9, 1.99, 1.999), the numerator is close to 6, and the denominator is a negative
number close to 0, so the fraction is large (in absolute value) and negative. Therefore, the
line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote, and is positive to the right of the asymptote, and negative
to the left.
(ii) If x = -2, the numerator is -6, and denominator is 0, so f (-2) is undefined. But for
numbers just to right of -2 (like -1.9, -1.99, -1.999), the numerator is close to -6, and the
denominator is a negative number close to 0, so the fraction is large and positive. For
numbers just to the left of -2 (like -2.1, -2.01, -2.001), the numerator is close to -6, and the
denominator is a positive number close to 0, so the fraction is large (in absolute value) and
negative. Therefore, the line x = -2 is a vertical asymptote, and is positive to the right of
the asymptote, and negative to the left.

(D) Rewrite by dividing each term in the numerator and denominator by the highest power
of x in :

As x increases or decreases without bound, the numerator tends to 0 and the denominator tends
to 1; so, tends to 0. The line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

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 Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Consider the rational function

where and are polynomials.

Vertical asymptotes:
Case 1. Suppose and have no real zero in common. If c is a real number such that
, then the line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
Case 2. If and have one or more real zeros in common, cancel common linear factors
and apply Case 1 to the reduced function. (The reduced function has the same asymptotes as f.)

Horizontal asymptotes:
Case 1. If degree < degree , then y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
Case 2. If degree = degree , then y = a/b is the horizontal asymptote, where a is the
leading coefficient of , and b is the leading coefficient of .
Case 3. If degree > degree , there is no horizontal asymptote.

A function f is bounded if the entire graph of f lies between two horizontal lines. The
only polynomials that are bounded are the constant functions, but there are many rational
functions that are bounded.

Applications

Example (Employee Training). A company that manufactures computers has established that,
on the average, a new employee can assemble N (t) components per day after t days of on-the-
job training, as given by
.
Sketch a graph of N, , including any vertical or horizontal asymptotes. What does
N(t) approach as t increases without bound?

Solution.
Vertical asymptotes: None for .
Horizontal asymptote:

N (t) approaches 50 (the leading coefficient of 50t divided by the leading coefficient of t + 4) as t
increases without bound. So y = 50 is a horizontal asymptote.
It appears that 50 components per day would be the upper limit that an employee would
be expected to assemble.