Research Design

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as
the “research design”.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and

analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which

research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data
• The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
• Keeping in view the stated design decisions, one may
split the overall research design into the following parts:
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study;
(b) The observational design which relates to the
conditions under which the observations are to be made;
(c) The statistical design which concerns with the question
of how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analyzed.
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques
by which the procedures specified in the sampling,
statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
 Important features of a research design
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information
relevant to the research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for
gathering and analyzing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies
are done under these two constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain :
(a) A clear statement of the research problem
(b)Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information
(c) The population to be studied
(d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research operations.
Research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money
We need a research design or a plan in advance of data
collection and analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods
to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in their analysis
An efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before
starting research operations.
 • FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible,
appropriate, efficient, economical.
Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed, is considered a good
design

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
(i) The means of obtaining information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.
• IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
• Various concepts relating to designs so that these may be better
and easily understood.
1. Dependent and independent variables
• A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called
a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all
examples of variables.
• Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on
the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s).
• Quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called
‘continuous variables’.
• All variables are not continuous If they can only be expressed in
integer values - non-continuous variables or in statistical language
discrete variables.
• Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of
children is an example of non-continuous variable
• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the
other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and
the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable
is termed as an independent variable.
• Say that height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable and age is an independent variable.
• Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of
Independent variables, whereas behavioral changes,
occurring as a result of the environmental
manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.
2 Extraneous variable:
• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are
termed as extraneous variables
• Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise
the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is
used when we design the study minimising the effects of extraneous
independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to
refer to restrain experimental conditions.

• Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

• Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be

tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research
hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable

• Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the

purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental
design. Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed
‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research’.
• Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-
testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is
termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some
novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
• Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental
and control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
• Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an
experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug.
• Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks,
where different treatments are used, are known as experimental
units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very
carefully.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
Different research designs are:
(1) research design in case of exploratory research studies;
(2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, (3)
research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies:
• Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
• The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:
• Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group
• Diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
• The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of
diagnostic research studies.
• Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of
descriptive research studies
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:
• Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental
studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that
will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit
drawing inferences about causality.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental
designs:
(1) the Principle of Replication;
(2) the Principle of Randomization;
(3) Principle of Local Control.
• According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should
be repeated more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in
many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the
statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
• The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we
conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by
randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we
should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under
the general heading of “chance.
• The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of
experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the known
source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a
range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that
the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated
from the experimental error
 Sampling Design
CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY
• All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population.’ A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that
in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
• The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a
‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’
The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey.
• Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which
is < N) of this population is selected according to some rule for
studying some characteristic of the population
• The group consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’.
• Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study
• He must plan how a sample should be selected and of what size such a
sample would be.
 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following points:
• Type of universe :The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The
universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is
certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we
cannot have any idea about the total number of items.
• Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state,
district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a
social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The
researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for
his study.
• Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe
only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list
should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely
important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.
• Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe
to constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample
should neither be excessively large, nor too small, It is optimal
• An optimum sample is One which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
• While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision
as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
• The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance
usually a bigger sample is needed.
• The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding
the size of the sample.
• Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest.
• Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to
the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
• Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will
use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample.
• select the sample design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has
a smaller sampling error.
 • CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE
• Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic
bias and sampling error.
• A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible
for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually a systematic bias is the result
of one or more of the following factors:
• Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a
biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
• Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will
result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
• Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included
in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias.
• Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations.
• Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting
of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries

• In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that

the procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control
the systematic bias in a better way.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good
sample design as under:

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
Sample designs are basically of two types viz., Non-probability
sampling and Probability sampling.

• Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling

procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that
each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
• Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. In this type of
sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme.
• Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random
sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the
universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a
lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group
not deliberately but by some mechanical process.