1

PN Junction Diodes

1 lntroduction
Electonics has now totally changed the world by altering and
lashioning the likes and styles of the humans in all fields and frames of
lite. t has opened new horizons, triggered path breaking discoveries,
anchoed new developments and accelerated the growth in alldimensions
of modern lite. Itconveys to us allthe information we need, entertains us
with tilms and music, diagnoses our ailments, records and reproduces
any data we require and carries all the technologies ahead in splits of a
second. It has changed colour and odour of our life, increased the speed
of ourtransactions and has changed the world worthy to live in.
1.2 Band Structure
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence
electrons. Though their orbitalenergy is maximum, they are weakly bound
to the nucleus. The energy band occupied by the valence electrons is
called the valence band. It is the highest occupied band. If valence
electrons acquire sufficient energy to overcome their binding energy,
they willleave the valence band. Such electrons are called free electrons
or conduction electrons. The energy band occupied by conduction
electrons is called conduction band. Conduction band may be either
empty(when no free electrons exist)or partially filled. Henceconduction
band is the lowest unfilled energy band in an atom.
Depending on the electricalproperties, materials can be classified
as (1) insulators (2) conductors,and (3) semiconductors.
Insulato's are materials whose valence electrons are bound very
strongly to the atom. Their valence and conduction bands are separated
 virtually no fre
gaps (= I5eV). Hence, they possess
by wide energy conduct electricity.
clectrons and hence do not
materials with overlapping valence and conductio
Conductors are easily crossover tothe conductio
valence clectrons
bands. Hence their conductivity
have very good electrical
band. They electrical conductivity lie
Semiconductors are materials whose
and good conductors. At room temperature
between those of insulators conduction bands with a narroy
valence and
they have partially filled valence and conduction bands ar:
them. Their
energy gap between Germanium and Silicon are
energy gaps (= leV).
separated by narrow
examples.

Overlapping bands.
Conduction band
Conduction band
Conduction band
Small
energy gap
Wide Valence band
energy gap Valence band

Valence band

(c) Semiconductors
(b) Conductors
(a) Insulators
Fig. 1.1
semiconductor is empty. As
At OK, the conduction band of a
decreases and electrons
temperature increases, width of the energy gap
conductivity of semiconductors
crossover tothe conduction band. The
semiconductors have negative
increases with temperature. Hence, the
temperature coefficient of resistance.
Consider the case of carbon. It lies in the same group in the periodic
the same type of
table along withgermanium and silicon. They allhave of which
bonding (covalent bonding). Acarbon atom has six electrons out There are 8
(L shell).
2 are in n =lshell (K shell) and 4 inthe n= 2 shell
 9

energy states in the complete n-2shell In the isolated state, six electron
states are filled. 2 in the K shell and 4in the L shell. The remaining 4
states in the l shell are unfilled.
VDiamondisthe crystalline form of carbon. When crystallized. the
atoms come closer foming covalent bonds. As inter atomic distance is
decreased. the discreteenergy levels broaden out into bands and eventually
the bands corresponding to the sub shells of n = 2 overlap. As inter
atomic distance is further reduced, the upper 4 unfilled energy states and
lower 4 filled eergy states split apart. Uhe inter-atomic spacing where
the bands begin to split is called the cross over point. At equilibrium
spacing. the two energy bands are separated by awide energy gap(s 6eV).
The upper and lower bands are called conduction and valence bands and
the energy gap where electrons are forbidden to stay, is called forbidden
energy gap Ec

Cross over point Isolated atom

Conduction band
Ec

2p
Eç=6eV
2s

Ev
Valance band
Energy

r= 0 Interatomic
I, =Equilibrium spacing
spacng

Fig. I.2
Bands arising from the Is,2s and 2p atomic states of diamond
as a function of interatomic distance.
 0

Crystalline semiconductors also have forbidden energy gaps but

case of
they are much narrower than that of insulators. In the
semiconductors, the cquilibrium spacing is very close to the cross over
silicon
pont and hence the forbidden gap is very narrow, about leV for
and 0. 7eV for germanium. Atabsolute zero temperature (0K). there are
no electrons in the conduction band of the semiconductor. The valence
band is completely filled. Hence the semiconductor is a perfect insulator
at this temperature. But when the temperature is increased, the width of
the energ gap decreases. Some valence electrons get thermally excited
and cross over to the conduction band. The electrical conductivity of
semiconductor is in the range of 10-tol0 per ohm per cm
Cross over point

Energy

Conduction band 3p
Ec

EN n=3
Valance band 3s

Interatomic
spacing
,= Equilibrium
spacing
Fig. I.3
Bands arising from the 3s and 3p atomic states of silicon
as a function of interatomic distance.
1.3 Semiconductors

Semiconductors are oftwotypes () intrinsic semiconductors, and

(2)extrinsic semiconductors.
1.3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors which are in extremely pure form are called
intrinsicsemiconductors. Silicon and germanium are widely used intrinsic
 Voiume

1lemedal intnsic semiand.ar

Compotend intnsie sanice
semiconductors. Every germanium or silicon atom has 4 ncarest kdudo
neighboring atoms bound together by covalent bonds. The width of their
iorbidden energy gap is very smal and hence by thermal excitation.
clectrons can reach the conduction band causing conductivity called
intrinsic conductivity.
1.3.2 Electron-Hole Pairs
Ator above room temperature, due to thermal excitation, some of
thecovalent bonds break dislodging the electrons. The displaced electrons
are free to move about within the crystal. They are calledconduction
electrons.The energy required to break a covalent bondis equaltothe
band gap energy (Eç). The band gap energy (Eç)at room temperature is
about 1.IeV for siliconand 0.72eV for germanium.
Thevacancy of the displaced electron in the valence band is called
a hole.A hole serves as acarrier ofelectricity. A set of free electron and
itscorresponding hole is called an electron-hole pair.
The electrons and holes generated in this way are called intrinsic
carriers. Thus for an intrinsic semiconductor the free electron
concentration(n) and hole concentration (p) are equal. It is called intrinsic
carrier concentration and is usually denoted byn,
1.3.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors and Doping
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by
adding a little amount of desired impure atoms. This process is known as
doping. Generally doping is done at the rate of one impure atom to 106
to 10 pure atoms. Hence doping does not affect the crystal structure of
inside the crystal
the parent atom. Impurity atoms get accommodated
structure replacing corresponding parent atoms.
Generally two types of impurity atoms ar used; atoms containing
5valence electrons (pentavalent atoms) and atoms containing 3 valence
electrons (trivalent atoms). The former type is called the N type
semiconductor and the latter one the P type.

ene
he hiche, (Cupe6y
 12

Semicondluctors
13.4 N Type impurity atoms like
pentavalent
Semiconductors dopcd with andbis1nuth (Bi) are knowa
asrsenic (As)
phosphonus(P).antinony (Sb), pentavalent atomreplaces atetravalent
semiconductors The
as N pe Iigure (14) shows an antimony atom
semiconductor.
atom of pure silicon crystal. Four valence electrons ofthe
replacinga silicon atom ofa four neighboring silicon atoms
covalent bonds with
antimony atom form loosely to the antimony atom.
electron is attached
The fifth antimony electron to the conduction band. Thus
low clectric field can free this creating a
donates an extra electron for conduction without
antimony
hole in the valence band.

Antimony
atom

+4

Free
electron

Fig. 1.4
A siliconatom replaced by stationary atom ina crystal lattice.
The free electron enters the conduction band increasing the
conductivity of the semiconductor. The energy required to detach this
electron is 0.05eV for silicon and 0.0leV for germanium. Pentavalent
atoms that can thus donate electrons for carrying current by doping are
called donors. After donating an electron, the impurity atom becomes a
positive ion. But since it is held immobile by the four covalent bonds
withinthe crystal lattice, it does not conduct any current. Hence in an N
type semniconductor, major part of the current is due to the movement of
electrons.
L.3.5 P Type Semiconductors
Semiconduetors doped with trivalent impurity atoms like gallium
(Ga), indium (In). aluminium (A), and boron (B) are known as P type
semiconductors. The trivalent atom replaces atetravalent atom of apure
semiconductor. Figure (1.5)shows an indium atom replacing a silicon
atom of a silicon crystal. Three valence electrons of the indium atom
form covalent bonds with three neighboring silicon atoms. The fourth
covalent bond is incomplete.

Indium
atom

+4 )"

Hole

Fig. 1.5
A
silicon atom replaced by indium atom in a crystal lattice
constitutes a
The vacancy of the electron in the covalent bond
hole. This hole is equivalent to a positive charge as it can readily accept
an electronfrom a neighboring silicon atom. The energy required to capture
an electron is 0.05eV for silicon and 0.0leV for germanium. Hence
trivalent impurity atoms which create holes by doping are called
acceptors. After accepting an electron, the impurity atom becomes a
bonds
negative ion. But since it is held immobile by the four covalent
within the crystal lattice, it does not conduct any current. Hence in a P
of
type semiconductor, major part of the current is due to the movement
holes.
1.3.6 Majurity carriers and Minority carriers
outnumber
In an N type semiconductor, since the free electrons
 14

the holes.clectrons are called majornty cariers and holes minoritycarrier

But in the cavc ot Pipc semiconductor. holes outnumber free electrons
Hence. here holes are called the majoritycarriers and free electrons the
minorit cariers
1.4 Junction Diodes
Semiconductor diodes are `one-way' current carrying electroic
devices formed out of semi conducting materials such as germanium or
silcon One such device is called a PN junction diode. When a Ptvpe
semiconductor is properly joined to an Ntype semiconductor, we get a
P junction diode. The contact surface of the two types of extrinsic
semiconductors is called aPN junction. This surface is usually created
on a single semiconductor base (germanium or silicon) by doping its one
end by aPtype impurity and the other end with an Ntype impurity.
1.4.1Depletion Layers
When PN junction is formed, the majority carriers from the P
region (holes)and that fromthe Nregion (electrons) will immediately
cross cach other across the junction by diffusion. At the junction each
electron willrecombine with a hole releasing a certain amount of energy.
Thisprocess is called electron-hole recombination and the released energy
will be lost in the lattice as heat. The recombination process will now
create a thin layer of immobile ions at the junction. This layer is called a
depletion layer because it is depleted (exhausted) of free mobile charges.
It isalso called space charge region or transition region.
Mobile Fixed Mobile
holes 0ons electrons

Dittus.on N P
Depletion
Layer
Iig I.6
lhe width of the deplelion layer depends on the doping level. the
heavier tlhe doping the thnner is the depletion layer. Because, when the
doping levelis high, the lesser willbe the dstance traversed by the carriers
hefore thei recombination. The depletion layer actually consists of fixed
immobile ions, the negative ions on the Pend side and the positive ions on
the N end side.
1.4.2 Barrier Potential
An atom very close to the N side of the layer which has given
away an electron for the recombination process will be now ionized
positive. Similarly an atom very near the P side of the depletion layer
which has given away a hole willbe ionized negative.

P N

Ve=0.3Vfor Ge
= 0.7 V for Si
Fig.1.7
V

Potential barrier

ofoppositely ionized
Hence, the depletion region actually consists
thejunctionon its Pside
and immobile ions with the negative ions close to
charge separation will
and positive ions on the Nside. (See fig. 1.7)This
junction even ifit is not
eventually create an electric potential across the
potential is knovwn as
connected to an external source of e. m. f. This
V. lt prevents
junctionor barrier potential and is usually denoted by
supplied by an
further flow of carriers across the junction unless it is
external source of e. m. f.
such as dopimg
|The barrier potential depends on many factors
charge and temperature. At roonm temperature (300K )
density, electronic
 16

is aht 0 3 Vfo germanium and 0.7 Vfor silicon. For a particular

uncton the harrier otential decreases by 2mV per eachdegree ise in
temperature
1.4.3 PN Junction Biasing
APN junction may be biased positive or negative by connecting
an evternal voltage source to its ends. If the positive of a low DC voltage
sOurce is connectedto its P end and the negative to its N end, we say
that the PN unction is forward biased. Ifwe connect the negative battery
term1nalto its Pend and positive to the Nend. we say that it is reverse
biased The figure (1.8) below shows aforward biased PN junction and
the coresponding clectronic circuit diagram. The figure (1.9) shows a
reverse biased PN junction and the corresponding electronic circuit
diagram.

P N
Holes’ -Electrons

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 Forward - biased PN junction diode

(-Holes Electrons ’

(a) (b)
Fig. I9: Reverse -biased PN junction diode
Note: If the arrow head of the symbol of the PN junction diode
 17

onts fhom positive temnalto the negative terminal of the external

of potental. we say that it is forward source
biased If it
terminal to positive terminal, iIt is said to be reversepoints
biased
from negative
1.4.4 Effect of PN Junction Biasing
When a PN junction is
potential drives the holes from theforward-biased. the external
P region and the negative positive
drives the electrons from the Nregion towards the potential
recombine stimulating a current flowfrom Pto Nsidejunction. across
where they
the junction.
This process reduces the width of the
depletion
reduction in electrical resistance of the crystal. The layer and causes a
long as the forward potential is nmaintained. current continues as
On the other hand, if the PN junction is
in the P region. migrates towards the reverse-biased. the holes
power source and the electrons in the negative terminal of the external
Nregion, migrates to the positive
terminal. This creates a widening of the depletion layer and an
of junction resistance preventing increase
electron-hole recombination
junction. Hence. no current will flow across the junction as long asat ittheis
reverse biased.
1.4.5 Forward V-I Characteristics
Consider a forward biased PN junction. If the external potential
difference is slowly increased and corresponding current noted, it is seen
that the current is very low at first but increases rapidly
with increase of
potential difference. The variation of the junction current with increase
of voltage can be graphically represented. This is known as V-I
characteristics of a PN junction diode.

Ww

R
mA
Rh

(a)
Fig.1.10: Circuit diagran1 to drawthe forward V-l
characteristies
 stud of forward characteristics of thediode
The cinui forthe
the figure (1 10) The forward voltage V, is slow ly increaser
shn in
The corresponding current
from rero to asuitable value in small steps. The graph drawn with V
milliammeter.
Anoted n cach step Using the
N-aNis and forward current I, along Yaxis will be the requiret
along
forward characteristics (See Fig 1.11)
exponentiallywith the applied
It is seen that the current increases certain value of
sudden rise at a
votage The forward current shows a
thethreshold voltage. cu.
theapplied voltage This potential is known as voltage is the equivalen
This
Involtage orknee voltage (V ) of the diode. further increased, the current
of the barrICrpotential of the diode. AsV, is
I, increases steeply

mA
Ge
80
Fonward
current
I,
Majority
carriers
60 AI;

40
AVE
A B
20

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 V

02
Forward voltage V; ’

Forward V-l characteristics

potential
Ii shows tlhat anapplicd voltage equivalent to thebarrier The kne
the junction.
is required to start a steady cuent tlow across
germaniunm. As
voltage is appronimately 0.7 Vtor silicon and 0.3 Vfor
rapidly,.
the applied voltage isincreased,the forward current increases very
 |tremch hrgh font ard crents Can destroy the diode due to excess
recombination and nerheating
146 Reverse Saturation Current and
Reverse V| Characteristics
When a PN unciiOn is reverse biased. no
to the recombination of current is poss1ble due
maority carriers However, a small current of
the order of few microamperes can be
carriers across thc junction,
produced due the flow of minority
Minority carriers are intrinsically available carriers produced by
thermalencrgy that exist in semiconductors. Electrons are the
carriers in a P region minority
and holes are the minority carriers in an N region.
The minority carriers in a reverse biased PN junction diode
will be
cffectivel forw ard biased. causing a feeble current across the junction.
The circuit diagram to study the reverse characteristics is shown
in the figure (1.12). The reverse voltage is slowly increased in small
steps and corresponding reverse current I, is noted using amicroammeter.
n

R
w

Rh

(a)
Fig 112 Circuit diagramto draw the reverse V-l characteristics
Iigure (13) shows the reverse V-l characteristics of aPN junction
diode. As V, is increased from Zero, reverse current increases and reaches
1, al asnallvalue ofV,. This is known as reverse saturationeurrent
 Jt
a y r c t w n

n t

20
Forward voltage
Reverse voltage
1.0 2.0 V
-25 V -20 -15 -10

Si
25
Minority
carriers

50 Io
Ge 75 UA

Fig.I.13 Reverse V-Icharacteristics

1.4.7 Diode Equation
reverse
The equátion that describes both forward and
characteristics of a semiconductor diode is called the diode equation or
voltage - current equation of a PN junction.
For a forward biased diode, the diode equation is given by,
V

(1)

where,
|= Forward current

I,= Reverse saturation current

nis aconstant whose value is Ifor germanium diodeand 2 for

silicon diode at or belowthe knee of the V-l curve.

V= External applied voltage

V,= Volt equivalent of temperature
Its value is given by the relation
 21

KT
V, =
(2)
where.
K- Boltzmann's constant
e-electronic charge and
T= the temperature of the diode in
It is simplified as, absolute scale.
T
V,=
l1600 (3)
Atroom temperature (300K).
V, =0.026 Volts =26mV
Hence the voltage- current equation of aforward
biased diode at room
temperature is
40V

(4)
For a reverse biased diode, the diode equation can be
obtained by changing
the sign of V.
It is given by,
-V

I=Ih e, -1
(5)

IfV >>V but less than the break down value,

-V

<<| and hence it is negligible.

Therefore,
T=-I,, which is the reverse saturation current.
1.4.8 Diode Par£meters
There arecertain terms associated with PN junction diodes,which
specify their characteristics. They are known as diode paranmeters. Some
of them are bulk resistance, junction resistance, dynamic or ac
resistance.
 JP
5. Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
It is the maximum reverse voltage that a
diode can withstand without
damaging its junction. If the reverse voltage applied across a
diode
 vmction (apatante - Eo A
25 d
exceeds this value, the reverse current will increase to very high
values.
This willdamage the diode due to excessive heat.
 32

Solved Problems
1.7 Asilicon diode has a bulk resistance 2.5 2and a forward currem
forward voltageif itsls knee voltage is
of10 mA. What is its s0.62V
Bulk resistance

I'B

VE
0.62 + (2.5 x 10x 10 )
0.645 V
saturation current of2 uA
2 Anideal germanium diode has a reverse
its junction resistance fora
at atemperature of 303 K.. Calculate saturation
forward voltage of 0.3 V. What will be its reverse
current when its temperature rises to 343 K?
Volt equivalent of temperature
T 303
= 0.026
VT 11600 11600
Diode current

1, exp
=
0.3 V; n=1
Hence,
0.3
2x10 exp 0.026

2x10°(es$-1)= 205 ma
Junction resistance
26 mV
=0.1268 ohms
I. (mA)
For germanium idodes, the reverse saturation current willdouble
for every I0°C rise in temp. Hence, if lo(T) and L(T)are the
saturation currents at T, and T>,
 33
We have,

lo(T) = (T,-)
,(T,)x 2 10

343-303
2x10x2
2x10x2
32 x 10A = 32 LA
3. The reverse saturation current (at 300 K) of a
silicon PN junction
diode is 2x10 A.Calculate the current
a forward voltage of 0.5V is flowingthrough it when
applied across it.
The current flowing through a diode
under forward bias is given
by.
40V

-1
Here, V =0.5V, n=2
40x0.5
l=2x10 2

l=2x10"e-1)
I= 4.4 mA
4 Asilicon diode has aforward voltage drop of 1Vfor a
dc current of l00mA. I can send a reverse
forward
current of 2uA
with areverse voltage of 10V Calculate (a) its bulk and reverse
resistance, (b) ac resistance at aforward current of5 mA.

Bulk resistance.

(1-0.7)V 0.
I00x 10
= 392
100mA
 34

V, 10\ 10
Reverse resistance R, = 2uA 2x|0 Q=5MOQ

The junction resistance r, at aforward current (I,) of 5 mA,

given by
5OmV 50mV
=102
SmA

132
AC resistance, , =,tr,=32+10S2 =

EXERCISES
A. Short Answer Questions
1. Distinguish between valence (energy) band and conducti
(energy) band.
2. What is meant by a 'cross over point' in the case of energy band:
of semiconductors?
3. What is meant by forbidden energy gap? How does it occur i
semiconducting crystals?
4. What are electron-hole pairs?
5. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
6. Distinguish between Ntype and Ptype semiconductors.
7. What is aPNjunction?How does a potential barrier form within:
crystal?
8. What is a depletion layer? How is it formed in a PN junction?
9. How does a space charge region occurwithin a PN junction?
10. Mention the factors on which the width ofa depletion layer depe
on?
||. How does a PN junction behave when it is (a) forward biased
reverse biased?
12. Draw the forward V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode.
13. What is the significance of the knee voltage?
14. Draw the reverse characteristics of a PN junction diode.
15. WIrat is meant by reverse saturation current'ofa PN junetion dio
 2

D.C, Power Supplies

2.1 Diode as a Rectifier
Electrical energy is supplied in the form of alternating
220 V, 50Hz. However, many electrical current at
devices operate on low direct
current sources. Hence it is necessary to rectify the high voltage
currents to get loW voltage alternating
direct currents. This can be achieved easily
using diodes. The devices used for this purpose are called
rectifiers or
battery eliminators', since they are used to eliminate batteries from
electric circuits.
2.2 Quality of a Rectifier
There are certain parameters that define the quality of a rectifier.
Two of them are explained below.
1. Efficiency (n)
The efficiency of a rectifier (n) is defined as the ratio of its
output dc power to its input ac power. Usually, it is expressed in percentage.
It shows how much dc power a rectifier can deliver as output from its
input ac power. The higher the efficiency, the better is the rectifier.
P (dc)
n= (1)
P, (ac)
2.
Ripple Factor ()
The output dc voltage of arectifier is not usually steady. It fluctuates
Or pulsates with a frequency equal to the frequency ofthe input ac voltage.
s IS due to the riding of an acvoltage over the rectified de voltage.
 38

This ac Component present in the output accounts for a ripple in the

output The amount offripple or ac voltage over riding the de voltage of;
rectifier measures the quality of the rectified output; the higher the rippk
the less is its quality. This characteristic of a rectifier is denoted by a
ferm called 'ripple factor'.
The ratio of rm.s. value of the ac component of the current or voltag.
present in the rectified output of arectifier to the corresponding dc componey
in the rectifier output is known as the ripple factor () of a rectifier.
I,(r.ms.) V, (r.ms.)
Y= (2)
V
It can alsco be defined as,

ms
Y= 1
(3

2.3 Types of Rectifiers

Rectifiers are classified into (A) half wave rectifiers and (B) full
wave rectifjers. Full wave rectifiers are further classified into (i) centre
tap, and (ii) bridge type.
2.3.1 Half Wave Rectifiers
Arectifier that permits a unidirectional current flow through a load
resistor during the positive half cycles of the input ac voltage is called a
half wave rectifier. The electrical circuit shown in figure (2.), shows
how adiode can be used as a half wave rectifier. It consists ofa step
down transformer, a diode and a load resistor R,.
A
transformer can either step up or step down an ac input voltage.
For lowvoltage rectifiers, step down transformers are used. It also isolates
the rectifier circuit containing the diode and load from the high voltage
electric line thus preventing electric shocks.
The voltage across the secondary of the transformer is sinusoidal
with respect to time. During the positive half cycle, the diode becoms
forward biased and acurrent flows through R, in the direction Ato B
During the negative halfcycle, the diode is reverse biased and no currenl
flows along R
 20
D

R
Fig 2 1

As the alternating cycles of the input supply are repeated.

intermittent periodic unidirectional currents pass through R whenever
the diode is forward biased. This current through the load R, is
unidirectional and direct, but not steady. It is apulsating dc as shown in
the figure (2.2).
The current flows across R, only during the positive half cycles.
The voltage across R, also repeats likewise for every half cycle. This is
why it is called a half wave rectifier.
Ahalf wave rectifier has few drawbacks. Important of them are.
1. A half wave rectifier has a high ripple factor. Or, the ac
component present in the output of a half wave rectifier is much higher
than the dc component present in it.
2.The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is very low. Or, the de
power output of a half wave rectifier is lower than its ac power input.

Input

’t

Fig. 2.2
Output

of

(htia mityt Palsatiwg)

 A0

Features
Wave Rectifier (n
The Eficienqy of the Half
let the instantaneous secondary voltage oftthe transformer be

the form
V. sin 9,

This is supplied to the diode

as input. Here,
/ve.
Vm - maximumvalue of the secondary voltage =
voltage.
= tms. value of the secondary
diode current as,
Let us write instantaneous
= sin 0
(6
Where, I isthe maximum load
current.

Now, m ( +R) (6

Where.
r, =the forward resistance of the diode and
R, = the load resistance
Let us put Vdc = average dc voltage across the load.
= average dc current through the load.
ms = rM.scurrnt through the load.
In order to find the dc power output, we have to find first tie
average current output during a full cycle. During a full input cyek
(from 0to21), the output appears only for a half cycle (say, from 0to 1
Hence the average output current can be obtained by the expressio.

(0)
2T
 Using equation (5), we get.
Power
d m (19ids
o

Palwn 2T
(i)

2T Fcose[
m

2T (cose)

2 (-2)
Hence we get.
-Jm
(8)
Hence, the dc power output = P.(dc) is given by,
P (dc) = (9)

xR (10)

The ac power input P(ac) is given by,

P. (ac) =
( )x(r +R) (11)
For half wave rectification, it can be shown that,

'ms 2 (12)
Hence. we get.

P(ac) x(, +R,) (13)