25.03.

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Two Categories of Casting Processes

Expendable mold processes Permanent mold processes
mold is sacrificed to remove part mold is made of metal and can be
• Advantage: more complex used to make many castings
shapes are possible • Advantage: higher production
• Disadvantage: production rates
rates are often limited by • Disadvantage: geometries are
time to make mold rather limited by the need to open mold
than casting itself

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Overview of Sand Casting

• The most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium.
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions

Figure 11.1 A large

sand casting
weighing over 680
kg (1500 lb) for an
air compressor
frame (photo
courtesy of Elkhart
Foundry).

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Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pattern making
2. Mold preparation by using a pattern
Video 3. Melting of the metal and pouring into
for steps sand mold
4. Allow time for metal to solidify
5. Break up the mold to remove the casting
6. Clean and inspect casting
• Separate gating and riser system
7. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical
properties.

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Making the Sand Mold

• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, then separating the mold into two halves and removing the
pattern.
• The mold must also contain gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in the
mold.

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The Pattern (Model)

A full-sized model of the part that forms the cavity.
The pattern is slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining (if
needed) allowances in the casting.

Pattern materials:
• Wood - common material because it is easy to work and cheap, but it warps and is
not dimensionally stable.
• Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer. It is more stable, durable
and withstands hard use. Metals used for patterns include aluminum, brass, white
metal (Al+Zn alloy) (zamak) and cast iron.
• Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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Types of Patterns
(a) Single piece pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

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Pattern Allowances
• Shrinkage allowance: To avoid cracking of the casting during cooling, there should be
allowances, usually ranging from about 10-20 mm/m.
• Machining allowance: In designing a casting, it is important to consider the subsequent
machining and finishing operations, if any, that may be required.
• Drafting: A small draft (taper) is typically provided in sand mold patterns to enable the
removal of the pattern without damaging the mold. Drafts generally range from 5 to
15mm/m. Draft angles usually range from 0.5 to 2°.

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Core (maça)
• Complex internal cavities can be produced with cores
• It is inserted into core prints in the mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the
core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces
• It may require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during
pouring, called chaplets

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Casting Core Characteristics

• Sufficient strength before hardening
• Sufficient hardness and strength
after hardening
• Smooth surface
• Minimum generation of gases
• Adequate permeability
• Adequate refractoriness
• Collapsibility

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Core in Mold, Chaplet

• As mentioned
earlier, cores are
usually supported
by two core prints
in the mold.
However, there
are situations
where a core only • These are small metal supports that bridge the gap
uses one core between the mold surface and the core, but because of
this, they become part of the casting. The chaplets must
print so other be of the same or similar material as the metal being
means are cast.
required to • Moreover, their design must be optimized because if they
support the are too small, they will completely melt and allow the
cantilevered end. core to move, but if they are too big, then their whole
surface cannot melt and fuse with the poured metal.
• These are usually • Their use should also be minimized because they can
supplied in the cause casting defects or create a weak spot in the casting.
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Dry-Sand Cores
• Produced separately from the
remainder of the mold
• Inserted into core prints that hold
the cores in position
• Dump-core box
• Sand is packed into the mold cavity
• Sand is baked or hardened
• Single-piece cores
• Two halves of a core box are clamped
together

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Additional Core Methods

 Core-oil process
 Sand is blended with oil to develop strength

 Wet sand is blown or rammed into a simple core box

 Hot-box method
 Sand is blended with a thermosetting binder

 Cold-box process
 Binder-coated sand is packed and then sealed

 Gas or vaporized catalyst polymerizes the resin

• Selecting the proper core method is based on the following considerations

• Production quantity, production rate, required precision, required surface finish,
metal being poured
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Desirable Mold Properties

 Four requirements of sand used in casting
 Refractoriness-ability withstand high temperatures
 Cohesiveness-ability to retain shape
 Permeability-ability of gases to escape through the
sand
 Collapsibility-ability to accommodate shrinkage and
part removal
 Size of sand particles, amount of bonding
agent, moisture content, and additives are
selected to obtain sufficient requirements

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Foundry Sands
• Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
• Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water (3-8%), and 7% clay (7-15%)
• Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
• Organic resins (e.g., phenolic resins)
• Inorganic binders (e.g., sodium silicate and phosphate)
• Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase
strength and/or permeability.

• Small grain size yields a better surface finish on the cast part.
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape during
pouring.
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking, compared
to round grains (Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce compact
ability).

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Sand Testing
 Blended molding sand is characterized by the following
attributes
 Moisture content, clay content, compact ability

 Properties of compacted sand

 Mold hardness, permeability, strength

 Standard testing
 Grain size

 Moisture content

 Clay content

 Permeability

 Compressive strength

 Ability to withstand erosion

 Hardness

 Compact ability

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Permeability test
• Permeability is measured
using a standard
cylindrical test sample
made of sand.
(D=H=2in=5.08 cm).
Pressurized air passes
through a standard test
sample, and time is
measured during the
test.
• Where V is the volume of
air (2000 cm3), H is the
height of the specimen
(5.08 cm), P is the
pressure (10 g/cm2), A is
the cross-section area of
AFS Number=5-12 (weak permeability) the specimen (20.268
cm2), and T is the time in
AFS number =25-50 (good permeability) seconds to pass a flow of
2000 cm3 of air through
the specimen.
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Fineness Test:

• To determine the percentage distribution of grain sizes in the sand,

this test is performed on a dried-sand sample from which all clay
substances have been removed. A set of standard testing sieves is
used, having meshes 6, 12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200, and 270.
These sieves are stacked and placed in one of the several types of
motor-driven shakers. The 50 g sand is placed on the coarsest sieve
at the top, and after 15 minutes of vibration, the weight of the sand
retained on each sieve is obtained, and these weights are used to
compute an AFS (American Foundry Society) grain fineness number
by using the equation.
• AFS Fineness Number=Ʃ (% in sieves x multiplier of sieve)/Ʃ % in sieve
• A multiplier of the sieve is a constant value for each sieve.
Mesh is the number of holes per in2.

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Fineness Test

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Moisture content can be determined by a special device that

measures the electrical conductivity of a small sample of
compressed sand.
• A more direct method is to measure the weight lost by a
50-gram sample after it has been subjected to a
temperature of about 110°C for sufficient time to drive off
all the water.

Clay content is determined by washing the clay from a 50-

gram sample of molding sand, using water that contains
sufficient sodium hydroxide to make it alkaline.
• Several cycles of agitation and washing may be required to
remove the clay entirely.
• The remaining sand is then dried and weighed to determine
the amount of clay removed from the original sample.
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• The hardness of compacted

sand can give additional
insight into a mold's strength
and permeability
characteristics.
• Hardness can be determined
by the resistance of the sand
to the penetration of a 0.2-
in. (5.08-mm)-diameter
spring-loaded steel ball.

Sand mold hardness tester.

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• Compactibility is determined by sifting loose sand into a steel

cylinder, leveling off the column, striking it three times with the
standard weight (as in making a standard rammed specimen), and
then measuring the final height.

• The percent compactibility is the change in height divided by the

original height, times 100%.

• This value can often be correlated with the moisture content of the
sand, where a compactibility of around 45% indicates a proper level
of moisture.

• A low compactibility is usually associated with too little moisture.

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Sand-Strength Test
Sand-Strength Test: Compression tests are the most common.
A universal sand-strength tester loads a 50 mm long, 50 mm
diameter specimen by means of a dead-weight pendulum.

Compressive
strength Sand quality
(kg/cm2)
200 very low
300-500 low
500-850 medium
850-1200 high
1200 very high

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Types of Sand Mold

• Green-sand mold – a mixture of sand, clay, and water;
• “Green" means mold contains moisture at the time of pouring

• Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay, and mold is baked to
improve strength. Dry-sand molds must be oven-baked before being
used. A dry-sand mold is free from gas troubles due to moisture.

• Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand mold to a

depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps. The remainder of
the mold is made up of ordinary green sand.
• Both the skin-dried and dry-sand molds are widely used in steel
foundries.

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The Making of Sand Molds

• Molds begin with a pattern and a flask
• Mixed sand is packed in the flask

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Video
by hand

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The Making of Sand Molds

 Hand ramming is the method of packing sand

to produce a sand mold
 Used when few castings are to be made
 Slow, labor-intensive
 Nonuniform compaction
 Molding machines
 Reduce the labor and required skill
 Castings with good dimensional accuracy and
consistency

Methods of Compacting Sand

Squeezing a sand-filled mold

Jolting a mold section.
section. While the pattern is on
(Note: The pattern is on the bottom, the bottom, the highest packing
where the greatest packing is will be directly under the
expected.) squeeze head.

Video
by machine

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Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

• During pouring, the buoyancy of the molten metal tends to displace the
core, which can cause the casting to be defective
• Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid less the weight of
core itself Video
Fb = Wm - Wc for buoyancy
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten metal displaced; and
Wc = weight of core.

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Other Expendable Mold Processes

• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

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Shell Molding
The casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together
by thermosetting resin binder

(1) A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a

box containing sand mixed with a thermosetting resin.
(2) The box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing
a layer of the mixture to cure on the surface to form a hard shell partially.
(3) The box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles drop away.
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Shell Molding, cont.

(4) The sand shell is heated in a furnace for several minutes to complete
curing.
(5) Shell mold is stripped from the pattern.
(6) Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
(7) The finished casting with sprue is removed.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of shell molding:
• Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish
• Good dimensional accuracy - machining is often not
required
• Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in the casting
• Can be mechanized for mass production

• Disadvantages:
• More expensive metal pattern
• Difficult to justify for small quantities

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Vacuum Molding

• Vacuum molding, also called the V-process, was developed in Japan

around 1970.

• It uses a sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than by

a chemical binder.

• Accordingly, the term vacuum in this process refers to making the

mold rather than the casting operation itself.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of vacuum molding:

• Easy recovery of the sand since there are no binders
• Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning done
when binders are used
• Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture-related
defects are absent
• Disadvantages:
• Slow process
• Not readily adaptable to mechanization

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Expanded Polystyrene Process

It uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern,
which vaporizes when molten metal is poured into a mold
• Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and
internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections.

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Video
Expanded Polystyrene Process
lost foam,
3min

(1) The pattern of polystyrene is coated with a refractory compound.

(2) The foam pattern is placed in a mold box, and sand is compacted
around the pattern.
(3) Molten metal is poured into the pattern portion, forming the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid; thus,
the mold cavity is filled.
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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

• Patterns need not be removed from the mold
• Simplifies and speeds mold-making because two mold
halves are not required as in a conventional green-sand
mold
• Disadvantages:
• A new pattern is needed for every casting
• Economic justification of the process is highly dependent
on the cost of producing patterns

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Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to

make a mold, after which wax is melted away prior to
pouring molten metal.
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of
"invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to a coating of
refractory material around a wax pattern.
• It is a precision casting process - capable of producing
castings of high accuracy and intricate detail.

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Investment Casting steps

(1) Wax patterns are produced.

(2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree.
(3) The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material.
(4) The entire mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid.
(5) The mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and let
it drip out of the cavity.
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Investment Casting steps

(6) The mold is
preheated to a
high temperature,
the molten metal
is poured, and it
solidifies.
(7) The mold is broken
away from the
finished casting
and the parts are
separated from
the sprue.

Video
lost wax,
4,5 min

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Investment Casting Examples

A one-piece compressor
stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by
investment casting (photo
courtesy of Howmet
Corp.).
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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of investment casting:

• Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast.
• Close dimensional control and good surface finish.
• Wax can usually be recovered for reuse.
• Additional machining is not normally required - this is a
net-shape process.

• Disadvantages
• Many processing steps are required.
• Relatively expensive process.

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Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is
made of plaster of Paris
(gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)

• In mold-making, plaster and water

mixture is poured over a plastic or
metal pattern and allowed to set
• Wood patterns are not generally
used due to extended contact with
water
• The plaster mixture readily flows
around the pattern, capturing its fine
details and good surface finish.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of plaster mold casting:

• Good accuracy and surface finish
• Capability to make thin cross-sections

• Disadvantages:
• Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which can
cause problems in casting
• Mold strength is lost if over-baked
• Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so they
are limited to alloys with lower melting points.

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Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to plaster mold casting
except that, mold is made of
refractory ceramic material that
can withstand higher
temperatures than plaster.
• It can be used to cast steels, cast
irons, and other
high-temperature alloys.
• Applications are similar to those
This photo shows a ceramic mold made by
of plaster mold casting except for
3D Printing and an orthopedic knee casting
the metals cast.
poured into a similar mold. The knee
• The advantages (good accuracy casting has been polished on the back side,
and finish) are also similar. as can be seen in the reflection in the
mirror. The casting is made of a medical
cobalt chrome alloy.
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• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a

new mold is required for every casting.
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times.

The processes include:

• Basic permanent mold casting
• Die casting
• Centrifugal casting

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The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for
easy, precise opening and closing.
These molds are commonly made of steel or cast iron.
• The cavity, with a gating system included, is machined into
two halves to provide accurate dimensions and a good
surface finish.
• Metals commonly cast in permanent molds include
aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron.
• However, cast iron requires a high pouring temperature,
1250°C to 1500°C, which takes a heavy toll on mold life.
• Steel’s very high pouring temperatures make permanent
molds unsuitable for this metal unless the mold is made of
refractory material.

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Permanent Mold Casting Steps

The
cores
can be
made of
metal

1. Mold is preheated and coated. The coatings aid heat dissipation and
lubricate the mold surfaces for easier separation of the cast product.
2. Cores (if used) are inserted, and the mold is closed.

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Permanent Mold Casting Steps

3. Molten metal is poured into the mold, where it

solidifies.
4. Mold is opened. Permanent molds do not collapse, so
the mold must be opened before appreciable cooling
contraction occurs to prevent cracks from developing in
the casting.

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Permanent Mold Casting, other applications

Slush Casting (Çalkalama döküm)
Slush casting is a permanent mold process in which a hollow casting is
formed by inverting the mold after partial freezing at the surface to
drain the liquid metal in the center.
• Solidification begins at the mold walls because they are relatively
cool, progressing toward the middle of the casting.
• The shell is controlled by the length of time allowed before draining.
Slush casting is used to make statues, lamp pedestals, and toys out of
low-melting-point metals such as zinc and tin.
• In these items, the exterior appearance is important, but the
strength and interior geometry of the casting are minor
considerations.
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Permanent Mold Casting, other applications

Low pressure casting
• In low-pressure
casting, the liquid
metal is forced into
the cavity under
low pressure from
beneath so that
the flow is upward.
• Gas porosity and
oxidation defects
are thereby
minimized, and
mechanical
approximately
properties are 0.1 MPa
improved.
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Permanent Mold Casting, other applications

Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
• This process is a variation of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum
is used to draw the molten metal into the mold cavity.
• The general configuration of the vacuum permanent mold casting
process is similar to the low-pressure casting operation.
• The difference is that reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the
mold is used to draw the liquid metal into the cavity rather than
forcing it by positive air pressure from below.
• There are several benefits of the vacuum technique relative to low-
pressure casting:
1. air porosity and related defects are reduced, and
2. greater strength is given to the cast product.

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Advantages and Limitations

• Advantages of permanent mold casting:

• Good dimensional control and surface finish
• More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
• Limitations:
• Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
• Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the mold
• High cost of mold.

Due to high mold cost, the process is best suited to high-

volume production and can be automated accordingly.

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Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected
into the mold cavity under high pressure.
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then the mold is opened,
and the part is removed.
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die
casting.
• The use of high pressure to force the metal into the die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes.

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Die Casting Machines

It is designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves

and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into the
cavity.

Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

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Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under
high pressure into the die.
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead alloys
plunger forces metal in
chamber to flow into die
7 to 35 MPa

Video
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Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from the external
melting container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure into the
die cavity.
• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because
of the pouring step.
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys

ram forces metal to

flow into the die,
14 to 140 MPa

Video

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Molds for Die Casting

• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die
cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins are required to remove the part from the die when it
opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking
• Because the die materials have no natural porosity and the molten
metal rapidly flows into the die during injection, venting holes and
passageways must be built into the dies at the parting line to
evacuate the air and gases in the cavity.
• The vents are quite small, yet they fill with metal during injection.
• Formation of flash is typical in die casting, in which the liquid metal
under high pressure squeezes into the small space between the die
halves at the parting line or into the clearances around the cores and
ejector pins.

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Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of die casting:
(1) high production rates possible;
(2) economical for large production quantities;
(3) close tolerances possible, on the order of ±0.076mm for small
parts;
(4) good surface finish;
(5) thin sections are possible, down to about 0.5mm and
(6) rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to the
casting

Disadvantages:
1) They are generally limited to metals with low metal points.
2) Part geometry must allow removal from the die.

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Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed
so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to the outer regions of
the die cavity .
The group includes:
• True centrifugal casting
• Semi centrifugal casting
• Centrifuge casting

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True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather
than before
Animation
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• The outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc,
but the inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round due to radially
symmetric forces

Video
centrifugal casting MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 159

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Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts.
• Molds are designed with risers at the center to supply feed metal
• The density of metal in final casting is more remarkable in outer sections
than at the center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which the center of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys

The rotation speed in

semicentrifugal
casting is usually set so that
G-factors of around 15 are
obtained

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Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from the axis of
rotation so that molten metal poured into the mold is distributed to
these cavities by centrifugal force.
• They are used for smaller parts.
• Radial symmetry of the part is not required as in other centrifugal
casting methods.

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Continuous Casting
Molten metal is
cast through a
mold; the casting
takes the two-
dimensional
profile of the
mold, but its
length is
indeterminate.

The casting will

keep traveling
downward, its
length increasing
with time.

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Video

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Furnaces

Pouring, cleaning

Casting defects

Foundry inspection methods

Product design considerations

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Furnaces for Casting Processes

• The types of furnaces most commonly used in foundries are
(1) cupolas,
(2) direct fuel-fired furnaces,
(3) crucible furnaces,
(4) electric-arc furnaces, and
(5) induction furnaces.

Selection of the most appropriate furnace type depends on

factors such as the casting alloy, its melting and pouring
temperatures, capacity requirements of the furnace, costs of
investment, operation and maintenance, and environmental
pollution considerations.

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Cupolas
• Used only for cast
irons
Although other
furnaces are also
used, the largest
tonnage of cast
iron is melted in
cupolas.
• The "charge,"
consisting of iron,
coke, flux, and
possible alloying
elements, is
loaded.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 166

Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with the burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
• The container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
high-temperature steel alloy.
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum.

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Induction Furnaces
It uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop a magnetic field in the metal
• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
• Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be closely
controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and purity
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are typical applications in foundry work

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 168

Ladles
• Moving molten metal from a melting furnace to mold is sometimes done
using crucibles.
• More often, the transfer is accomplished by ladles.

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two-person
ladle.
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Casting Quality

• There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in

a casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the
product.
• The defects can be classified as follows:
• General defects common to all casting processes
• Defects related to sand casting process

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 170

General Defects: Misrun

A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

Typical causes include

(1) fluidity of the molten metal is

insufficient,
(2) Pouring temperature is too
low,
(3) pouring is done too slowly,
and/or
(4) the cross-section of the mold
cavity is too thin.

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General Defects: Cold Shut

Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion
due to premature freezing

Its causes are similar

to those of a misrun.

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

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General Defects: Cold Shot

Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become
entrapped in casting

Pouring procedures and gating

system designs that avoid
splattering can prevent this
defect.

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

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General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that
restricts the amount of molten metal available in the last region to freeze

It often occurs near the top of the

casting, in which case it
is referred to as a ‘‘pipe’.
The problem can often be solved
by proper riser design.

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 174

General Defects: Microporosity

Microporosity consists of a
network of small voids
distributed throughout the
casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage of the
final molten metal in the
dendritic structure.

Porosity in an Al-10%Cu alloy.

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General Defects: hot tears

• Hot tearing, also called hot
cracking, occurs when the
casting is restrained from
contraction by an unyielding
mold during the final stages of
solidification or early stages of
cooling after solidification.
• In permanent mold processes,
hot tearing is reduced by
removing the part from the
mold immediately after
solidification.

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Sand Casting Defects

Balloon-shaped gas Formation of many
cavity caused by small gas cavities at or
release of mold gases slightly below surface
during pouring results from
of casting erosion of the sand
mold during pouring

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Sand Casting Defects

When the fluidity of
liquid metal is high, it Core shift and
may penetrate into the mold shift are
sand mold or core, caused by the
causing the casting buoyancy of
surface to consist of a
mixture of sand grains the molten metal
and metal. A step in cast product
at parting line
caused by sidewise
relative
displacement of
cope and drag

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 178

Foundry Inspection Methods

Foundry inspection procedures include

(1) visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold

shuts, and severe surface flaws;
(2) dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have been
met; and
(3) metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with
the inherent quality of the cast metal.

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Product Design Considerations

1. Geometric simplicity:
• Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually improves
castability
• Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
• Simplifies mold-making
• Reduces the need for cores
• Improves the strength of the casting

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Product Design Considerations, cont.

2. Corners on the casting:

• Sharp corners and angles should be avoided since they
are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot
tearing and cracks.
• Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners,
and sharp edges should be blended.

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Product Design Considerations, cont.

3. Draft
In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates the removal of
patterns from mold:
• Draft = 1 for sand casting
In permanent mold casting, the purpose is to aid in removing the
part from the mold:
• Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
• Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used.

Minor
changes in
part design
can reduce
need for
coring
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Product Design Considerations, cont.

4. Machining Allowance:
• Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the
required dimensions and part features.
• Additional machining allowance material is left on the
casting for machining those surfaces where necessary.
• Typical machining allowances for sand castings range
between 1.5 mm and 3 mm.

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Product Design Considerations, cont.

5. Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:

• Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and
finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on the
process:
• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand casting
• Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die casting
and investment casting
• Typical surface roughness achieved in sand casting is
around 6 µm. Similarly, poor finishes are obtained in shell
molding.
• Plaster-mold and investment casting produce much better
roughness values: 0.75 µm
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