Strengthening of masonry structures

Elements of Masonry structures

Masonry buildings represent box-type structural system composed of vertical structural elements –
walls, and horizontal structural elements - floors and roofs. Vertical gravity loads are transferred
from the floors and roof, which act as horizontal flexural elements, to the bearing walls, which
support the floors and act as vertical compression members. Finally, the loads are transferred from
the bearing walls to the foundation system and into the ground.

The Key elements in a masonry building are:

1. Walls
2. Openings
3. Lintels
4. Bond-beams (horizontal bands)
5. Floor slabs
6. Roof
7. Tie columns and tie beams
8. Vertical and horizontal reinforcements in walls

The behaviour of these elements during an earthquake needs to be understood. Adequate design
and detailing of such elements can help to significantly enhance the earthquake resistance of a
masonry building. Guidance on some of the construction and detailing aspects is provided by
national and international codes such as NBC, IS, EC etc.

Walls

From the viewpoint of the structural system, which resists the seismic loads, the walls of a masonry
building can be classified as:

 Structural walls – walls which resist the horizontal loads acting on the building, and
 Non-structural walls – walls having exclusively the function of partitioning the building space

With regard to the carrying of vertical loads, the structural walls can be further subdivided into two
categories, namely:

 Load-bearing walls, which carry their own weight and vertical loads from the floors, and
 Bracing walls, which carry their own weight, but do not support the floors.

IS1905:1987 classifies walls as follows:

1. Structural walls

Load-bearing wall: A wall designed to carry an imposed vertical load in addition to its own
weight, together with any lateral load.

Shear wall: A wall designed to carry horizontal forces acting in its plane with or without vertical
imposed loads.
 2. Non-structural walls

Partition walls: An interior non-load bearing wall, one storey or part storey in height

Panel walls: An exterior non-load bearing wall in framed construction, wholly supported at each
storey but subjected to lateral loads

Distribution of Structural walls: In order to improve seismic performance, structural walls in a

masonry building should be uniformly distributed in two orthogonal directions. Their number and
strength should be sufficient to resist the induced seismic loads.

The walls should be firmly connected to the floors, which, acting as rigid horizontal diaphragms,
distribute horizontal seismic forces to the walls in proportion to their stiffness.

The arrangement chosen for masonry walls will not usually be critical from the structural point of
view provided that a reasonable balance is allowed between walls oriented in the principal
directions of the building so as to permit the development of adequate resistance to lateral forces in
both of these directions.

Very unsymmetrical arrangements should be avoided as these will give rise to torsional effects under
lateral loading which will be difficult to calculate and which may produce undesirable stress
distributions.

Stair wells, lift shafts and service ducts play an important part in deciding layout and are often of
primary importance in providing lateral rigidity.

Wall arrangements: The wall arrangements possible in a masonry building can be classified as
follows:

• Cellular wall systems

• Simple or double cross-wall systems

• Complex arrangements.

A cellular arrangement is one in which both internal and external walls are load-bearing and in which
these walls form a cellular pattern in plan. Figure 1.1 (a) shows an example of such a wall layout.

The second category includes simple cross-wall structures in which the main bearing walls are at
right angles to the longitudinal axis of the building. The floor slabs span between the main cross-
walls, and longitudinal stability is achieved by means of corridor walls, as shown in Fig. 1.1(b). This
type of structure is suitable for a hostel or hotel building having a large number of identical rooms.
The outer walls may be clad in non-loadbearing masonry or with other materials.

All kinds of hybrids between cellular and cross-wall arrangements are possible, and these are
included under the heading ‘complex’, a typical example being shown in Fig. 1.1(d).
 Typical wall arrangements in masonry buildings

Vertical reinforcement in walls

As per NBC 109 steel bars shall be installed at the critical sections in the wall right from the
foundation concrete. Such critical sections typically include the corners of walls and jambs of doors.
The masonry cavities containing the steel bars shall then be covered with cement concrete. This
concrete mix should be 1:2:4 by volume or stronger.

The vertical steel at an opening may be stopped by bending it into the lintel band, whereas the
vertical steel at corners and junctions of walls must be taken into the floor slab, roof slab, or roof
band.
Floors- A floor or a roof structure can be made of reinforced or precast concrete or timber joists
provided the floor or roof structure is capable of developing horizontal diaphragm action.

The connection between the floors and walls should be provided by steel ties or R.C. bond-beams.
The design lateral loads should be transferred between the walls and interconnecting elements
either by means of anchors (straps) or by the frictional resistance between the walls and the floors
or roofs.

Different types of floors can be used in the earthquake resistant construction of masonry buildings.
Monolithic R.C slabs, which are cast simultaneously with R.C. bond-beams, represent the most
simple solution. Sufficient bearing length, being not less than 65 mm in normal cases, should provide
the required bearing capacity and transfer of shear forces.

Prefabricated floors: In cases where the floors are made of prefabricated, reinforced-concrete, or
reinforced-masonry elements, precast elements should be well anchored into the bond-beams along
the wall. R.C. topping having a minimum thickness of 40mm, made of at least grade C20 concrete
and reinforced with at least 6-mm diameter bars at 200mm intervals in both orthogonal directions,
placed at the mid-depth of the topping, should be cast simultaneously with R.C bond beams.

In cases where the floors are made of large prefabricated elements without R.C topping, steel
connectors should be provided along the connections between two elements to transfer the shear
and tension forces developed in the horizontal diaphragm during an earthquake from one element
to another. Steel connectors should be strong enough to ensure monolithic rigid diaphragm action of
the floor during the strongest expected earthquake.

Wooden floors: wooden floors represent flexible horizontal diaphragms. As some recent
experimental and analytical studies indicate, the flexibility of horizontal wooden floors, adequately
anchored to structural walls, may improve the seismic behaviour of masonry buildings in the specific
case of long span structural walls.

In the case of wooden floors, rigid horizontal diaphragm action is provided by nailing plywood to
timber joists at the bottom and top, or by nailing boards or planks to timber joists in both diagonal
directions: in one direction at the bottom and in the other one at the top. Sometimes wooden floors
are stiffened by nailing boards or planks in both orthogonal directions only at the top of the joists.

Considering seismic resistance, R.C bond-beams or steel ties should be provided along the walls, and
timber joists be anchored into the bond-beams or walls with steel anchors.

Horizontal Bond-beams (bands)

Horizontal R.C bond-beams should be constructed at the top of all structural walls at every floor
level, or with a distance not exceeding 4m between them. Bond-beams represent a horizontal
framing system which;

 Transfers the horizontal shear induced by the earthquakes from the floors to the
structural walls
 Connects the structural walls
 Improves the in-plane rigidity of horizontal floor diaphragms
 In combination with vertical tie-columns, improves the strength and energy
dissipation capacity of masonry walls

The various types of horizontal bond-beams that is recommended by NBC 109 are:

1. Plinth band (tie-beam)

2. Lintel bands
3. Roof band
4. Gable band

As per NBC 109 a band is to consist of two or four longitudinal steel bars with stirrups embedded in
75 mm or 150 mm thick concrete. The thickness of the band can be made equal to or a multiple of a
masonry unit. The width of the band should be equal to the thickness of the wall.
 CROSS SECTION OF R.C. BAND FOR TWO BARS AND FOUR BARS

The steel bars shall be located close to the wall faces with 25 mm cover, and full continuity shall be
provided at corners and junctions. Table 11.1 in NBC 109 gives recommendations on bar sizes and no
of bars to be used for RC bands.

R. C. BAND REINFORCEMENT DETAILS AT CORNER AND T-JUCTION

Lintels

For vertical loads lintels function as beams, which support the weight of the wall and floor above the
opening. Lintels can be made of either cast-in-place concrete, or prefabricated reinforced concrete,
or reinforced masonry elements.

Depending on the distance from the top of the opening to the top of the adjoining floor, cast-in-
place lintels can be cast either independently or monolithically with the bond-beam and floor slab.
Monolithic casting of lintel improves seismic resistance of the masonry.

In order to prevent local collapse due to crushing of supports in earthquakes, sufficient bearing
length should be provided at the end of the lintels. It is recommended that a minimum of 250 mm
bearing length should be provided at both ends. As a rule, the lintel width should be equal to the
thickness of the wall.

Anchorage of lintels and parapets: In seismic zones, the lintels and parapets should be regularly
bonded to the masonry of the adjoining walls and connected to them with horizontal reinforcement.
In the case where r.c. tie-columns are used to confine the walls along the openings, the
reinforcement of the lintels should be anchored in the r.c tie columns.

Balconies, and overhangs

Balconies and overhangs are typical cantilever structural elements, where non-desirable vertical
vibration can be induced during earthquakes. In order to reduce the vertical oscillation, it is
recommended that the span of the balconies, overhangs and other cantilever elements should be
limited to:
  1.20 m for cantilever slabs cast continuously with the floor slabs, and
 0.50 m for cantilever slabs anchored into the bond-beams without the continuity with the
floor slab.

Roofs

In order to transfer inertia forces developed at the roof level into the supporting walls, the roof
system should be adequately braced in both orthogonal directions, and should be adequately
anchored into the r.c. bond-beam, constructed at the top of the load-bearing and structural walls.

In order to reduce seismic loads, light roof structural systems and roof cover(tiles) are preferred to
massive structures. Where prefabricated elements are used, r.c. cast-in-place topping with a
minimum thickness of 40mm should be provided. In such a case the ends of the prefabricated
elements should be embedded into the r.c. bond-beam along the complete perimeter of the roof.

Wall-openings

The size and position of wall openings, such as windows and doors, have a strong effect on the in-
plane resistance of a masonry shear wall. When subjected to seismic loads, stress concentration
takes place in the opening zones, which may result in unexpected cracking of masonry and the
subsequent deterioration of resistance of masonry elements to in-plane lateral loads.

In order to improve the behaviour of masonry elements when subjected to earthquakes, the
following recommendations should be observed regarding the location and size of the wall openings:

 Openings should be located in those walls which are subjected to smaller intensity of vertical
gravity loads.
 Openings should be located outside the zones of direct influence of concentrated loads at
beam supports.
 On each storey, openings should be located in the same position along the vertical line.
 In order to provide a uniform distribution of resistance and stiffness in two orthogonal
directions, openings should be located symmetrically in the plan of the building.
 The top of the openings in the storey should be at the same horizontal level.
 Openings should not interrupt r.c. bond-beams at the top of structural walls.

Also, the total length of openings in a shear wall should not exceed half of the wall’s length.

It is also recommended that, in case of brick and hollow unit masonry construction in zones of high
expected seismic intensity, the total cross-sectional area of structural walls in each of two
orthogonal directions should not be less than 3% of the gross floor area.

As per NBC 109: 1994 for unreinforced masonry the key guidelines for openings are;

a) Openings shall be located away from any inside corner by a clear distance to at least one-
quarter of the height of openings, but not less than 600 mm.
 b) The total length of openings shall not exceed 50% of the length of the wall between
consecutive cross-walls in single storey construction, 42% in two-storey construction and
33% in the three-storey buildings.

c) The horizontal distance (pier width) between two openings shall not be less than one-half of
the height of the shorter opening, but not less than 600 mm.

d) The vertical distance from an opening to an opening directly above it shall not be less than
600 mm, nor less than one-half of the width of the smaller opening.

Non-structural elements

Non-structural elements of a masonry building include partition walls, chimneys, masonry veneer,
ornamentations etc. The failure of fall-downs of non-structural elements can cause casualties and
structural damage during strong earthquakes. Collapse of non-structural elements can also obstruct
passages and emergency exits, hence preventing emergency interventions after the earthquake.
Hence, attention should be paid to adequate structural detailing of non-structural elements in order
to design masonry buildings to resist seismic loads.

Partition walls are either unreinforced of reinforced with bed joint reinforcement to prevent their
out-of-plane instability. If reinforced, 4-6 mm diameter bars are usually placed in the bed joints with
a vertical spacing of 400-600 mm. Partition walls are fixed between the floor slabs by means of
cement mortar joints, whereas their connection with structural walls or tie-columns along the
vertical borders is achieved either by bond or by steel anchors. The out-of-plane stability of partition
walls should be verified by calculation.

As per NBC 109 partition walls should have a minimum thickness of 115 mm and horizontal
reinforcement (one 6 mm diameter bar in each face) in every sixth course of blockwork.

Masonry Gable end walls

Gable end walls and attics higher than 0.5 m can be anchored to the uppermost floor bond-beams.
In order to connect those walls, r.c. bond-beams can be provided on top of those walls.

In the case where the height of those walls exceed 4 m, intermediate bond-beams can be added at
intervals not exceeding 2 m. In addition to that, r.c. tie-columns can be provided at distances not
exceeding 4 m. These tie-columns should be well connected together with r.c. bond-beams.
 Gable Band and Roof Band in Barrack-Type Buildings

Free standing chimneys and ventilation stacks should be constructed using cement mortars.
Adequate anchoring into the top floor and reinforcement above the top floor level should be
provided.

Horizontal and vertical cantilever projections should be reinforced with steel reinforcement and
adequately anchored into the main structural system of the building.
Introduction to masonry construction

Masonry buildings are box-type structural systems composed of vertical and horizontal structural
elements, walls and floors, connected in every direction. Horizontal connecting elements, steel ties
or, more often, reinforced-concrete bond-beams (tie-beams) are provided at floor levels to connect
the walls.

During earthquakes, floors should act as rigid horizontal diaphragm, which distribute the seismic
inertia forces among structural walls in proportion to their stiffnesses. Any type of floors may be
used, provided that general requirements of continuity and effective diaphragm actions are satisfied.

For seismic zones single-leaf walls should be preferred to double-leaf walls, and reinforced grouted
cavity walls to cavity walls, since they ensure monolithic behaviour of the wall under seismic
conditions.

Types of construction systems

Various types of masonry construction systems, both traditional and engineered, are used in various
countries. Because of the characteristics of masonry, the behaviour of different construction systems
subjected to seismic loads is different. Unreinforced, and plain masonry can be classified as non-
ductile material, whereas confined, RC infill, and reinforced masonry represent structural systems
with improved strength and ductility.

Classification of Masonry Structures

Masonry Structures can be classified into three types:

1. Load-bearing masonry (unreinforced)

2. Confined masonry

3. Infill masonry

4. Reinforced masonry

1. Load-bearing masonry (unreinforced masonry)

The building system in which the masonry walls are designed as the primary structural or load-
bearing members are classified as load-bearing masonry. Load-bearing brick masonry was the
dominant form of masonry construction up until the widespread use of reinforced concrete
structural columns and beams in RC frame-infill masonry, and confined masonry.

Traditional stone-masonry construction is generally not considered to be earthquake-resistant.

However, its earthquake resistance can be improved mainly by providing connecting stones and
filling all voids between the stones with code specified mortar.
Use of Load-bearing masonry: Load-bearing construction is most appropriately used for buildings in
which the floor area is subdivided into a relatively large number of rooms of small to medium size
and in which the floor plan is repeated on each storey throughout the height of the building.

The types of buildings which are compatible with these requirements include flats, hostels, hotels
and other residential buildings. The form and wall layout for a particular building will evolve from
functional requirements and site conditions and will call for collaboration between engineer and
architect.

2. Confined Masonry Construction

Confined masonry is a construction system, where masonry structural walls are confined on all four
sides with reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry vertical and horizontal confining elements.

Vertical members, called tie-columns or practical columns, resemble columns in RC frame

construction except that they tend to be of far smaller cross-section. Horizontal elements, called tie-
beams, resemble beams in RC frame construction.

The confining elements are not intended to carry vertical or horizontal loads, and hence are not
designed to perform as moment-resisting frames. Hence in confined masonry, the masonry walls are
designed to carry all vertical and seismic loading.

The structural walls, which support the floors, are constructed first. Then, the floors with horizontal
bond-beams elements are put in place, and finally the RC vertical confining elements are
constructed. The vertical confining elements are rigidly connected to the horizontal confining
elements.
Experimental investigations and post-earthquake performance observation of confined masonry
with bond-beams and tie-columns have shown:

 Improvement in the connection between structural walls

 Improvement in the stability of slender structural walls

 Improvement in strength and ductility of masonry panels

 Reduction in the risk of disintegration of masonry panels damaged by the earthquake

Over the last 100 years, confined masonry construction has emerged as a building technology that
offers an alternative to both unreinforced masonry and RC frame construction. In fact, confined
masonry has features of both these technologies.

Over the last 30 years, confined masonry construction has been practiced in Mediterranean Europe
(Italy, Slovenia, Serbia), Latin America (Mexico, Chile, Peru, Argentina, and other countries), the
Middle East (Iran), south Asia (Indonesia), and the Far East (China).

The structural components of a confined masonry building are (see Figure 1):

• Masonry walls – transmit the gravity load from the slab above down to the foundation. The walls
act as bracing panels, which resist horizontal earthquake forces. The walls must be confined by
concrete tie-beams and tie-columns to ensure satisfactory earthquake performance.

Confining elements (tie-columns and tie-beams) – provide restraint to masonry walls and protect
them from complete disintegration even in major earthquakes. These elements resist gravity loads
and have important role in ensuring vertical stability of a building in an earthquake.

• Floor and roof slabs – transmit both gravity and lateral loads to the walls. In an earthquake, slabs
behave like horizontal beams and are called diaphragms.

• Plinth band – transmits the load from the walls down to the foundation. It also protects the ground
floor walls from excessive settlement in soft soil conditions.

• Foundation – transmits the loads from the structure to the ground.

 Figure 1. A typical confined masonry building

In confined masonry vertical reinforcement is placed at the wall corners and intersections, around
the openings, and additional locations depending on expected seismic loads.

Horizontal reinforcement is provided in the form of ladder reinforcement (placed in horizontal

joints) or deformed reinforcement bars placed in bond beams typically located at the lintel level
(similar to RC lintel bands in Indian masonry construction).

The reinforcement is concentrated in vertical and horizontal confining elements while the masonry
walls are usually free of reinforcement.
Figure 2. Confined masonry construction in Slovenia, with the walls built using hollow clay tiles (top) and El
Salvador (bottom)

Figure 3. Confined masonry construction in Indonesia

How is Confined Masonry Different from RC Frame Construction?

The appearance of a finished confined masonry construction and a RC frame construction with
masonry infills may look alike to lay people, however these two construction systems are
substantially different.

The main differences are related to the construction sequence, as well as to the manner in which
these structures resist gravity and lateral loads. These differences are summarized in Table 1 and are
illustrated by diagrams in Figure 4. Examples of RC frame and confined masonry construction from
Cambodia and Mexico respectively are shown in Figure 5. Table 1 gives a comparison between the
confined masonry and RC frame construction.

Table-1 Difference between Confined masonry and RC infill masonry

 Confined Masonry construction RC frame construction
Gravity and lateral load-resisting Masonry walls are the main RC frames resist both gravity and
system load bearing elements and are lateral loads through their
expected to resist both gravity relatively large beams, columns,
and lateral loads. Confining and their connections. Masonry
elements (tie-beams and tie- infills are not load-bearing walls.
columns) are significantly
smaller in size than RC beams
and columns.
Foundation construction Strip footing beneath the wall Isolated footing beneath
and the RC plinth band each column
Superstructure construction 1. Masonry walls are 1. The frame is
sequence constructed first. constructed first.
2. Subsequently, tie-columns 2. Masonry walls are
are cast in place. constructed at a later
3. Finally, tie-beams are stage and are not
constructed on top of the bonded to the frame
walls, simultaneously members; these
with the floor/roof slab walls are
construction. non-structural, that is,
non-load bearing
walls.

Figure 4. RC frame construction (left) and confined masonry construction (right)

In confined masonry construction, confining elements are not designed to act as a moment-resisting
frame; as a result, detailing of reinforcement is simple. In general, confining elements have smaller
cross-sectional dimensions than the corresponding beams and columns in a RC frame building.

It should be noted that the most important difference between the confined masonry walls and infill
walls is that infill walls are not load-bearing walls, while the walls in a confined masonry building are.
Figure 5. Examples of RC frame construction in Cambodia (top) and confined masonry construction in Mexico
(bottom)

A transition from RC frame to confined masonry construction in most cases leads to savings related
to concrete cost, since confining elements are smaller in size than the corresponding RC frame
members. Also, less reinforcement and less intricate detailing is required for confined masonry
construction than for RC frame construction.

3. RC Infill masonry

The primary structural system in infill masonry is a reinforced concrete frame. The open space
between the frames are separated with masonry filler walls, constructed between the columns and
beams of the main structure. Hence, the masonry filler walls are partitions which determine the
architectural layout of the building in plan according to the specific needs of the users.

Load-bearing contribution: With regard to carrying vertical gravity loads, masonry filler walls
represent typical secondary, non-structural elements which add additional weight to the basic
structural system, but do not contribute to the load –bearing capacity.
However, the situation is different in the case where the building is subjected to seismic loads,
where the role and influence of masonry infill on the behaviour of the main structure depends on
the connection between the infill and the frame.

Frame-infill interaction: Although considered as non-structural elements, filler walls are often rigidly
connected with the main RC frame and impede the deformation of the structure. In such as case,
masonry filler walls are also a part of the vibrating structural system. As a result of connection,
interaction forces develop in the contact zone between the frame and filler walls. These interaction
forces influence the behaviour of the infilled frame elements as well as the entire structure.

Structural design of Infill masonry: Bearing in mind the influence of masonry infill on the seismic
behaviour of RC frame buildings, the construction of masonry infill should be carefully controlled by
design. Basically, there are two approaches to control the seismic behaviour of a RC frame structure
with masonry infill:

i. Masonry infill is constructed as a secondary, non-structural part of the main structural

system. In that case, the infill is separated from the structure by special details, so that it will
not impede the vibration of the main structure during earthquakes.

ii. Masonry infill is constructed as a resisting part of the structural system. In that case, the
beneficial influence of masonry filler walls during earthquakes is taken into account in the
design. Adequate detailing is provided to achieve ductile behaviour of the infill and good
connection between the masonry and concrete elements.

Since masonry walls are constructed only after the completion of the main RC structure, masonry
filler walls are never designed for vertical loads.

Seismic behaviour and mechanisms of infill masonry: At low level of lateral load and at small lateral
deformations, the masonry infilled RC frame acts as a monolithic composite structural element.
Because of the initial masonry to RC frame stiffness ratio, the contribution of the flexible frame to
the lateral resistance is small and the major part of the seismic load is carried by the rigid masonry
infill.

 However, as the lateral deformations increase, the relatively weak masonry infill is no longer
capable of carrying the increased lateral load. As the cracks develop in the masonry and the
filler wall separates in two or more parts, the RC frame deforms. This deformation of the RC
frame depends on the type of separation of the filler wall and the length of the remaining
contact zone between the masonry filler wall and the frame members.

The influence of masonry infill on the basic frame structural system can be different depending not
only on their connection but also on the earthquake loading itself.

 Short periods of vibrations in many cases result in increased seismic actions. In the elastic
range and at small amplitudes of vibration, those actions will be mainly carried by the rigid
infill, since the contribution of the flexible main system to the lateral resistance of the
building at small displacements is not significant.
 o If the masonry filler walls had not been designed to resist lateral forces at increased
lateral deformations, the masonry will be damaged. At that instant, the
redistribution of loads from the filler walls to the main structural system will take
place.

 If the failure of the infill is brittle and the seismic actions are substantially
increased just before the local collapse of the infill, severe damage to the
main structural system, which had not been designed to resist the increased
lateral loads, occurs.

 On the other hand, the masonry infill walls are damaged before the
development of high shear forces, which might possibly damage the main
structural system, they dissipate seismic energy and prevent large
deformation of RC frames, and also prevent damage that would occur to
other non-structural elements as a result of excessive deformations.

In some cases, however, interaction forces, which develop at the contacts between the masonry
infill and RC elements of the main system, cause unexpected behaviour of the structure. This can
result in severe damage to individual structural elements, or even partial or complete collapse of the
building.

 Such consequences of interaction between masonry infill and RC frames are observed where
the height or length of masonry filler walls is smaller than the clear height or length of
columns and beams.

o In such a case due to reduced flexibility of RC sections, high shear forces develop in
the free parts of columns and beams. If the critical sections of columns and beams
have not been properly reinforced, severe damage or even shear failure of elements
can occur.

4. Reinforced masonry

Reinforced masonry is a construction system, where steel reinforcement in the form of reinforcing
bars or mesh is embedded in the mortar or placed in the holes and filled with concrete or grout.

By reinforcing the masonry with steel bars, the resistance to seismic loads and energy dissipation
capacity can be improved significantly. To achieve this, the reinforcement should be integrated with
masonry so that all materials of the reinforced masonry system act monolithically when resisting
gravity and seismic loading.

There are various ways in which steel reinforcement can be used in a reinforced masonry structural
system. Basically, however, reinforced masonry systems can be classified into:

 Reinforced hollow unit masonry

 Reinforced grouted cavity masonry

  Reinforced pocket type walls

Reinforced hollow unit masonry: Specially shaped units with vertical holes are used where vertical
reinforcement is placed and filled with infill concrete or grout. The units may or may not have
grooves to accommodate the horizontal reinforcement which is placed along the bed joint.

i. Before laying the masonry units, vertical reinforcement is placed in position. Then the first
course of units is laid in the mortar and horizontal bars or bed joint reinforcement are placed
in the grooves or in the mortar joints.

ii. The holes containing vertical bars are filled with either concrete or grout, and the grooves
containing the horizontal steel are filled with either grout or mortar, as the construction of
the wall progresses.

In order to improve the resistance and depending on the shape of the units, all holes in the hollow
blocks are often grouted or filled with concrete infill.

Reinforced grouted cavity masonry: This form of construction consists of two leaves of masonry
units separated by a cavity. The horizontal and vertical reinforcement is placed and grouted with
either concrete infill or grout. The two leaves of a cavity wall are tied together with wall ties or
connectors, which should be designed to carry lateral loads, induced by earthquakes.

Reinforced pocket type walls: Vertical reinforcement is placed in the pockets formed in the wall. The
vertical reinforcing bars are placed into position before laying the masonry units. Depending in the
units used, horizontal bed joint reinforcement is placed in the mortar joints at vertical spacing not
exceeding 600mm. The pockets containing vertical bars are filled with either concrete or grout, as
the construction of the wall progresses.