Volcanoes Forces and movements arising from the interior of the Earth and causing horizontal and vertical movements are known as endogenic forces. The two kinds of endogenic forces are diastrophic and sudden movements. Volcanoes are caused by sudden movements occurring in the Earth's interior Volcanoes — Eruption and Structure Causes of Volcanic Eruption A volcano is a vent or an opening in the Earth's crust from which hot magma erupts from the interior of the Earth. Volcanoes are generally caused because of the following reasons: a. Presence of heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior: The heat and pressure increase as one move towards the interior of the Earth. Because rocks are bad conductors of heat, the heat gets trapped inside and builds great pressure. This pressure forces the heat to come out to the surface of the Earth through fissures and cracks. b. Movement of tectonic plates: The movement of tectonic plates causes volcanic eruption. Most volcanic eruptions take place near the plate margins. c. Magma chamber: Every volcano has a magma chamber which consists of molten rock materials Because magma contains silicate, gases and water vapour, the pressure always acts vertically upwards. When it finds a route, the volcano erupts resulting in the outpouring of lava on the surface of the Earth, Structure of a Volcano Vent: It is an opening from which hot magma flows out to the surface of the Earth, Itis a circular pipe-lke structure Crater: It is a circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic vi recaseg oe activity. es coeeke Magma chamber: It is here that the hot magma is stored beneath a volcano, Volcanic cone: A volcanic cone is formed when erupted fluid and semi-fluid material begins to cool down and solidify around the vent. Itis a landform caused by volcanic eruptions. Products of a Volcano + Lava is the magma (hot molten fluid) which comes out on to the surface of the Earth * Pyroclasts are the solid fragments of rock pieces which come out on the surface of the Earth during a volcanic eruption. The finest rock particles are known as dust. + Lapilli are small stone-sized particles. * Gases erupted are hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. A volcanic eruption is generally accompanied by steam.Constructive and Destructive Effects of Volcanoes Constructive Effects « Volcanic soils are very fertile. * Solidified lava is a source of precious diamonds and minerals « Hot springs are now used for the generation of electricity. Destructive Effects Loss of life and property: The eruption of volcanoes can result in huge loss of lives and property ¢ Harmful to the natural environment: Volcanic eruption releases dust and many gases in the atmosphere. The solidification of lava into lava sheets also destructs the natural vegetation of nearby areas.Distribution of Volcanoes in the World Most of the volcanoes occur near earthquake belts around the young fold mountains. The Circum Pacific Belt also known as the Ring of Fire contains more than 80% of the total active volcanoes. Regions included in this belt are the Andes Mountains in South Africa and Rockies in North America. There are a series of islands along the east coast of Asia where many volcanoes are located. Some islands are Kurile Islands, Japanese islands, Taiwan, the Philippines and Indonesian islands. Many volcanoes are also found in New Zealand. Some famous volcanoes in this belt are Mt Fujiyama in Japan, Mt Mayon in the Philippines and Mt Krakatoa in Indonesia. According to estimated figures, there are about 40 active volcanoes in the Andes, 35 in Japan, 100 in the Philippines and 70 in Indonesia. Map A Volcano Volcanic region @ Lava Plateau ‘Map showing major volcanoes and volcanic regions in the worldEarthquakes ‘An earthquake is a tremor below the surface of the Earth which causes shaking of the Earth's crust. Causes of Earthquake Earthquakes are generally caused by sudden forces because of the following reasons: a. Plate tectonics: Most of the earthquakes occur because of the movement of tectonic plates. They are caused when two plates either slip past each other or collide against each other. Under such circumstances, their edges produce faults along the lines of weakness. b. Isostatic disturbances: Earthquakes may occur when disturbances are produced by the deposition of sediments by rivers and glaciers on the ocean floor. Because the asthenosphere (the upper layer of the Earth's mantle) is in the semi-motten state, any disturbance in the equilibrium between oceans and continents may result in movements causing earthquakes c. Man-made causes: Construction of large dams near the fault zones may result in isostatic movements causing earthquakes. Anatomy of an Earthquake ‘* An earthquake is caused by the movement of lithospheric plates inside the surface of the Earth Because these plates move, the surface of the Earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel all round the Earth The place in the Earth's crust where the movement first starts is called focus. The place on the surface above the focus is called epicentre, Seam It is from the epicentre that vibrations in the form of waves travel outwards. These are known as seismic “P**""* waves, The greatest damage and destruction to human life ‘and property occur at places which are closest to the epicentre. The strength of the earthquake decreases as it moves away from the epicentre. + Earthquake waves are classified into three types. These are © P waves: These are known as primary waves. They pass through solids, liquids and gases. These are the first earthquake waves which can be recorded on a seismogram. © Swaves: These waves travel through the Earth's interior but cannot be transmitted by liquids. They are recorded on a seismograph after the P waves. © _Lwaves: They are long waves and are recorded after the P and S waves. L waves may be further classified into Love waves and Rayleigh waves.A seismograph is an instrument which measures and records the details of an earthquake such as its duration, force and direction. The seismograph has a pen attached to it. When an earthquake occurs, the pen also vibrates along with the vibrations produced by the earthquake. The pen records the movements of vibrations on a moving strip of paper. Various waves which are formed by the moving pen give us an estimate of the direction and force of an earthquake. It also calculates the difference in the arrival of P and S waves, The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale and the Mercalli scale. The Richter scale is commonly used for measuring an earthquake. While the Richter scale measures the intensity of the earthquake on a scale from 1 to 9, the Mercalli scale measures it on a 12 point scale. Earthquakes measured above the Richter scale of 6 onwards cause damage to life and property. Effects of an Earthquake Earthquakes have constructive and destructive effects. Constructive Effects ‘+ Earthquakes help the Earth in releasing its energy. ‘* As a result of earthquakes, many landforms are built. It also results in changing the coastline. Earthquakes in the Himalayan region have resulted in the formation of various lakes. Further, the formation of bays, estuaries and gulfs because of earthquakes has resulted in better navigation Destructive Effects ‘+ Earthquakes measuring 6 and above on the Richter scale may result in the loss of human lives. About 15,000 people are killed every year because of earthquakes. ‘* Earthquakes inflict serious damage to buildings, structures, roads, bridges and railways. Submergence: Many coastal areas get submerged in water because of earthquakes. For example, Dwarka in Gujarat now lies submerged in water. ‘+ Powerful earthquakes may change the course of rivers which may render an area infertile. ‘* After earthquakes, fire may also break out. This may happen when inflammable material is thrown ‘onto broken gas lines. In the earthquake of 1906 in San Francisco, a great fire broke out which proved to be more destructive than the earthquake itself. ‘+ Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes occurring in the sea. These can cause huge destruction in the coastal regions. Tsunamis ‘Tsunamis are long, high waves mainly caused by earthquakes. They can also be caused by volcanic eruption or meteorite impact. An earthquake in the Indian Ocean in 2004 triggered a series of tsunamis on 26 December 2004 in which thousands of people were killed in India, Indonesia Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Maldives.* The temperature of the upper part of the oceanic crust has been estimated at 0°C but it gradually starts rising towards the interior. * The weight and pressure of rocks also starts increasing with depth. (ESE This discontinuity between the Crust and the Mant! jiscovered by a Yugoslavian scientist Andreaja Mohorovicic in 1909. It is simp! as 'Moho Discontinuity’. * It forms the boundary between the crust and the mantle. + Like the crust it does not exist at a uniform depth. It is found at abou the oceans and about 32 km beneath the continents. * It has the characteristics of both the upper layer (the crust ttom layer (the Mantle). Because of the continuous changes in the earth's cru: eS of nature, the thickness of the lithosphere is very fragile compar: ind composition of the earth. aT put forward by early 20th century and the put forth i 0's su that the earth's crust undergoes structural changes. Bi ents give the earth a new shape though very slowly over mi* The entire core is about 7000 km in diameter. + The temperature ranges from about 4400°C to about 6000°C. + It is generally believed, that the core is composed of iron and nickel which is responsible for earth's magnetism. The magnetic field is oriented towards North at South Poles. + The solid state of the inner core is due to high density and pressure which ha compressed the molten rock material. The S-waves disappear in the outer * This layer lies below the crust. + Its average thickness is 2900 km and makes up 84 per th's total volume. mantle. The upper is cooler and made s 2 3 3 3 3 = a s = g z 3 3 2 ce 3 = $ 3 8 3 3 3 5 3 mantle extends from the Moho Discontinuity to a of solid rocks. The lower mantle extends from 7¢ + Lower mantle is hotter and denser than tl asthenosphere. Lower mantle is solid + As the pressure increases towar ihe earth, the density also increases. + The temperature varies bet 01 ‘to around 3,700°C. between the mantle and the core or the mantle core interface is ki erg Discontinuity. + It begins at ange in the seismic waves (generated by earthquakes or ugh the earth. Primary seismic waves (P waves) decrease in seismic waves (S waves) disappear completely. st Is called Lithosphere because it is a sphere of solid, rocks (Lithos meaning s or rocks). Crust is only 4% of earth's mass and contains all known life in the re. + The crust is a relatively thin layer of rocks with a thickness of 60 km below high mountains and just 5-10 km below the oceans. + Considering the size of the earth, the crust is a relatively thin layer.‘Study of seismic waves, materials thrown up by volcanoes and the evidence from the theories of the origin of the Earth. The molten material thrown up by volcanoes rises to the surface of the earth from the magma chamber deep inside the earth. The theories of the origin of the earth, scientists study meteorites which fall on t surface of the earth. The earth is said to be constituted of the same materials meteorites. The heat given out by the earth comes from inside the earth. The earth is made up of several concentric layers. The outer \e earth's crusts the lithosphere. Parts of the earth's crust that are immer: and seas form the hydrosphere. Extending upwards, the earth is em blanket of gases which make up the atmosphere. + The Lithosphere or the outer most crust. ie earth e thinnest layer. s, feldspar, mica etc. isions: the SIAL and SIMA + It is made up of rocks with large cont + The Lithosphere can be divided i + SIAL appears to float above (Si) and Magnesium (M * Sial layer forms thexconti ‘Sima makes up the Ocean floor. + The core of the eat It is made up of Nickle (Ni) and Iron (Fe). Since igh density, they are found deep inside the earth. the above chemical composition, the is divided into three layers Core, 5 the most inaccessible part lying at the centre of the earth. * The core is the densest part of the earth. + It is also divided into outer and inner core.The earth appears blue when viewed from outer space. This is because approximately 71 per cent of the earth is covered in water. Hydrosphere refers to the combined mass of water found on the earth such as in oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, in the atmosphere and underground. (a) Ocean Water: About 97 per cent of the earth's water supply is in theoceahs which is unfit for humans. The remaining 3 per cent, 2.3 per cent is locked in the polar ice caps. The balance 0.7 per cent is available as freshiWwater. (b) Water on Land: Water on land is the result of precipitation or seepagefrom underground which forms streams and rivers flowing ondandhand finally joining the sea. (©) Underground Water: The water which gets collected under the surface of the land is known as underground water. (d) Water in Atmosphere: The circulation of watemamong atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere is called Hydrological Cycle. Waves are oscillatory movements in water, manifested by an alternate tise and fall of the sea surface. The rise and fall of sea water due to gravitational forces of the sun and the moon are Calledjtides. The rise of sea water and its movement towards the coast is called tide. The tides have their origin in the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon. The period of the farthest distance between the moon and the earth is called apogee while the period of the nearest distance is called perigee.Nature of the Tides Two tides and ebbs are experienced twice at every place on the earth's water surface in 24 hours. High Tides: When the sun, the earth and the moon are in the same line their gravitational forces work together and high tides are formed. Low Tides: When the sun and the moon are at the position of right angle with es reference to the earth, the gravitational a el forces of the sun and the moon work > against each other and hence low tides — are formed. NEW MOONdelayed by 26 minutes because —— the moon also rotates on its axis ¢ (west to east) while revolving ®& h round the earth. Since the eart! rotates from west to east, tl tide centre shifts west Types of Tides : The sun, the he moon come in the iy MOON f quadrature (i.e., form p tangle) on the seventh or ed ith day of every fortnight of a a month. The tide producing forces of the sun and the moon work in opposite direction, with the result, a low tide occurs.Ocean currents are large masses of surface water that circulate in regular patterns around the oceans. The Warm Currents: These are those currents which flow from the low latitudes in Tropical Zones towards the high latitudes. They bring warm water into cold water areas. The Cold Currents: These currents have a lower surface temperature an bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents flow in the latitudes from the Polar regions towards the low latitudes in tl ar Equator region. The Surface Currents: These currents constitute about 10, el he water in the ocean, and lie at the upper 400 m of the o The Deep-Water Currents: These currents make up t per cent of the ocean water. These waters move around the oce a variations in the density and gravity. The ocean currents have regular patte oceans. Causes of Ocean Current: circulation of water around the Level of Salinity-Higher salinit' an water heavier so it sinks. Temperature - Currents nei ui towards poles. tropics are warm, which moves The Earth rotation- C sing Clockwise direction in Northern hemisphere and iclo Southern hemisphere. The Planetary, wi: inds move Equatorial waters polewards and westwards. te: h easterly flow of water QsThe Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland, and the west coast of Europe. 2. The North Atlantic Dri a warm Atlantic Ocean Current which runs from the Grand Bank, near New Foundland to western Europe. The combination of these two currents produces heavy fogs and has also created one of the richest fishing grounds in the world. It is a strong western boundary current in the westerf north Pacific Ocean. It begins off the east Coast of Taiwan and flows Horth-eastward past Japan, where itmergeés with the easterly drift of the North Pacific Current, ‘The, world owing to the extremely high nutrient content of the cold ‘water and the very high tides in some areas, which further enhances the availability of nutrients.The climate of the coasts becomes warm or cool according to the current washing the coast which may be warm or cool. (i) Temperature Warm or cold ocean currents flowing near a coast exert a significant climatic influence. The warm Equatorial currents tend to raise the temperature of t! places where they flow. (ii) Rainfall The air above the warm ocean current becomes warm and acquires capacity to absorb moisture. (iii) Fog Dense fog occurs where the warm and cold ocean curr above warm current is warm and acquires a lot of wate (iv) Violent Storms Violent storms follow the line of meeting of 2. Effect on Marine Organisms The sea has innumerable microscopic organisms which are called planktons. The fish feed on planktons.The blanket of air surrounding the earth is known as the atmosphe} atmosphere protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet and infrare the sun. It has oxygen and nitrogen, the life sustaining gases. s retaining the necessary warmth on the earth and helps in the water vapour-the source of rainfall. DAE _& Oxygen gas helps in burning and breathing. Nitrogen is a colourless inert gas and has no taste or smell. It dilutes thi oxygen and slows down the process of oxidation. Plants obtain it from the s id animals obtain nitrogen by eating plant other animals. Carbon dioxide ( needed by plants for their sui vapour is added to atmosp! erts pressure. Being pressed down it always remains id water. orbs oxygen and nitrogen due to this contact. Water vapours in air ns on account of evaporation.In the atmosphere, there are concentric layers of air. Each layer has different density. The upper layers press down the lower ‘ones. On the basis of the characteristics of temperature and air pressure there exist four thermal layers of the atmosphere. They are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere. Extent: The troposphere is the lowermost and densest layer. Its height varies from 18 km at the Equator to 8 km at the Poles. Characteristics ~75% of atmosphere is found in troposphere. ~Normal lapse rate takes pl. ~ Asa result of these tui layer. ~ The upper limit of thi ere is known as tropopause. eather phenomena take place in this lies above the tropopause. It extends to a height of 50 km layer lies within the stratosphere. sorbs the ultraviolet solar radiation coming from above. lower layer of stratosphere has a virtual absence of water vapour and constant temperature conditions; therefore, it is ideal for flying jet aircraft. ~ The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause.Extent: This layer lies above the stratosphere and extends to a height of 80 km from ground level. Characteristics ~ Due to reflected sunlight from meteoric dust particles there are wispy clouds found in this layer. It extends from mesopause and consists of two layers (a) iono: ) Exosphere. lonosphere Extent: It extends up to a height of about 400 km. Characteristics ~ lonosphere contains electrically charged ions which create a sheet like display of light known as Auror i e Northern Hemisphere and Aurora Australis in the Sout! sphere. ~ lons reflect radio waves back to the 's surface. This enables us to have wireless communication. Exosphere Extent: It is the uppers el je structure of the atmosphere. It lies between 400 to 1500 e earth. Characteristics ~ It merges ju interplanetary space. ~ The mai here are lighter ones like hydrogen and helium. ‘a form of oxygen. It is present in rare amounts in the earth's josphere. Approximately one molecule out of every two million presents in atmosphere is Ozone. In the troposphere, Ozone is generated only in small amounts. But in the stratosphere at 20-50 km above sea level it is present in significant amounts. The Ozone layer in the stratosphere also protects the earth and its biosphere from the extra heat.IDEPLETION OZONE LA’ Ozone Hole Qa * An ‘Ozone hole’ is an Ozone depleted area. It was detected through satellite imagery conducted by NASA in the USA. Subsequently much scientific research has been going on. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are regarded as the reason for the Ozone Hole near Antarctica. CFC gases are used in refrigerators, aircraft and air conditioners. Volcanoes play a role in Ozone depletion. Large eruptions give sulphur dioxide, which spe destructive chemical re; Recent climate,st earth is rising. Thi shown that the global mean temperature on the nomenon known as Global Warming. Causes of Global Warming of Ozone layer in the Stratosphere protects the earth from the ultraviolet ie sun and its depletion contributes to Global Warming.2. Greenhouse Effect in the Atmosphere Excess accumulation of some gases like carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ozone and water vapour are responsible for disturbing the energy balance and thus increasing heat on the earth. 3. Deforestation Clearing away of forests and The atmosphere is being destroyed a: lobal Warming. This can result in change in the climate of Iready the surface temperature of the earth is on the rise. The perature increased by approximately 0.6°C in the 201 Impacts are : (i) Rise in Sea Level Over the last 100 yea lobal Warming, the ice reserves have melted and the sea I y about 10 to 25 cm. Precipitation Warming of considerably increase its moisture carrying yosphere warms up, the stratosphere will cool down. change will bring about substantial changes in cereal production ly in the Tropics. There is a great deal of controversy over the Freshwater supply has reduced. ely impact on water resources. Temperature and precipitation are two important causative factors of diseases like malaria which may reappear in different forms as a result of change in the climate. &Dry air promotes greater evaporation. This is because dry air has more capacity to hold water vapour than humid air. The amount of water vapour pres: in air is known as the it i. Humidity: Dry air hold more moisture ii. Supply of Heat: High heat high evaporation iii. Winds : Strong winds cause evaporati The amount of water vapour held temperature and volume is calle The ratio between the ab: idity of a given mass of air and the maximum a! iter vapour that it can hold at th erature is called the Highly humid i is comfort dep: heat throt ion and its evaporation. Under conditi: h relative humidity, the rate of eva tion of sweat from the skin de 's and the human being feels ncomfortable. iumidity of the atmosphere is measured with the help r, also known as Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer.1. Rain: It is the most common form of precipitation. Raindrops of smaller size and less intensity are known as drizzle. 2. Snow: Water droplets which rise higher and freeze on account of drop in temperature. Snowfall usually occurs in winter in cold climates or on high mountains. 3. Hail: Sometimes, vertical air currents may pus| droplets or ice particles higher. They form into si fall as hail. Hailstones cause great damage . 1. Relief Rainfall: nad Also known as Orographic Rainfall. This rainfall is caused due to cooling of moist air which rise above the mou barrier. This moist air condenses and fall d winds, while asce rainfall on the w le. . For example : The monsoon stern Ghats cause heavy Convectional rains nvectional Rainfall uatorial regions. The emperature leads to the id heating of air. Heated air rises in conventional currents and form cloud, causing heavy rainfall. Type of rainfall occurs in the afternoon at about '4 O clock and is known as 4 O' clock Shower.3 Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall This type of rainfall occurs due Condensation to cyclones and depression. orice cong When warm and cold air em a Ss Fame ae seeghon forced to vy masses confront each other, om the warmer lighter air generally climbs above the colder air. The boundary zones of these ai called the fronts. The rising air is cooled dergoing a frontal lift. This causes precipitation. § e ation or rainfall is called Cyclonic or Fronta heavy in tropical cyclones. _— ¢WHO has defined water pollu any foreign material eithe: natural or other source: contaminate the wat make it harmful t Freshwater: ater bodies / 4 are pollu b ‘Stic, industrial / f and agr' al effluents. All the He effluents fromthe freshwater sources t with their pollutants finally al i ans. Marine water: Marine pollution or Ocean Pollution is the spreading of harmful substances such as oil, plastic, industrial and agricultural waste and chemical particles into the ocean. As a result of marine pollution all levels of os oceanic life (plants and animals) are affected and i cases dead zones' are created.Soil is the upper layer of the earth's crust which is formed by weathering of rocks. Organic matter in the soil makes it suitable for livi organisms. backgroun ‘ion, emerging froj activities of man using ccurring or artificially AN adioactive materials. ronmental radiation is divided into two types: (i) natural, and (ii) man-made radiation. Noise pollution is defined as an unwanted sound that is an irritant 2 and a source of stress. Sound is the |) means of communication and entertainment. A low sound is pleasant but a loud sound is unpleasant and is often referred to as noise. Noise is a physical form of pollution w et directly harmful to the life supporting syst r, soil and water. Its effects are more di receiver ie, man.‘a source of many indoor noises such as the of playing children, crying of infants, etc. ise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery, ta \ching of rockets, etc. : Noise from the automobile repair shops, blasting, bulldozing crushing. AIR POLLUTION The contamination of air by pollutants like dust, smoke and harmful gases which cause adverse effects on human beings, plants, animals and the environment is known as air pollution. |. SEE: The air pollutants are classified into: (a) Primary Pollutants: The pollutants that are emitted directly the sources and are found in the atmosphere in the form in which emitted are known as primary pollutants, such as: ash, si (b) Secondary Pollutants: The pollutants that are form mical interactions between primary pollutants and atmos| ituents are known as secondary pollutants. Examples Sulphuptri ne, Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN), ketones, etc. 2. EESGOSESMMART: The air pollu ‘lassified into: (a) Gaseous air pollutants: These poll exist ih a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressur oxide (CO,), Nitrogen oxides (NO), Sulphur ©: (b) Particulate air pollutant; gaseous substances. They are suspended droplets, soli fumes, smoke, soot ai /The two main sources of —— radioactive pollution are: a i Radioactive Pollution (Causes, Effects and Solutions) (a) SEROUS: These — sources are cosmic rays with 4 energetic radiations reaching the earth from outer space. Though they are a major hazard in space, they are not dangerous for organisms on earth. (b) MERUAUEISOUREES: The following sources cause radioactive pollution: (ii) Radioactive fallout from nuclear plants: both fuel elements. and coolants are Radioactive wastes from atomic react ‘ion pollution. dous to living organisms. ons involves using radioactive waste emitted during thes radioactive. (iv) Radioactive Isoto) isotopes are used in research laboratories. When the from these laboratories reaches the rivers, streams, lakes, 01 @ sewers they cause water pollution. AaSOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION Many types of pollutants are released into the air from various sources. The major man-made sources of air pollution are automobiles, industries, burning of garbage and brick kilns. Sources of air pollution 1. Vehicular Vehicles are mainly responsible for more than 80 perceni pollution. The major pollutants released from automobi aircraft, etc., include carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt nitrogen monoxide. 2. Industrial Air Pollution Industries such as chemical industries, pal Ju s, cotton mills and petroleum refineries produce most air poll ment factories emit dust, which is potential health hazard, 3. Burning of Garbage Burning of garbage pollutes th y emitting such gases as Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxid oxides and particulate matter such as dust and smoke. SOURCES OF WATER Sources of Water Pollution POLLUTION following (i) Domestic ter for drinking, f food, bathing, ig the house, etc. the used water is ined out through icipal drains and poured into a river or lake. (ii) IndustrialIndustries dealing with chemicals, pulp and paper, food processing, etc., produce waste material such as heavy metals or synthetic organic compounds. (a) Lead: Lead is used in many industries and may accumulate in biological system. Lead can enter water from many sources like the mining and smelting of lead-bearing ores and metals, lead plumbing, paints and ceramic glaz the disposal of lead-zinc batteries in the garbage. (b) Manganese: Manganese has been found widely in nature and us; manufacturing steel. (c) Mercury: Mercury is used in plastic and chemical industrie: mercury is the most common form of mercury found in aquatic nt. It has been reported that accumulation of mercury is as times the amount in fish and is passed on to man. > The soil pollution is the outa “SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION of several sources, which can be categorised under the i : + Acid rains ious meee + ‘Excess application of pesticides, fertilizer. (i) chemical fertiliser: + Urban solid wastes. (ii) biomedical wi + Disposal of Industrial wastes and sludge over land. ‘Underatand the Poikiton Sourcas (ii) pesticide: ich plant nutrients as sphorous and |. The excessive use | fertilisers creates pollution. Hospital wastes contain organic materials, chemicals, al, needles, plastic, etc. Dumping of domestic sewage and hospital organic wastes contaminate the soil with pathogens that affect human health. (iii) BESHEMIBE: Pesticides and weedicides are used to control pests and weeds ‘on the farm. They contaminate the soil. Pesticide residues change the chemical properties of soil and accumulate on the soil permanently and introduce these toxic materials into plant products.The effects of noi: pollution has environme: multifaceted and interrelated. Noise ly on the human beings but also on the yoms cause cracks in national and archaeological monuments. Is of noise are the cause of cracks in hills. High intensity can break glass panes and cause vibrations in the bui (Enna Continuous exposure to noise levels above 100 dB has an adverse effect on hearing abi in a fairly short time. PETER ENY TETRIS extemal sounds can interfere with conversation and use of the telephone, as well as the enjoyment and television programmes. ERIS eee Different people have different di sl and they can adjust to natural sounds. IEEE Many people co them mentally ill. Experiments have been perform these claims. noise makes or disprove physical effect on the biological performat that the noise level is below about 90 dB. Damage to th ‘esult if continuous noise levels exceed about 100 dB an i lIness.ctive pollution is caused by testing of nuclear weapons, ishment of nuclear power plants, mining and refining of radioactive tances like uranium, thorium and plutonium and during medical reatment using X-rays. Radiations emitting from radioactive materials and the disposal of radioactive wastes cause pollution and damage the environment. The - level products of nuclear wastes remain in the environment for sev: hundred years. Radiations affect living organisms. They cause harmt es in the body cells and at genetic level. (ORSEEENEREMENEEE The damage caused by offsprings and may be transmitted to many (DESEERERELELER short term exposu to organs of the body. The harm done. by th seen in the can cause damage s breast cancer, thyroid cancer, lung cancer and braii cer, sterility and defective eyesight. Radioactive substan: Sy explosion of nuclear devices or nuclear wastes penetr: from where they enter into the food chain and get concent effects on jody tissue of animals and have adverse1 Carpools Carpooling refers to the sharing of car journeys by persons travelling on the same route. ‘The main advantages of carpooling are the following: (i) (i) (ii) (iv) “ wi) It reduces air pollution by reducing the number of vehicles on the road and thereby, cutting down the vehicular emissions. Ithelps to save money in buying fuel and maintenance cost of cars Ithelps to save petrol and diesel and thereby, save foreign exchange that .g0es into buying these fuels. Itreduces traffic congestion on the roads and thereby prevents trattic jams, reduces tuel consumption and commuting time and the cost of road repairs. Ithelps to use commuting time in useful pursuits. If one drives to work atone everyday, the time spent behind the wheelis essentially wasted. Ri carpool can help one to use this time to check and answer emails, read newspaper or novels, prepare for meetings, check bank balances or simply relax. It helps to de-stress by talking to fellow commuters, sharing an anecdote, a story or a joke. This can also help to build friendships. Many online services provide a choice to ride share with people of your choice.2.Public transport Public Transport is a shared passenger transport service which is available for use by the general public, as distinct from modes such as taxis, carpooling or hired buses. Public transport modes include city buses, trams (or light rail), passenger trains and metro rail. Buses make up over 90 per cent of public transport in India and serve as a cheaper mode of transport for the general public. 2. No Smoking Zone ‘Smoking is the inhalation of the smoke of burning tobacco encased in cigarettes, beedis, pipes and cigars. In this way, nicotine, the active ingredients in tobacco, is inhaled into the lungs, where most of it stays. The rest passes into the bloodstream, reaching the brain in about ten seconds and dispersing throughout the body in about 20 seconds. Smoking is recognised as the leading preventable cause of death. Anyone with a smoking habit has an increased chance of lung, cervical and other types of cancer, respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis and cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, high blood pressure, and stroke. ‘Smoking does not just harm the smoker but also the people nearby, who breathe in the smoke exhaled by the smokers and are called ‘passive smokers’. Recent research has shown that concentration of second-hand tobacco smoke (the smoke exhaled by smokers) in many outdoor areas is often as high or higher than in some indoor areas and the risks posed by such outdoor exposure are well beyond generally accepted norms when large numbers of people are involuntarily exposed.= s 2 28 AudesBoop joo,Map Filling | World Plateaus, a ia a98F Map Filling : The Oceans, Seas, Gulfs and Straits r 1 mi - ow aa