Presented By Asst. Prof.

Chandu Rathod
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SEMICONDUC
TORS
 What is a
Semiconductor Microprocessors

? LED

Capacitors
Transistors
 Conductors , Semiconductors and Insulators

Conductor:
Conductors are the substances that permit easy flow of electric
current through them.
• It permits easy flow of electron from one atom to the other
when a proper electric field is applied to it.
• The conductors have very low electrical resistance
Eg. Copper, Silver, Al,
• Conductors are the materials that exhibit a positive temperature
coefficient of resistance, as resistance increases with the
increase in temperature
 Energy level diagram of conductors:

 In the case of conductors, the

conduction band is completely filled

 Have 1 valence electron

As the two bands i.e., valence band and conduction band are overlapped with each
other.
Thus, when some certain voltage is applied to such materials, then electrons easily
moves from valence band to conduction band due to the influence of the electric
field.
This movement of charge carriers generates a large electric current
through the device.
Semiconductor:
 Semiconductors are the materials that possess the property of
electrical conductivity less than conductors.
 The charge carriers in case of semiconductors are electrons and
holes.
 When the temperature is absolute zero, then no any movement
of charge carriers takes place in case of semiconductors. In such
case, it behaves as insulators.
Eg. Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si)
 Semiconductors possess negative temperature coefficient of
resistance as their resistivity decreases with the increase in
temperature.
 Energy level diagram of semiconductors:

In semiconductor the conduction

band partially filled.

 Have 4 valence electrons

 The electrons in the valence band cannot automatically excite in

order to move to the conduction band.
 But, on applying certain voltage, the electrons in the valence band
gains sufficient energy and jumps to the conduction band.
Insulator:
 An insulator is a material that has very high electrical resistance
& it does not allow the flow of current.
 There are no free electrons in insulators thus they do not conduct
electricity.

 Eg. Rubber,Glass, Wood, Air,Mica, Plastic,Paper etc.

 An insulators possess negative temperature coefficient of

resistance as their resistivity decreases with the increase
in temperature.
Energy level diagram of an insulator:

In insulators conduction band is

totally vacant.
Have 8 valence electrons

 This large band gap does not allow the electrons to jump into the
conduction band. Hence, the current flow is not possible.
The band gap in case of the insulator is larger as compared to both
conductors and insulators.
Insulators, Conductors, Semiconductors
from energy band structures
Parameter Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Forbidden energy gap Not exist Small (1 eV) Large (>5 eV)
Conductivity High Medium Very Low (Almost
negligible)
Resistivity Low Moderate High
Flow of current Due to movement of Due to movement of Almost negligible but
free electrons. electrons and holes. only due to free
electrons.
Temperature coefficient Positive Negative Negative
of resistance
Charge carriers in Completely filled Partially filled Completely vacant
conduction band
Charge carriers in Almost vacant Partially filled Completely filled
valence band
Example Copper, Aluminium, Silicon, Germanium, Paper, rubber, glass,
graphite etc. arsenic etc. plastic etc.

Applications Conducting wires, Diodes, transistors, Sports equipment,

Transformers, in opto-couplers etc. home appliances etc.
electrical cords etc.
 Semiconductor
• Low resistivity => “conductor”
• High resistivity => “insulator”
• Intermediate resistivity => “semiconductor”
o conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators.
• Material that can behave as conductors or isolators
depending on the conditions
• Germanium and silicon are the most common
semiconductor materials.
• Group IV in the periodic table, i.e 4 valence electrons which
are
“shared” between atoms in their chemical bonding.
 Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are mainly classified into
two categories:
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor (pure)
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor (with impurities)
• Intrinsic Semiconductor:
– An intrinsic semiconductor is formed from a highly pure
semiconductor material thus also known as pure semiconductors. These
are basically undoped semiconductors that do not have doped impurity in
it.
– Behave as insulators at 0K and as a conductors at higher temperature.
– Most important: Si, Ge (Group IV), 4 valence electrons are “shared” between atoms
in their chemical bonding (covalent).
 The crystalline structure of silicon

The figure above clearly shows that silicon consists of 4 electrons in the valence
shell. Here, 4 covalent bonds are formed between the electrons of the silicon
atom.
 Electric conduction:

Due to the movement (current) of both

electrons and holes.
• A hole is created in the valence band when an electron jumps to the conduction
band.
• The free electron from the conduction band can also fall into the valence
band, this is called recombination.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductors are those that are the result
of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor. These
are basically termed as an impure form of
semiconductors.
• The process by which certain amount of impurity is
provided to a pure semiconductor is known as
doping.

• These are highly conductive in nature.

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The classification of the extrinsic semiconductor
depends on the type of element doped to the pure
semiconductor:
1. N-type Semiconductors
2. P-type Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductors :
The n-type semiconductors are formed by the
addition of group V elements or pentavalent
impurity to a pure semiconductor. These are
termed as donor impurity, as a pentavalent
impurity holds 5 electrons in its valence shell.
Eg. Arsenic, Antimony(Sb) or Phosphorus(P)
 N-Type Material

N-Type Material: When extra valence electrons are introduced

into a material such as silicon an n-type
material is produced. The extra valence
electrons are introduced by putting
+4 +4 +4 impurities or dopant into the silicon. The
dopant used to create an n-type material are
Group V elements. The most used dopant
+4 +5 +4 from Group V are arsenic, antimony and
phosphorus.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the extra
+4 +4 +4 electron that will be present when a Group V
dopant is introduced to a material such as
silicon. This extra electron is very mobile.

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 The crystalline structure of n-type semiconductor

Phosphorous
A pentavalent impurity is doped to a pure silicon crystal. In this
case, 4 electrons of phosphorus are covalently bonded with the
adjacent silicon atom. But, still, a free electron is left in this case.
 Thus, the movement of these free electrons generates high
conduction
n-type
. extrinsic semiconductor has electrons as the majority
charge carrier and hole are minority carrier.
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 P-Type Material

P-Type Material: P-type material is produced when the dopant

that is introduced is from Group III. Group
III elements have only 3 valence electrons
and therefore there is an electron missing.
+4 +4 +4 This creates a hole (h+), or a positive charge
that can move around in the material.
Commonly used Group III dopant are
+4 +3 +4 aluminum, boron, and gallium.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole
that will be present when a Group III dopant
+4 +4 +4 is introduced to a material such as silicon.
This hole is quite mobile in the same way the
extra electron is mobile in a n-type material.

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 2.P-type semiconductor

Aluminium
3 valence electrons of aluminium atom make covalent bonds with 3
electrons of silicon. However, in this case, a vacancy of an electron (or a hole)
appears.
The movement of this hole is mainly responsible for the conduction in the
p- type semiconductor to take place.
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 Diode
Definition: An electronic component made of semiconductor material
that allows conduction of current in only one direction is termed as
a Diode.
 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode

p n

Depletio
n region
30
 The PN Junction
-Ve Ions +Ve Ions Steady State
Metallurgical
Na Junction Nd

- - - - - + + + + +
When no external source
P - - - - - + + + + + is connected to the PN
n
- - - - - + + + + + junction, diffusion and
+ + + + +
- - - - -
Space Charge
drift balance each other
ionized
acceptors
Region ionized out for both the holes
donors
E-Field and electrons
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift

Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes
the net positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region
does not have any free carriers. The width of the space charge region is
denoted by W in PN junction formulae.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of
carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.
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 The Biased PN Junction
Metal
Contact
“Ohmic
_
Contact” +
(Rs~0)
Applied
P Electric Field n

_
+
Vapplied
The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied.
There are two types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias.
These are described on then next slide. 35
36
 The Biased PN Junction

Forward Bias: In forward bias the depletion region shrinks

(decreases) slightly in width. With this shrinking the
energy required for charge carriers to cross the
Vapplied > 0 depletion region decreases exponentially. Therefore,
as the applied voltage increases, current starts to flow
across the junction. The barrier potential of the diode
is the voltage at which appreciable current starts to
flow through the diode. The barrier potential varies for
different materials.
Reverse Bias: Under reverse bias the depletion region widens
(increases). This causes the electric field produced by
the ions to cancel out the applied reverse bias voltage.
Vapplied < 0 A small leakage current, Is (saturation current) flows
under reverse bias conditions. This saturation current
is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in
the depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes
referred to as scale current because of its relationship
to junction temperature. 37
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39
Forward Bias

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 The Biased PN Junction
When there is a difference in the concentration of
charge carriers in a single crystal of semiconductor,
the movement of charge carriers takes place and
establishes an electric current in the
Diffusion Current: semiconductor. This electric current due to the
charge concentration gradient is known
Due to charge as diffusion current.
concentration The charge carriers tend to move from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower
(charge carrier) concentration and this movement of charge carriers
causes the flow of diffusion current in the
semiconductor.

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 The Biased PN Junction

Drift Current: When the charge carriers move in a semiconductor due

to the applied electric field, the resulting current is
known as drift current.
Due to
When an external electric field is applied to the
Vapplied semiconductor with the help of a battery, the holes are
accelerated towards the negative terminal of the battery
and the electrons are accelerated towards the positive
terminal of the battery under the influence of the electric
field. Hence, due to the movement of charge carriers
caused by the electric field, an electric current flows
through the semiconductor which is known as drift
current.

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 Properties of Diodes
Figure 1.10 – The Diode Transconductance Curve2

ID (mA)
VD = Bias Voltage

ID = Current through Diode. ID is

Negative for Reverse Bias and
Positive for Forward Bias
IS
IS = Saturation Current
VBR

~V VD VBR = Breakdown Voltage

V = Barrier Potential Voltage

(nA) 58
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 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one direction

Diodes: while blocking current flow in the opposite
direction. The PN junction diode is the typical
diode that has been used in the previous circuits.

A K P n
Schematic Symbol for a PN Representative Structure for
Junction Diode a PN Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse

breakdown conditions. These diodes have a very
accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage.

A K

Schematic Symbol for a

Zener Diode 69
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Light-Emitting Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large

Diodes: band gap so movement of carriers across their
depletion region emits photons of light energy.
Lower band gap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit
infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher band gap
energy emit visible light. Many stop lights are now
starting to use LEDs because they are extremely
bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.

The arrows in the LED

A K representation indicate
emitted light.
Schematic Symbol for a
Light-Emitting Diode

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 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Photodiodes: While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to

received light. They are constructed so their PN
junction can be exposed to the outside through a
clear window or lens.
A K In Photoconductive mode the saturation current
increases in proportion to the intensity of the
received light. This type of diode is used in CD
 players.
A K
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is
exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the diode
Schematic Symbols for generates voltage and can be used as an energy
Photodiodes source. This type of diode is used in the
production of solar power.

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Zener Diodes
 Objectives
– Describe the function and characteristics of a
Zener diode
– Draw and label the schematic symbol for a
Zener diode
– Explain how a Zener diode operates as a voltage
regulator
– Describe the procedure for testing Zener diodes
 Zener Diode Characteristics
• Zener diode
– Operates at voltages that exceed breakdown
voltage
– Manufactured with a specific breakdown voltage
(EZ)
– Packaged like PN junction diodes
• Power dissipation
– Based on temperature and lead lengths
Zener Diode Characteristics
(cont’d.)

1. Zener diode packages.

Zener Diode Characteristics
(cont’d.)

2. Schematic symbol for a Zener diode.

 Zener Diode Ratings
• Positive Zener voltage-temperature coefficient
– Breakdown voltage increases as temperature
increases
• Negative Zener voltage-temperature coefficient
– Breakdown voltage decreases as temperature
increases
A major application for Zener diodes is as a type of voltage
regulator for providing stable reference voltages for use in
power supplies, voltmeters, and other instruments.

For example, if you want to fix the output voltage at 5 V in

the circuit, while the input voltage varies from 4.8 V to 25 V,
you must use Zener type 1N4733A. The Zener diode is
available in the range of 1 to 200 volts.
Another advantage for Zener diode, it uses as a simple
limiters or clippers for ac sources.

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A Zener diode is a silicon PN junction device that is
designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The
breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is set by carefully
controlling the doping level during manufacture
From the discussion of the diode characteristic curve, that
when a diode reaches reverse breakdown, its voltage
remains almost constant even though the current changes
drastically, and this is the key to Zener diode operation. This
volt-ampere characteristic is shown again in Figure with the
normal operating region for Zener diodes shown as a
shaded area.

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Breakdown Characteristics:
Figure shows the reverse portion of a Zener diode’s
characteristic curve.

Notice that as the reverse voltage (Vr) is increased, the

reverse current (Ir) remains extremely small up to the “knee”
of the curve. The reverse current is also called the Zener
current, Iz.

At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the internal Zener

resistance, also called Zener impedance (Zz), begins to
decrease as the reverse current increases rapidly.

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From the bottom of the knee, the Zener breakdown voltage
(Vz) remains essentially constant although it increases
slightly as the Zener current, Iz, increases.

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 Voltage Regulation with
Zener Diodes
Zener Regulation:
The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals
essentially constant is the key feature of the Zener diode.
A Zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage
regulator because it maintains a nearly constant voltage
across its terminals over a specified range of reverse-
current values.
A minimum value of reverse current, Izk, must be
maintained to keep the diode in breakdown for voltage
regulation.
You can see on the curve in Figure above, that when the
reverse current is reduced below the knee of the curve,
the voltage decreases drastically, and regulation is lost.
Also, there is a maximum current, Izm, above which the
diode may be damaged due to excessive power
dissipation.
So, basically, the Zener diode maintains a nearly
constant voltage across its terminals for values of
reverse current ranging from Izk to Izm. A nominal Zener
voltage, Vz, is usually specified on a datasheet at a value
of reverse current called the Zener test current, Iz .

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Zener Equivalent Circuits
Figure shows the ideal model (first approximation) of a
Zener diode in reverse breakdown and its ideal
characteristic curve. It has a constant voltage drop equal to
the nominal Zener

voltage.

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 Voltage Regulation with
Zener Diodes

Typical Zener diode regulator circuit without load.

Voltage Regulation with
Zener Diodes (cont’d.)

Zener diode voltage regulator with load.

 Summary

• Zener diodes are designed to operate at voltages

greater than the breakdown voltage (peak reverse
voltage)
• The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is
determined by the resistivity of the diode
• Zener diodes are used to stabilize or regulate
voltage
 Summary (cont’d.)

• Zener diode regulators provide a constant

output voltage despite changes in the
input voltage or output current
• To determine whether a Zener diode is
regulating at the proper voltage, a
regulation test must be performed
Q1. For the circuit shown in Fig.1 (i), find : (i) the
output voltage (ii) the voltage drop across series
resistance (iii) the current through Zener diode.

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The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is
5.6 V in the given circuit. The current IZ through the
Zener is: Where Vs=9v, RS=200 ohms and RL=800
ohms

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0
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The average value or dc of
output voltage is given value by

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Also, Vdc

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 Bridge Rectifier

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 MOSFET Basics
What Is a MOSFET?

Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors commonly known

as MOSFETs are electronic devices used to switch or amplify
voltages in circuits.
It is a voltage-controlled device and is constructed by three
terminals. The terminals of MOSFET are named as follows:
•Source
•Gate
•Drain
•Body

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MOSFET Construction
The circuit of MOSFET is typically represented as follows:

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Similarly, the P-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as PMOS and
are symbolized as follows:

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•The p-type semiconductor forms the base of the MOSFET.
•The two types of the base are highly doped with an n-type
impurity which is marked as n+ in the diagram.
•From the heavily doped regions of the base, the terminals
source and drain originate.
•The layer of the substrate is coated with a layer of silicon
dioxide for insulation.
•A thin insulated metallic plate is kept on top of the silicon
dioxide, and it acts as a capacitor.
•The gate terminal is brought out from the thin metallic plate.
•A DC circuit is then formed by connecting a voltage source
between these two n-type regions.
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Working Principle of MOSFET
When voltage is applied to the gate, an electrical field is
generated that changes the width of the channel region, where
the electrons flow.
The wider the channel region, the better conductivity of a device
will be.

MOSFET Types
The classification of MOSFET based on the construction and the
material used is given below in the flowchart.
MOSFETs are of two classes: Enhancement mode and depletion
mode. Each class is available as n-channel or p-channel; hence
overall they tally up to four types of MOSFETs.

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Enhancement Mode:
When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, then the
device does not conduct. When there is the maximum voltage
across the gate terminal, then the device shows enhanced
conductivity.
Depletion Mode:
When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, the channel
shows maximum conductance. When the voltage across the gate
terminal is either positive or negative, then the channel
conductivity decreases.

The N-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as NMOS and are

symbolized as shown in the figure below:

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 N-Channel MOSFET

The drain and source are heavily doped N+ region and the
substrate is p-type. The current flows due to the flow of
negatively charged electrons and that’s why known as n-channel
MOSFET.
When we apply the positive gate voltage, the holes present
beneath (at a lower level) the oxide layer experience repulsive
force, and the holes are pushed downwards into the bound
negative charges which are associated with the acceptor atoms.
The positive gate voltage also attracts electrons from the N+
source and drain region into the channel thus an electron-rich
channel is formed. This channel is called N-Channel and MOSFET is called
NMOSFET or NMOSFET or simply NMOS.

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 depletion layer

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N-Channel-Depletion-Mode-MOSFET

The cross-sectional view of the n-channel depletion mode

MOSFET fabricated on p-type substrate is shown in Figure.
Figure also shows the corresponding.

The basic idea behind the operation of n-channel depletion

mode MOSFET is to connect the n-type source and n-type drain
diffusions by intentionally doped n region as shown in Figure as
a n-channel.

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Hence in N-channel depletion mode MOSFET the n-type channel
is already existing without the application of positive gate bias.

Thus, depletion mode MOSFETs are also called as "normally

ON" devices and enhancement mode MOSFETs are also called
as "Normally OFF" devices.

Now, if a potential difference is applied between source and

drain terminals then this would cause the electrons to flow from
the source to the drain through the intentionally created n-
channel and thus constitute the drain current.

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P-channel Enhancement Mode MOSFET :
The cross-sectional view of the p-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET fabricated on n-type substrate is as shown in Figure.
Figure also shows the corresponding electrical symbol of the
device.

The basic idea behind the operation of p-channel enhancement

mode MOSFET is to connect the majority carriers present in
the p-type drain and p-type source diffusions which are holes
by a channel of carriers of the same type as the source and
drain (i.e. holes) and opposite to that of the substrate (which is
n type).

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If a negative voltage is applied to the gate terminal it induces
the hole inversion layer which connects the p-type source, and
the p-type drain regions.

Now, the existence of potential difference between source and

drain causes the movement of holes in the inversion channel
and hence the drain current.
P

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p-channel Depletion Mode MOSFET
The cross-sectional view of the p-channel depletion mode
MOSFET fabricated on
n-type substrate is shown in Figure and Figure also shows the
corresponding symbol of the device.

he basic idea behind the operation of the p-channel depletion

mode MOSFET is to connect the p-type source and p-type drain
diffusions by intentionally doped p-region as shown in Figure as
a p-channel.

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Hence in p-channel depletion mode MOSFET the p-type channel is already
existing without application of the negative gate bias. Now if a potential
difference is applied between source and drain terminals then this would
cause the holes to flow in the channel between source and drain terminals
and thus constitute the drain current.

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Operating Regions of MOSFET
A MOSFET is seen to exhibit three operating regions. Here,
we will discuss those regions.
Cut-Off Region
The cut-off region is a region in which there will be no
conduction and as a result, the MOSFET will be OFF. In this
condition, MOSFET behaves like an open switch.
Ohmic Region (Linear region)
The ohmic region is a region where the current
(IDS)increases with an increase in the value of VDS. When
MOSFETs are made to operate in this region, they are used
as amplifiers.

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Saturation Region
In the saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant
despite an increase in VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the
value of pinch-off voltage VP.
Under this condition, the device will act like a closed switch
through which a saturated value of IDS flows.

As a result, this operating region is chosen whenever MOSFETs

are required to perform switching operations.

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MOSFET as a Switch

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MOSFET as a Switch
MOSFETs are commonly used as switches. The circuit above
shows the configuration of MOSFET when it is used as a switch.

In the circuit arrangement, an Enhancement-mode N-channel

MOSFET is used to switch a simple lamp “ON” and “OFF.” The
input fate voltage Vgs is adjusted to an appropriate positive
voltage to switch “ON” the device, and the voltage level is set to
a negative value or zero to turn it “OFF.”

The switching characteristics for both N-channel and P-channel

type MOSFET are summarized in the table below:

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Enhancement MOSFET Amplifier
Enhancement MOSFET, or e-MOSFET, can be classed as
normally-off (non-conducting) devices, that is they only conduct
when a suitable gate-to-source positive voltage is applied, unlike
Depletion type MOSFET which are normally-on devices
conducting when the gate voltage is zero.
However, due to the construction and physics of an
enhancement type MOSFET, there is a minimum gate-to-source
voltage, called the threshold voltage VTH that must be applied to
the gate before it starts to conduct allowing drain current to flow.
In other words, an enhancement MOSFET does not conduct when
the gate-source voltage, VGS is less than the threshold
voltage, VTH but as the gates forward bias increases, the drain
current, ID (also known as drain-source current IDS) will also
increase, making the e-MOSFET ideal for use in MOSFET
amplifier circuits.
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Following basic assumptions about the MOSFET amplifiers DC
operating conditions.

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for proper operation of the MOSFET, this gate-source voltage
must be greater than the threshold voltage of the MOSFET, that
is VGS > VTH. Since IS = ID, the gate voltage, VG is therefore
equal too:

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