Module 1

Introduction to Quality Engineering - Definitions of the terms - quality, quality planning,

quality control, quality assurance, quality management, Total Quality Management
(TQM)-

overview on TQM - the TQM axioms - consequences of total quality- Barriers to TQM-
Deming approach to TQM – Juran’s quality trilogy- Crosby's fourteen steps for quality

The history of quality control is undoubtedly as old as industry itself. During the Middle
Ages, quality was to a large extent controlled by the long periods of training required by
the guilds. This training instilled pride in workers for the quality of a product.

Definitions of Quality
Quality means fitness for use.There are two general aspects of fitness for use: quality
of design and quality of conformance.

Quality of design: The variations in grades or levels of quality for different products are
intentional, and, consequently, the appropriate technical term is quality of design. For
example automobiles differ in their size, shape etc while keeping the primary function of
providing safe and comfortable transportation.

The quality of conformance is how well the product conforms to the specifications
required by the design. Quality of conformance is influenced by a number of factors,
including the choice of manufacturing processes; the training and supervision of the
workforce; the types of process controls, tests, and inspection activities that are
employed; the extent to which these procedures are followed; and the motivation of the
workforce to achieve quality.

Unfortunately, this definition has become associated more with the conformance aspect
of quality than with design.
This also leads to much less focus on the customer and more of a “conformance-to-
specifications” approach to quality, regardless of whether the product, even when
produced to standards, was actually “fit-for- use” by the customer.

Quality is inversely proportional to variability: This definition implies that if variability

in the important characteristics of a product decreases, the quality of the product
increases
Reduced variability has directly translated into lower costs. Fewer repairs and warranty
claims means less rework and the reduction of wasted time, effort, and money.[Cost of
goods sold is reduced] Thus, quality truly is inversely proportional to variability.

The definition of quality is given in ISO 9000: 2000. It is defined as the degree to
which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements. Degree means that quality
can be used with adjectives such as poor, good, and excellent. Inherent is defined as
existing in something, especially as a permanent characteristic. Characteristics can be
quantitative or qualitative. Requirement is a need or expectation that is stated; generally
implied by the organization, its customers, and other interested parties; or obligatory.

In terms of fulfilling or exceeding our expectations, quality can be quantified as Q= P/E;

where P- performance, and Q - Quality , E- Expectations

If Q is greater than 1.0, then the customer has a good feeling about the product or
service. Of course, the determination of P and E will most likely be based on perception
with the organization determining performance and the customer determining
expectations.

Quality has nine different dimensions. Following Table these nine dimensions of quality
with their meanings and explanations in terms of a slide projector.

Dimensions of quality
The quality of a product can be described and evaluated in several ways. It is often very
important to differentiate these different dimensions of quality. Garvin (1987) provides
an
excellent proposition for eight components or dimensions of quality.

1. Performance (Will the product do the intended job?) Potential customers usually
evaluate a product to determine if it will perform certain specific functions and determine
how well it performs them. For example, you could evaluate spreadsheet software pack-
ages for a PC to determine which data manipulation operations they perform. You may
discover that one outperforms another with respect to the execution speed.

2. Reliability (How often does the product fail?) Complex products, such as many
appliances, automobiles, or airplanes, will usually require some repair over their service
life.

If a product requires frequent repair, we say that it is unreliable. There are many indus-
tries in which the customer’s view of quality is greatly impacted by the reliability
dimension of quality.

3. Durability (How long does the product last?) This is the effective service life of the
product. Customers obviously want products that perform satisfactorily over a long
period of time. The automobile and major appliance industries are examples of
businesses where this dimension of quality is very important to most customers.

4. Serviceability (How easy is it to repair the product?) There are many industries in
which the customer’s view of quality is directly influenced by how quickly and
economically a repair or routine maintenance activity can be accomplished. Examples
include the appliance and automobile industries and many types of service industries
(how long did it take a credit card company to correct an error in your bill?).
5. Aesthetics (What does the product look like?) This is the visual appeal of the product,
often taking into account factors such as style, color, shape, packaging alternatives,
tactile characteristics, and other sensory features. For example, soft-drink beverage
manufacturers rely on the visual appeal of their packaging to differentiate their product
from other competitors.
6. Features (What does the product do?) Usually, customers associate high quality with
products that have added features—that is, those that have features beyond the basic
performance of the competition. For example, you might consider a spreadsheet soft-
ware package to be of superior quality if it had built-in statistical analysis features while
its competitors did not.
7. Perceived Quality (What is the reputation of the company or its product?) In many
cases, customers rely on the past reputation of the company concerning quality of its
products. This reputation is directly influenced by failures of the product that are highly
visible to the public or that require product recalls, and by how the customer is treated
when a quality-related problem with the product is reported. Perceived quality, customer
loyalty, and repeated business are closely interconnected. For example, if you
make regular business trips using a particular airline, and the flight almost always
arrives on time and the airline company does not lose or damage your luggage, you will
probably prefer to fly on that carrier instead of its competitors.

8. Conformance to Standards (Is the product made exactly as the designer intended?)
We usually think of a high-quality product as one that exactly meets the requirements
placed on it. Manufactured parts that do not exactly meet the designer’s requirements
can cause significant quality problems when they are used as the components of a
more complex assembly.
An automobile consists of several thousand parts. If each one is just slightly too big or
too small,many of the components will not fit together properly, and the vehicle (or its
major subsystems) may not perform as the designer intended

These eight dimensions are usually adequate to describe quality in most industrial and
many business situations. However, in service and transactional business organizations
(such as banking and finance, health care, and customer service organizations) we can
add the following three dimensions:
1. Responsiveness. How long they did it take the service provider to reply to your
request
for service? How willing to be helpful was the service provider? How promptly was
your request handled?
2. Professionalism. This is the knowledge and skills of the service provider, and relates
to the competency of the organization to provide the required services.
3. Attentiveness. Customers generally want caring and personalized attention from their
service providers. Customers want to feel that their needs and concerns are important
and are being carefully addressed.

Quality improvement: Quality improvement is the reduction of variability in processes

and products.

Quality plan
As per American society of quality: A quality plan is a document, or several documents,
that together specify quality standards, practices, resources, specifications, and the
sequence of activities relevant to a particular product, service, project, or contract.
Quality plans should define:

● Objectives to be attained (for example, characteristics or specifications,

uniformity, effectiveness, aesthetics, cycle time, cost, natural resources,
utilization, yield, dependability, and so on)
● Steps in the processes that constitute the operating practice or procedures of the
organization
● Allocation of responsibilities, authority, and resources during the different phases
of the process or project
● Specific documented standards, practices, procedures, and instructions to be
applied
● Suitable testing, inspection, examination, and audit programs at appropriate
stages
● A documented procedure for changes and modifications to a quality plan as a
process is improved
● A method for measuring the achievement of the quality objectives
● Other actions necessary to meet the objectives

Quality control

Quality control (QC) is a procedure or set of procedures intended to ensure that a

manufactured product or performed service adheres to a defined set of quality criteria or
meets the requirements of the client or customer. QC is similar to, but not identical with,
quality assurance (QA). While QA refers to the confirmation that specified requirements
have been met by a product or service, QC refers to the actual inspection of these
elements.

In order to implement an effective QC program, an enterprise must first decide which

specific standards the product or service must meet. Then the extent of QC actions
must be determined -- for example, the percentage of units to be tested from each lot.

Next, real-world data must be collected -- such as the percentage of units that fail -- and
the results reported to management personnel. After this, corrective action must be
decided upon and taken. For example, defective units must be repaired or rejected, and
poor service repeated at no charge until the customer is satisfied. If too many unit
failures or instances of poor service occur, a plan must be devised to improve the
production or service process; then that plan must be put into action.
Finally, the QC process must be ongoing to ensure that remedial efforts, if required,
have produced satisfactory results and to immediately detect recurrences or new
instances of trouble.

Quality control (QC) refers to the systematic processes and activities implemented to
ensure that products or services meet specified requirements and adhere to established
standards. The primary goal of quality control is to identify and rectify any defects,
errors, or deviations from the desired quality level, ultimately ensuring that the end
product meets or exceeds customer expectations.

Key aspects of quality control include:

1. Inspection and Testing: Regular inspection and testing of products or services

are conducted to verify whether they meet predefined criteria. This involves
examining various attributes, such as dimensions, functionality, performance,
and durability.
2. Process Monitoring: Quality control involves monitoring and controlling
production or service delivery processes to identify and address potential issues
before they affect the final output. This can include setting up checkpoints and
using statistical methods to analyze process data.
3. Documentation: Maintaining accurate and comprehensive documentation is
crucial in quality control. This includes recording specifications, procedures, test
results, and any corrective actions taken. Documentation helps in traceability and
facilitates continuous improvement.
4. Feedback Loops: Quality control processes often incorporate feedback loops,
where information about defects or deviations is used to make improvements in
the production or service delivery processes. This continuous feedback loop is
essential for ongoing quality improvement.
5. Quality Assurance: While quality control focuses on identifying and rectifying
defects, quality assurance involves proactive measures to prevent defects from
occurring in the first place. Together, quality control and quality assurance
contribute to a comprehensive quality management system.
6. Standardization: Implementing and adhering to industry standards and
specifications is a fundamental aspect of quality control. These standards serve
as benchmarks for quality and help ensure consistency across products or
services.

In summary, quality control is a vital component of overall quality management, aiming

to guarantee that products or services meet the specified standards and customer
expectations by employing various techniques, inspections, and controls throughout the
production or service delivery process.

Quality assurance

QA refers to the confirmation that specified requirements have been met by a product or
service.

Documentation of the quality system is an important component. Quality system

documentation involves four components: policy, procedures, work instructions and

specifications, and records. Policy generally deals with what is to be done and why,
while procedures focus on the methods and personnel that will implement policy. Work
instructions and specifications are usually product-, department-, tool-, or machine-
oriented.

Records are a way of documenting the policies, procedures, and work instructions that
have been followed.

Records are also used to track specific units or batches of product, so that it can be
determined exactly how they were produced. Records are often vital in providing data
for dealing with customer complaints, corrective actions, and, if necessary, product
recalls. Development, maintenance, and control of documentation are important quality
assurance functions. One example of document control is ensuring that specifications
and work instructions developed for operating personnel reflect the latest design and
engineering changes.

Much of the focus of ISO 9000 (and of the industry-specific standards) is on formal

documentation of the quality system—that is, on quality assurance activities.

Consumerism and product liability are important reasons why quality assurance is an
important business strategy.

Specifically, the quality-assurance function is a technology warehouse that contains

the skills and resources necessary to generate products of acceptable quality in the
market Place.
Difference between quality control and quality assurance

Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) are two distinct aspects of quality
management, and they play different roles in ensuring the delivery of high-quality
products or services. Here's a brief overview of the differences between QA and QC:

1. Definition:
○ Quality Assurance (QA): QA is a proactive process that focuses on
preventing defects and ensuring that the processes used to create the
product are efficient and effective. It involves establishing and
implementing standards, procedures, and guidelines to improve the
development and test processes throughout the project.
○ Quality Control (QC): QC is a reactive process that involves activities
and techniques used to inspect and verify the product's adherence to
specified requirements. It is concerned with identifying defects in the
actual products or services through testing and inspection.
2. Focus:
○ Quality Assurance (QA): Focuses on the process of development and
implementation to ensure that the final product meets the required
standards and specifications.
○ Quality Control (QC): Focuses on the product itself, checking for defects
and ensuring that it meets the desired quality standards.
3. Timing:
○ Quality Assurance (QA): Occurs throughout the entire development
lifecycle, starting from the planning phase and continuing until the delivery
of the product.
○ Quality Control (QC): Takes place during or after the production phase
when the product is ready for testing and inspection.
4. Prevention vs. Detection:
○ Quality Assurance (QA): Emphasizes preventing defects by improving
processes and procedures. It aims to identify and address potential issues
before they become problems.
○ Quality Control (QC): Focuses on detecting defects in the final product
through inspections, testing, and other evaluation methods.
5. Responsibility:
○ Quality Assurance (QA): Involves the entire team and is a collective
responsibility. It often requires collaboration across different departments
to improve processes.
○ Quality Control (QC): Typically falls under the responsibility of a
dedicated quality control team or individuals who are specifically trained
for product inspection and testing.
In summary, QA is more concerned with preventing defects by improving processes,
while QC is focused on detecting defects through inspections and testing of the final
product. Both processes are crucial for delivering a high-quality end product or service.

Total quality management

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management philosophy and approach that

focuses on continuously improving the quality of products, services, and processes
within an organization. TQM is a comprehensive and systematic strategy that involves
all levels and functions of an organization, aiming to meet or exceed customer
expectations.

Axioms

The essential elements of TQM as a process-oriented approach can be represented by

only three main principles.

(i) Commitment (to never ending quality improvement & innovation).

(ii) Scientific knowledge (of the proper tools and techniques for the ‘technical

change’).

(iii) Involvement (all in one team for social change).

Also called the axioms of TQM, the above three fundamental characteristics are of
equal

significance and hence can be represented at the corners of an equilateral triangle (also

called Joiner’s Triangle).

Commitment

Successful implementation of TQM requires strong leadership commitment and support.

The management must regard the workforce as an asset and must be willing to invest in
the future development of the workforce.

The management should adopt policies for motivating the workforce. For this the
management has to ensure proper working conditions, has to provide adequate education
and training, good communication and cooperation, has to ensure modern leadership
rather than strict supervision, job satisfaction and incentives to the workforce for good
work.

It is the duty of the senior management to outline quality goals, quality policies and quality
plans.

These goals and policies should be clear and meaningful to all employees in the
Firm.
Quality goals and quality policies must be followed by meaningful action plans.
There will be short-term plans (one-year plans) and long-term plans, the
latter often being three-year plans which are revised annually in connection with an
annual quality audit.

Scientific knowledge (of the proper tools and techniques for the ‘technical
change’).

The role of TQM quality department should be that of co-ordination, education and
support of scientific quality tools throughout the organization. Additional duties should
include continuous research and development of innovative methods or further
development of existing ones.

TQM emphasizes the importance of training and educating employees to enhance their
skills and knowledge. This helps in building a workforce that is capable of contributing to
quality improvement efforts.

Involvement (All in one team for social change)

TQM encourages the active participation and involvement of all employees at all levels
of the organization. Employees are viewed as valuable resources who can contribute to
the improvement of processes and overall quality.

TQM is process-oriented. Customers, including internal customers (i.e. the firm’s

employees), are part of the firm’s processes. These customers, together with their
requirements and expectations, must be identified in all the processes. . For this to be
effective, it seems only common sense that everybody should participate.

To get everybody to participate demands the education and motivation of both

management and employees. The firm’s management must get involved in as many
education and training activities as possible. ‘Management must ensure that every
employee in the company participates actively in a team (work team, quality circle).