J.R.

INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
189/35 BEHIND RAILWAY STATION, VAISH COLLEGE ROAD, ROHTAK PIN-124001 (HARYANA)
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Group Theory - 1
Def. Group : Let G be a non-empty set with a binary operation ‘ * ’, then G is called a group w.r.t. ‘ * ’
if following postulates are satisfied :
(i) Associativity :  a * b * c  a * b * c  for all a, b, c G.

(ii) Existence of identity : There exists an element e G, such that a * e = a = e * a for all a  G.
(iii) Existence of inverse : For every a  G, there exists an element b  G such that a * b = e = b * a.
Here , b is called inverse of a and is denoted by a 1 .
Def. Abelian group : A group G is said to be abelian (or commutative) if a * b = b * a for all a, b  G.
Remark : The word ‘Abelian’ is after the name of great mathematician [Link].
Def. Finite and Infinite groups : If a group G consists of a finite number of elements, then it is called a
finite group, otherwise it is called an infinite group.
Def. Order of a group : The number of elements in a finite group is called the order of the group. An
infinite group is said to be of infinite order. Order of a group is denoted by o(G) or | G | .
Examples :
1. Z n  {0,1, 2,....., n  1} is an abelian group w.r.t.  n of order n.

2. U (n)  {m :1  m  n and gcd(m, n)  1} is an abelian group under n of order (n) .

Basic Results :
1. In a group the identity element is unique.
2. In a group every element has a unique inverse.
--1 1
3. If G is a group then a  = a for all a  G.
1
4. Let G be a group then a b  b 1 a 1 for all a, b  G .

5. If a , b , c  G then ab = ac  b = c. This is called left cancellation law.

6. If a , b , c  G then ba = ca  b = c. This is called right cancellation law.
7. In the composition table of a group, each element of the group appears exactly once in each row and
each column.
Def. Subgroup : A non empty subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G , if H itself is a group
w.r.t. the same binary operation as in G.
Def. Proper and Improper subgroups : For a group G, the set {e} and G are always subgroups of G and
are called improper subgroups of G. Any other subgroup [other than G and {e}] is called a proper subgroup
 2
of G.
Remark : Some authors also define a proper subgroup to be a subgroup other than G.
Results on subgroups :
1. The identity of any subgroup of a group is the same as that of the group.
2. The inverse of any element of a subgroup is the same as the inverse of that element in group.
3. A non empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if ab 1  H for all a, b  H .
4. A non empty finite subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if closure holds in H
i.e. a , b  H  ab H.
5. Intersection of two subgroups of a group is again a subgroup.
6. The union of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup if and only if one is contained in the other.
Def. Let H and K be two subgroups of a group G, then HK  {hk : h  H , k  K } . Similarly, KH may be
defined.
7. Let H and K be two subgroups of G then H K is a subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH.
o H  o K 
8. If H and K are finite subgroups of a group G then o HK   , where o H  is the order of H.
o H  K 

9. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G then xHx 1   xhx 1 : x  G , h  H  is also a subgroup of

G.
Def. Order of an element : Let G be a group and a G then order of ‘a’ is defined as the least positive
integer n such that
(i) an = 1 , if the operation is multiplication.
(ii) na  0 , if the operation is addition.
(iii) a * a * ..... * a  n times   e if the operation is * .

We then write o(a) = n or | a | n . If there exists no such n, then a is said to be of infinite order or zero
order.
Results on order of a group :
1. Let G be a group and a  G such that o(a) = n then am = e if and only if m is a multiple of n.
2. Let G be a finite group and a G then o(a) o(G ) .

3. Let G be a finite group and a G then a o (G ) = e.

4. The order of an element and its inverse are same i.e. for any a  G , we have o(a) = o(a–1)
5. For any a , x  G, o(a) = o(x–1 ax)
6. For any a , b  G, o(ab) = o(ba).
7. Let a and b be two elements of finite order of a group G. If gcd  o(a), o(b)   1 and ab  ba , then

o ab   o a  ob  .
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oa
8. Let a be an element of finite order of a group G and k be any positive integer then o  a k   .
gcd  k , o  a  

9. Lagrange’s Theorem : Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of G then o(H) divides o(G).
Results on abelian groups :
1. If a group G is abelian then (ab)n  a n b n for all a, b  G and for all integers n.

2. A group G is abelian iff (ab)2  a 2b 2 for all a, b  G .

3. Let G be a group and a 2  e for all a  G then G is abelian.

4. A group G is abelian iff (ab) 1  a 1b 1 for all a, b  G .

5. Let G be a group and (ab) m  a mb m for all a, b  G and three consecutive integers m then G is abelian.

6. If (ab) m  a mb m holds for two consecutive integers m then G need not be abelian.
7. Let G be a group such that ab  ca implies b  c , then G is abelian. In words, if cross cancellation law
holds in a group then it is abelian.
8. A group is abelian iff ith row and ith column in the composition table are same for all i.
9.  n is abelian for all positive integers n.

10. U (n) is abelian for all positive integers n.

Def. Cyclic group : A group G is said to be cyclic if there exists an element a G such that every element
of G is of the form an , where n is an integer. The element ‘a’ is then , called a generator of G and we
write : G = < a > or (a)
Results on cyclic groups :
1. Every cyclic group is abelian.
2. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
3. If ‘a’ is a generator of a cyclic group G, then a 1 is also a generator of G.
4. The order of a cyclic group is equal to the order of its generator.
5. If a finite group of order n contains an element of order n then the group must be cyclic.
6. Every group of prime order is cyclic .
7. Every infinite cyclic group has exactly two generators.
8. The number of generators of a finite cyclic group of order n is  (n) , where  denotes the Euler’s 
function.
 4
9. Let G be a finite cyclic group such that o(G) = n and G   a  then am will be generator of G if
and only if gcd(m , n) = 1.
10. Let a  G such that o(a )  n then o(ai )  o(a j ) iff gcd (n, i)  gcd(n, j ) .
11. A group of prime order has no proper subgroups.
12. A non trivial group G which has no proper subgroups must be a group of prime order.
[Link] of Lagrange’s theorem is true for finite cyclic group. In words, let G  a be a finite cyclic

group such that o(G) = n. Let d n then G has a subgroup of order d. Further the subgroup of order

d is unique and this subgroup is given by a n/ d .

14. Total number of subgroups of a finite cyclic group of order n is (n) , the number of divisors of n.

15. Let G be cyclic group of order n and d be a positive integer which divides n, then G has   d  elements

of order d.
16. Let G be a finite group and d be a positive integer which divides o(G ) then number of cyclic subgroups
number of elements of order d
of order d is .
(d )
17.  n is cyclic for all positive integer n and an integer k is a generator of  n iff gcd (n, k )  1 .

18. U (n) is cyclic iff n  1 or 2 or 4 or p m or 2.p m where p is an odd prime and m is a positive integer.

19. U (2n ) is not cyclic for n  3 .

Def. Centre of a group : Let G be a group then centre of the group G is defined to be subset of all
elements of G which commute with every element of G and it is denoted by Z(G). In symbols,
Z (G )  a  G : ax  xa for all x in G .

Results :
1. Z (G ) is a subgroup of G.
2. G is abelian iff G  Z (G )
3. Let G be a group and a  Z (G ) then in the composition table of G the row and column headed by ‘a’
are same.
4. As  n and U (n) are abelian groups so they are centres of themselves i.e., Z ( n )   n and

Z (U (n))  U (n) .
Def. Klein’s four group : A group of order four in which every element is self-inverse or every non-identity
element is of order 2 is called Klein’s four group. Symbolically, K 4  {e, a, b, c} such that

ab  ba  c, bc  cb  a, ac  ca  b and a 2  b 2  c 2  e .
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Exercise 1.1
1. In the groups  n ,1  n  20

(i) Find inverse and order of each element and construct the O–D table.
(ii) Find all subgroups and construct the subgroup table.
(iii)Show that the group is cyclic and find all its generators.
2. In the groups U  n  for 1  n  20 .

(i) Find inverse and order of each element and construct the O–D table.
(ii) Find all subgroups and construct the subgroup table.
(iii)Which U  n  are cyclic. If U  n  is cyclic for any n then find all the generators.

3. How many positive integers 1  n  100 are there such that U (n) is cyclic.

4. In the Klein’s four group K 4 ,

(i) construct the composition table.
(ii) Find inverse and order of each element and construct the O-D table.
(iii) Find all subgroups and construct the subgroup table.
(iv) Show that every proper subgroup of K 4 is cyclic.

Answers
3. 50
Order No. of subgroups
Order No. of elements
1 1
4. (ii) 1 1 (iii)
2 3
2 3
4 1

Exercise 1.2
1. Translate each of the following multiplicative expressions into its additive counterpart.
2 2 3
(i) a 2b3 (ii) a 2  b 1c  (iii)  ab  c2  e
n
2. For any elements a and b from a group and any integer n, prove that  a 1ba   a 1b na.

3. For any integer n  2, show that there are at least two elements in U  n  that satisfy x 2 1 .
 6
4. An abstract algebra teacher intended to give a typist a list of nine integers that form a group under
multiplication modulo 91. Instead, one of the nine integers was inadvertently left out so that the list
appeared as 1, 9, 16, 22, 53, 74, 79, 81. Which integer was left out ? (This really happened!)
5. Show that the set 5,15, 25,35 is a group under multiplication modulo 40. What is the identity element

of this group ?
6. The integers 5 and 15 are among a collection of 12 integers that form a group under multiplication
modulo 56. List all 12.
7. Construct a Cayley table for U 12  .

8. Let G be a finite group. Show that the number of elements x of G such that x 3  e is odd. Show that the

number of elements x of G such that x 2  e is even.

9. In a finite group, show that the number of nonidentity elements that satisfy the equation x 5  e is a
multiple of 4.
10. Let x belong to a group. If x 2  e and x 6  e , prove that x 4  e and x 5  e . What can we say about the
order of x ?
11. For each divisor k of n, let U k  n    x U  n  | x 1mod k . (For example, U  21  1, 4,10,13,16,19 and

U 7  21  1,8. ) List the elements of U 4  20  ,U 5  30  , and U10  30  . Prove that U k  n  is a subgroup of

U n .

12. Suppose a group contains elements a and b such that a  4, b  2, and a3b  ba . Find ab .

13. Suppose G is a group that has exactly eight elements of order 3. How many subgroups of order 3 does G
have ?
14. Find a cyclic subgroup of order 4 in U  40  .

15. Find a noncyclic subgroup of order 4 in U  40  .

16. Let a be an element of a group and let a  15 . Compute the orders of the following elements of G.

(i) a3 , a 6 , a9 , a12 (ii) a5 , a10 (iii) a 2 , a 4 , a 8 , a14

17. Let G  a and let a  24 . List all generators for the subgroup of order 8.

18. Suppose that a  24 . Find a generator for a 21  a10 . In general, what is a generator for the subgroup

a m  an ?

19. List the cyclic subgroups of U  30  .

20. Let G be a group and let a be an element of G.

(i) If a12  e , what can we say about the order of a ?
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(ii) If a m  e , what can we say about the order of a ?

(iii) Suppose that G  24 and that G is cyclic. If a8  e and a12  e , show that a  G .

21. List all the elements of order 8 in  8000000 . How do you know your list is complete ?

22. Consider the set {4, 8, 12, 16}. Show that this set is a group under multiplication modulo 20 by
constructing its Cayley table. What is the identity element ? Is the group cyclic ? If so, find all of its
generators.
23. List all the elements of  40 that have order 10.

24. Let x  40 . List all the elements of x that have order 10.

25. Let a and b be elements of a group. If a 10 and b  21 , show that a  b  e .

26. Let a and b be elements of a group. If a  m, b  n, and m and n are relatively prime, show

that a  b  e .

27. Let a and b belong to a group. If a  24 and b 10 , what are the possibilities for a  b ?

28. If a 5 12 , what are the possibilities for a ? If a 4 12 , what are the possibilities for a ?

29. Suppose that | x | n . Find a necessary and sufficient condition on r and s such that x r  x s .

Answers
1. (i) 2a  3b (ii) 2a  2(b  c) (iii) 3(a  2b)  2c  0 3. 1 and n  1 4. 29

1 5 7 11
1 1 5 7 11
5. 25 6. 1, 3,5,9,13,15,19, 23, 25, 27,39, 45 7. 5 5 1 11 7 10. 3 or 6
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1

11. U 4 (20)  {1,9,13,17} , U 5 (30)  {1,11} , U10 (30)  {1,11} 12. 2 13. 4 14. 3  {1,3,9, 27}

15. {1, 9, 11, 19} 16. (i) 5 (ii) 3 (iii) 15 17. a 3 , a9 , a15 , a 21 18. a18 ; a lcm ( m, n )(mod 24)

19. 1 , 7 , 11 , 17 , 19 , 29 20. (i) | a | divides 12 (ii) | a | divides m

21. 1000000, 3000000, 5000000, 7000000. 1000000 is the unique subgroup of order 8 and only those on

the list are generators.

22. 16; yes; 8 and 12 23. 4, 12, 28, 36 27. 1 and 2 28. 12 or 60; 48 29. s divides r.
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Group Theory - 2
Def. Permutation : A one-one onto mapping from a set to itself is called a permutation.
Remark : If S is a finite set having n elements then clearly there are n! permutations.
Def. Permutation group or Symmetric group : If a set S has n elements , then the set of all n!
permutations on S forms a group under composition of permutations , called Permutation group or
Symmetric group of degree n and is denoted by Pn or Sn.
Example :
 1 2 1 2  
1. S 2    ,  
 1 2  2 1 

 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
 , , 
 1 2 3  1
 3 2  2 1
 3  
2. S3   
 1 2 3
,
1 2 3
,
1 2 3 
 2 3 1 3
 1 2  3 2
 1 

Def. Cyclic permutation or cycle : A permutation which can be expressed in one row such that image of
each element is next element and image of last element is first , provided fixed elements are skipped is
called a cycle.
Def. Length of a cycle : Number of elements permuted by the cycle or number of elements in its one-row
representation is called length of that cycle. A cycle of length k is called k-cycle.
Note : A cycle remains unaltered if its elements are changed in cyclic order.
Def. Transposition : A cycle of length two is called a transposition.
Def. Disjoint cycle : Two cycles are said to be disjoint if they have no common element in their one-row
representation.
Results :
1. The symmetric groups S2 , S3 and S4 , when their elements are written in one-row representation , are
given as
S2  I , (12)

S3  I , (12) , (13) , (23) , (123) , (132)

 I , (12) , (13) , (14) , (23) , (24) , (34) , (123) , (124) , (132) , 

 
S4 = (134) , (142) , (143) , (234) , (243) , (1234) , (1243) , (1324) , 
(1342) , (1423) , (1432) , (12)(34) , (13)(24) , (14)(23) 
 
 10
2. Disjoint cycles always commute with each other.
3. Non-disjoint cycles may or may not commute.
4. Inverse of a cycle can be obtained by reverting its elements or by keeping first element unchanged and
reverting remaining ones.
5. Order of a n-cycle is n.

6. If   1 2 .... k , where i s are disjoint cycles, then o() = lcm {o(1 ), o( 2 ).....o( k )} .
7. Every permutation can be expressed as a product of disjoint cycles.
8. Every cycle can be expressed as product of transpositions in infinitely many ways. However, number of
transpositions in any decomposition of a cycle remains either always even or always odd.
Def. Even and odd permutations : A permutation is said to be even (odd) if it can be expressed as product
of even (odd) number of transpositions.
 1 2 3  n 
Def. Inversion of a permutation : Let   S n be permutation and let     .
 (1) (2) (3)  (n) 
Then inversion of a symbol i is denoted by inv(i ) and is defined as inv(i )  number of symbols less than
n 1
(i) and right to i) and inversion of permutation  is defined as inv()   inv(i ) .
i 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Example : Let     . Then inv(1)  1 , inv(2)  1 , inv(3)  0 , inv(4)  3 ,
 2 3 1 7 6 5 4
7
inv(5)  2 , inv(6)  1 , inv(7)  0 and inv()   inv(i )  1  1  0  3  2  1  0  8 .
i 1

Def. Signature of a permutation : Let   S n be any permutation then signature of  is denoted by

sgn() and is defined as sgn()  (1)inv( ) .

In the above example, sgn()  (1)8  1 .

Results on signature :
1. Signature of an even permutation is always 1.
2. Signature of an odd permutation is always 1 .
3. sgn()  sgn() sgn() .

4. sgn(1 )  sgn() .
Results :
1. A permutation can not be both even and odd.
2. A cycle of odd length is an even permutation and a cycle of even length is an odd permutation.
3. Identity permutation is an even permutation.
4. Product of two even permutations is an even permutation.
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5. Product of two odd permutations is an even permutation.

6. Product of one even and one odd permutation is an odd permutation.
7. Inverse of an even permutation is even and of odd permutation is odd.
n! n!
8. In Sn , there are always even permutations and odd permutations.
2 2
9. Let   S n be a permutation corresponding to the partition

n  n1  n1  .....  n1 + n2  n2  .....  n2 +….. + nk  nk  .....  nk . Then the number of elements in S n

  
1 times  2 times  k times

n!
having same cyclic decomposition as that of   .
n11 n2 2 .....nk k 1 ! 2 !....... k !
n
Pr
Corollary : The number of r-cycles in a symmetric group S n is given by .
r
10. The set of all even permutations of Sn forms a group denoted by An and is called alternating group of
degree n. e.g.
 I , (123) , (124) , (132) , (134) , (142) , (143) , 
A4 =  
(234) , (243) , (12)(34) , (13)(24) , (14)(23) 
11. If H is a subgroup of S n , then either every member of H is an even permutation or exactly half of them

are even.
12. Let  and  belong to S n , then 1 and  are both even or both odd.

13. Every element in An for n  3 can be expressed as a 3-cycle or a product of 3-cycles.

n
14. If  is a n-cycle then  m is a product of d cycles of length , where d  gcd(m, n) .
d
15. Let  and  be any permutations in the symmetric group S n , then  1 has the same cyclic

decomposition as that of  .
16. Centre of symmetric groups :
(i) Z ( S1 )  S1 , Z ( S2 )  S 2 .

(ii) Z ( Sn )  {I } for n  3
17. Centre of alternating groups :
(i) Z ( A1 )  A1 , Z ( A2 )  A2 , Z ( A3 )  A3

(ii) Z ( An )  {I } for n  4
 12

Information Table for S6 :

Type of Name of Number of
[Link]. Partition Order Even/Odd
the element the element elements
1. 6  1 1 11 1 1 I Identity 1 1 Even
2. 6  1 1 11  2 (1 2) Transposition 15 2 Odd
3. 6  1 1 1 3 (1 2 3) 3  cycle 40 3 Even
4. 6  11 4 (1 2 3 4) 4  cycle 90 4 Odd
5. 6  1 5 (1 2 3 4 5) 5  cycle 144 5 Even
6. 66 (1 2 3 4 5 6) 6  cycle 120 6 Odd
7. 6  11 2  2 (1 2)(3 4) product of 45 2 Even
transpositions
8. 6  2 2 2 (1 2)(3 4)(5 6) product of three 15 2 Odd
transpositions
9. 6  1 2  3 (1 2)(3 4 5) product of a 120 6 Odd
transposition & a 3  cycle
10. 6  33 (1 2 3)(4 5 6) product of two 40 3 Even
3  cycles
11. 6  2 4 (1 2)(3 4 5 6) product of a transposition 90 4 Even
and a 4  cycle
720

Information table for A 7

Type of the Name of No. of
[Link]. Partition Order
element the element elements
1. 7  1111111 I Identity 1 1
2. 7  1111 3 (1 2 3) 3  cycle 70 3
3. 7  11 5 (1 2 3 4 5) 5  cycle 504 5
4. 77 (1 2 3 4 5 6 7) 7  cycle 720 7
5. 111 2  2 (1 2)(3 4) product of 105 2
transpositions
6. 7  223 (1 2)(3 4)(5 6 7) product of two 210 6
transposition and a 3  cycle
7. 7  1 3  3 (1 2 3)(4 5 6) product of two 280 3
3  cycles
8. 7  1 2  4 (1 2)(3 4 5 6) product of a transposition 630 4
and a 4  cycle
2520
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Exercise 2.1
1. Construct the information table for S n , 1  n  7 .

2. Construct the O–D table for S n , 1  n  7 .

3. Find the number of elements satisfying the equation x m  e in the symmetric groups S n by considering

the values m  2,3, 4,5,6 and n  2,3, 4,5 .

4. For what values of n, the symmetric group S n is abelian and non-abelian.

5. For what values of n, the symmetric group S n is cyclic and non-cyclic.

6. Find the maximum order of an element of S n for 1  n  15 .

7. Construct the information table for An , 1  n  7 .

8. Construct the O–D table for An , 1  n  7 .

9. Find the number of elements satisfying the equation x m  e in the alternating groups An by considering

the values m  2,3, 4,5,6 and n  2,3, 4,5 .

10. For what values of n, the symmetric group An is abelian and non-abelian.

11. For what values of n, the symmetric group An is cyclic and non-cyclic.

12. Find the maximum order of an element of An for 1  n  15 .

Answers
4. S n is abelian for n  1, 2 and non-abelian for n  3 .

5. S n is cyclic for n  1, 2 and non-cyclic for n  3 .

6. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 12, 15, 20, 30, 30, 60, 60, 70, 105.
10. An is abelian for n  1, 2, 3 and non-abelian for n  4 .

11. An is cyclic for n  1, 2, 3 and non-cyclic for n  4 .

12. 1, 1, 3, 3, 5, 5, 7, 15, 15, 21, 21, 35, 35, 45, 105.

Exercise 2.2
1. Find the order of each of the following permutations.
(i) (14) (ii) (147) (iii) (14762)
2. What is the order of a k-cycle  a1 , a2 ....ak  ?
 14
3. What is the order of each of the following permutations ?
(i) (124)(357) (ii) (124)(356) (iii) (124)(3578)
4. What is the order of each of the following permutations ?
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
(i)   (ii)  
 2 1 5 4 6 3 7 6 1 2 3 4 5
5. What is the order of the product of a pair of disjoint cycles of lengths 4 and 6 ?
6. Show that A8 contains an element of order 15.

1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6
7. Let     and    .
2 1 3 5 4 6 6 1 2 4 3 5
Compute each of the following.
(i)  1 (ii)  (iii) 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
8. Let     and    .
 2 1 3 5 4 7 6 8 1 3 8 7 6 5 2 4
Write  and  as
(i) products of disjoint cycles. (ii) products of 2-cycles.
9. Do the odd permutations in S n form a group ? Why ?

10. Let  and  belong to S n . Prove that  1 1 is an even permutation.

11. How many odd permutations of order 4 does S6 have ?

12. Prove that (1234) is not the product of 3-cycles.
13. Let   S7 and suppose  4  (2143567) . Find  .

14. Let   (123) 145  . Write 99 in cycle form.

15. Let H    S n : (3)  3 then show that H is a subgroup of S n . What is the o( H ) ?

16. Let   (1,3,5,7,9,8,6)  2, 4,10  . What is the smallest positive integer n for which  n  5 ?

17. Let   1,3,5, 7,9  2, 4,6  8,10  . If  m is a 5-cycle, what can you say about m ?

18. Let H   S5 |  1  1and   3  3 . Prove that H is a subgroup of S5 .

19. Suppose that  is a 10-cycle. For which integers i between 2 and 10 is i also a 10-cycle ?

20. In S3 , find elements  and  so that   2,   2, and   3 .

21. Find group elements  and  so that   3,   3, and   5 .

22. Show that a permutation with odd order must be an even permutation.
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Answers
1. (i)2 (ii) 3 (iii) 5 2. k 3. (i) 3 (ii) 3 (iii) 12 4. (i) 6 (ii) 12 5. 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
7. (i)   (ii)   (iii)  
 2 1 3 5 4 6 1 6 2 3 4 5 6 2 1 5 3 4
8. (i)   (12)(45)(67),   (23847)(56) (ii)   (12)(45)(67),   (27)(24)(28)(23)(56)
9. No; the identity is even. 11. 90 13.   (2457136) 14. (13254) 15. 2
16. 16 17. m = 6 19. 3, 7, 9 20.   (12),   (23)
21. Let   (123) and   (145)
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Group Theory - 3
Dihedral Groups
Def. Symmetry : An undetectable motion of an object is called its symmetry.
Def. Symmetry Line : A line along which a body is symmetric is called its symmetry line.
Result : A regular polygon with n-sides has n-symmetry lines shown below :

Def. Dihedral group : The set of all symmetries of a regular polygon of n-sides forms a group with respect
to the composition (product) of symmetries and is known as nth dihedral group and is denoted by Dn .

Results :
1. The dihedral group Dn is of order 2n and it contains n rotations and n reflections.
2. Product of two rotations is again a rotation.
3. Product of one rotation and one reflection is a reflection.
4. Product of two reflections is a rotation.
5. Every reflection is either a transposition or a product of transpositions.
6. Order of a reflection is always 2.
n  1 if n is even
7. Number of elements of order 2 in Dn  
 n if n is odd
8. Number of elements of order 2 in any dihedral group is always odd.
 18

9. Let d   2  be a positive integer which divides n then Dn has   d  elements of order d.

10. Largest possible order of any element in Dn is n.

11. The number of subgroups of the dihedral group Dn is   n     n  , where   n  denotes the number of

positive divisors of n and   n  denotes the sum of all positive divisors of n.

12. The number of cyclic subgroups of the dihedral group Dn is   n   n , where   n  denotes the number

of positive divisors of n.
e , if n is odd

13. Centre of dihedral group : Z ( Dn )   n

2
 e, a  , if n is even
 

14. Generator-relation form of dihedral group : Dn  a, b : a n  e, b 2  e, ab  ba 1

 e, a, a 2 , .... a n 1   Rotations
i.e., Dn   2 n 1 
b, ab, a b, .... a b   Reflections

e a a2 b ab a 2b
e e a a2 b ab a 2b
a a a2 e ab a 2b b
Composition table for D3 : a2 a2 e a a 2b b ab
b b a 2b ab e a2 a
2
ab ab b a b a e a2
a 2 b a 2 ab b a2 a e

Def. Group of quaternions Q8 : The group of quaternions is given as Q8  1,  1, i,  i, j ,  j , k ,  k where

i 2  j 2  k 2  1 and i  j  k , j  k  i, k  i  j, j  i  k , k  j  i, i  k   j

. 1 1 i i j j k k
1 1 1 i i j j k k
1 1 1 i i  j j k k
i i i 1 1 k k  j j
Composition table for Q8 : i i i 1 1  k k j j
j j  j k k 1 1 i i
j j j k k 1 1 i i
k k k j  j i i 1 1
k k k  j j i i 1 1

Remark : Some authors denote this group by Q4 .

Results :
1. Q8 is a non-abelian group and hence non-cyclic.
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2. Every proper subgroup of Q8 is cyclic.

3. Q8 has six subgroups.

4. Z (Q8 )  1, 1

5. Generator-relation form of Q8 : Q8  a, b : a 4  e, a 2  b 2  e, ab  ba 1

Exercise 3.1
1. Construct the dihedral groups Dn for 3  n  7 . Also find inverse and order of each element and
construct the O – D table.
2. Construct the O – D table for the dihedral groups D8 , D9 , D20 , D25 , D30 , D36 .

3. Construct the composition table for D3 and D4 .

4. Find all subgroups of D3 , D4 , D5 . How many of them are cyclic and non-cyclic?

5. Construct the O – D table of the group of quaternions Q8 and also find all subgroups of Q8 .

6. Show that every proper subgroup of Q8 is cyclic.

7. Find the group of symmetries of the following figures :
(i) Rectangle (non square) (ii) Rhombus (non square) (iii) Parallelogram (non rectangle)
8. To which groups the groups in above question are isomorphic.
 20

Answers
Order No. of elements
Order No. of elements Order No. of elements 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 21
2 9 2 9 4 2
2. , , ,
4 2 3 2 5 4
8 4 9 6 10 4
16 18 20 8
40

Order No. of element

Order No. of elements
1 1
1 1
2 37
Order No. of elements 2 31
3 2
1 1 3 2
4 2
2 25 5 4
, , 6 2
5 4 6 2
9 6
25 20 10 4
12 4
50 15 8
18 6
30 8
36 12
60
72

4. D3 : Total 6, cyclic 5, non-cyclic 1; D4 : Total 10, cyclic 7, non-cyclic 3.

D5 : Total 8, cyclic 7, non-cyclic 1; D6 : Total 16, cyclic 10, non-cyclic 6.

7. (i) {I , (13)(24), (12)(34), (14)(23)} (ii) {I , (13)(24), (12)(34), (14)(23)} (iii) {I , (13)(24)}

8. (i) K 4 (ii) K 4 (iii)  2

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Group Theory - 4
Def. Direct product : Let G1 , G2 ,....., Gn be a finite collection of groups. The direct product of

G1 , G2 ,....., Gn is denoted by G1  G2  .....  Gn and is defined as the set of all n-tuples for which the ith

component is an element of Gi and the operation is componentwise.

In symbols G1  G2  .....  Gn   g1 , g 2 ,...., g n  : gi  Gi 

where  a1 , a2 ,...., an  b1 , b2 ,...., bn    a1b1 , a2b2 ,....., anbn  . It is easy to check that direct product of groups is

itself a group.
Results :
1. The order of an element of a direct product of a finite number of finite groups is the least common
multiple of the orders of the components of the element. In symbols,
o   g1 , g 2 ,...., g n    lcm o  g1  , o  g 2  ,...., o  g n 

2. Let G1 and G2 be finite cyclic groups then G1  G2 is cyclic if and only if o  G1  and o  G2  are co-

prime.
3. Let G1 and G2 be two groups then G1  G2 is abelian iff G1 and G2 are abelian.

4. If H1 is a subgroup of G1 and H 2 is a subgroup of G2 then H1  H 2 is a subgroup of G1  G2 . However

every subgroup of G1  G2 is not of the form H 1  H 2 .

5. Two finite groups are isomorphic if and only if they are of same order and have same O – D table.
6. The direct product G1  G2  .....  Gn of finite cyclic groups is cyclic if and only if o  Gi  and o  G j  are

co-prime for all i  j .

7.  m   n   mn if and only if gcd  m, n   1 .

 
8.  n1   n2  .....   nk   n1 n2 nk if and only if gcd ni , n j  1  i  j .

9. Let m and n are co-prime positive integers then U  mn   U  m   U  n  .

 
10. Let n1 , n2 ,....., nk are positive integers such that gcd ni , n j  1 for i  j then

U  n1n2 ....nk   U  n1   U  n2   .....  U  nk 

 
11. U  2   1 , U  4    2 , U 2n   2   2n2 for n  3 .
 22

 
12. If p is an odd prime then U p n   
p   p
n n
 p n1
.

13. U  n  is cyclic if and only if n  1 or 2 or 4 or p m or 2  p m where p is an odd prime and m is a

positive integer.
14. x 20  1 for all x U (100)

Proof : U (100)  U (4  25)  U (4)  U (25)  Z 2  Z 20 . It can be easily seen that order of every element of

Z 2  Z 20 is a divisor of 20. So, x 20  1 for all x U (100) .

15. x100  1 for all x U (1000) .

Proof : U (1000)  U (8  125)  U (8)  U (125)  Z 2  Z 2  Z100 . It can be easily seen that order of every

element of Z 2  Z 2  Z100 is a divisor of 100. So, x100  1 for all x U (1000) .

Exercise 4.1
Construct O – D table for following groups :
1.  2   4 2.  3   6 3.  4   6

4.  10  15 5.  8  U  9  6.  6  U 15 

7.  4  U 10  8.  3  S3 9. U  20   U  25 

10. U  6   S4 11. S3  S3 12. S3  U 10 

13.  3  U 10   S3 14.  10  A4 15. U 10   A4

16. A3  A4 17. S3  A3 18. S 2  S3  A3

19. 10  D3 20. U 12   D4 21. S3  D3

22. A3  D5 23. D4  D5 24.  2  U  3  S2  A3  D3

25. U 10   A3  D3 26. D4  Q8 27.  8  Q8

28. U 10   Q8 29. S3  Q8 30. A4  Q8

31. U (16) 32. U (32) 33. U (100)

34. U (120)
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Answers
Order No. of elements
Order No. of elements 1 1
Order No. of elements
1 1 2 3
1 1
2 1 3 2
1. 2 3 2. 3.
3 8 4 4
4 4
6 8 6 6
8
18 12 8
24

Order No. of elements Order No. of elements

1 1 1 1 Order No. of elements
2 1 2 3 1 1
3 2 3 2 2 7
5 24 4 4 3 2
4. 5. 6.
6 2 6 6 4 8
10 24 8 8 6 14
15 48 12 8 12 16
30 48 24 16 48
150 48

Order No. of elements

Order No. of elements 1 1
Order No. of elements
1 1 2 7
1 1
2 3 4 24
7. 2 3 8. 9.
3 8 5 4
4 12
6 6 10 28
16
18 20 96
160
 24

Order No. of elements

Order No. of elements
Order No. of elements 1 1
1 1
1 1 2 7
2 19
2 15 3 2
10. 3 8 11. 12.
3 8 4 8
4 12
6 12 6 2
6 8
36 12 4
48
24

Order No. of elements

Order No. of elements 1 1 Order No. of elements
1 1 2 7 1 1
2 7 3 8 2 7
3 8 5 4 3 8
13. 14. 15.
4 8 6 8 4 8
6 20 10 28 6 8
12 28 15 32 12 16
72 30 32 48
120

Order No. of elements Order No. of elements Order No. of elements

1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3 2 7
16. 17. 18.
3 26 3 8 3 8
6 6 6 6 6 20
36 18 36

Order No. of elements

1 1
2 7 Order No. of elements
Order No. of elements
3 2 1 1
1 1
5 4 2 15
19. 20. 2 23 21.
6 2 3 8
4 8
10 28 6 12
32
15 8 36
30 8
60
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Order No. of elements Order No. of elements

1 1 1 1 Order No. of elements
2 5 2 35 1 1
3 2 4 12 2 31
22. 23. 24.
5 4 5 4 3 8
6 10 10 20 6 104
15 8 20 8 144
30 80

Order No. of elements

1 1 Order No. of elements
Order No. of elements
2 7 1 1
1 1
3 8 2 3
25. 26. 2 11 27.
4 8 4 28
4 52
6 20 8 32
64
12 28 64
72

Order No. of elements Order No. of elements

1 1 1 1
Order No. of elements
2 7 2 7
1 1
3 2 3 8
28. 2 3 29. 30.
4 24 4 24
4 28
6 2 6 8
32
12 12 12 48
48 96

Order No. of elements

Order No. of elements 1 1
Order No. of elements
1 1 2 3
1 1
2 3 4 4
31. 2 3 32. 33.
4 4 5 4
4 4
8 8 10 12
8
16 20 16
40
 26

Order No. of elements

1 1
34. 2 15
4 16
32

Exercise 4.2
1. Show that  2   2   2 has seven subgroups of order 2.

2. Is  3   9 isomorphic to  27 ? Why ?

3. Is  3   5 isomorphic to 15 ? Why ?

4. Explain why  8   4 and  8000000   4000000 must have the same number of elements of order 4.

5. What are the last three digits of 17102 ?

6. What is the order of any nonidentity element of  3   3   3 ?

7. How many subgroups of order 4 does  4   2 have ?

8. The group S3   2 is isomorphic to one of the following groups : 12 ,  6   2 , A4 , D6 . Determine which
one by elimination.
9. Find a subgroup of  4   2 that is not of the form H  K where H is a subgroup of  4 and K is a

subgroup of  2 .

10. Find all subgroups of order 3 in  9   3 .

11. Find all subgroups of order 4 in  4   4 .

12. What is the largest order of any element in  30   20 ?

13. How many elements of order 2 are in  2000000   4000000 ?

14. Prove that D3  D4 / D24 .

15. Determine the number of cyclic subgroups of order 15 in  90   36 .

16. If a finite abelian group has exactlty 24 elements of order 6, how many cyclic subgroups of order 6 does
it have ?
17. The group  2  D3 is isomorphic to one of the following : 12 ,  2   2   3 , A4 , D6 . Determine which

one by elimination.
18. Determine the number of elements of order 15 and the number of cyclic subgroups of order 15 in
 30   20 .

19. Express U 165  as an direct product of cyclic additive groups of the form  n .
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20. Express U 165  as an direct product of U–groups in three different ways.

21. Without doing any calculations in U  27  , decide how many subgroups U  27  has.

22. What is the largest order of any element in U  900  ?

23. Prove that U  55  is isomorphic to U  75  .

24. Prove that U 144  is isomorphic to U 140  .

Answers
2. No 3. Yes
4. Each of  8 ,  4 ,  8000000 and  4000000 has a unique subgroup of order 4. If | (a, b) | 4 then a and b both

belong to the unique subgroup of order 4. So the number of choices for a and b (actually 12 in all) is the
same in either group.
5. 289 6. 3 7. 3 8. D6 9. {(0, 0), (3,1), (2, 0), (1,1)}

10. H1  (3, 0)  {(0, 0), (3, 0), (6, 0)} , H 2  (3,1)  {(0, 0), (3,1), (6, 2)} ,

H 3  (3, 2)  {(0, 0), (3, 2), (6,1)} , H 4  (0,1)  {(0, 0), (0,1), (0, 2)}

11. H1  (0,1)  {(0, 0), (0,1), (0,3), (0, 2)} , H 2  (1, 0)  {(0, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0)} ,

H 3  (1,1)  {(0, 0), (1,1), (2, 2), (3,3)} , H 4  (1, 2)  {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 0), (3, 2)}

H 5  (1,3)  {(0, 0),(1,3), (2, 2), (3,1)} , H 6  (2,1)  {(0, 0), (2,1), (0, 2), (2, 3)} ,

H 7  K 4  {(0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2)}

12. 60 13. 3
14. D3  D4 has 23 elements of order 2 and D24 has 25 elements of order 2.

15. 4 16. 12 17. D6 18. 48; 6 19.  2   4   10

20. U (165)  U (11)  U (15)  U (5) U (33)  U (3)  U (55) 21. 6 22. 60
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Group Theory - 5
Survey of Groups
1. p-theorem : A group of prime order is always cyclic.
or
Let G be a group of order p, where p is a prime, then G   p .

or
If p is a prime then upto isomorphism there is only one group of order p, namely  p .

2. p 2 theorem : A group of order p 2 is always abelian, where p is a prime

or
There does not exists a non-abelian groups of order p 2 , where p is prime.
or
If p is a prime, then upto isomorphism there are only two groups of order p 2 , namely  p 2 and  p   p

3. p3 -thereom : If p is a prime, then upto isomorphism there are three abelian groups of order p 3 , namely,

 p   p   p ,  p   p 2 and  p3 and two non abelian groups of order p 3 .

4. pq-theorem : Let p and q be two primes such that p  q , then

Case (i) : If p does not divide q  1 ,then up to isomorphism, there is only one group of order pq, namely  pq

(cyclic).
Case (ii) : If p divides q  1 , then upto isomorphism, there are only two groups of order pq. Out of these two
groups, one is  pq (cyclic) and other is non abelian. The non abelian group is given by

G  a, b : a p  1, b q  1, a 1ba  b r , r p  1 mod p  , r / 1 mod q 

5. p2q theorem : Let G be a group of order p 2 q such that p does not divide q  1 and q does not divide

p 2  1 then the group G must be abelian.

By this theorem we conclude that the groups of order 45 and 99 are abelian.

6. Fundamental theorem for finite abelian groups : Let n  p1n1 p2 n2 .... pk nk where pi ’s are the distinct

primes, then the number of non isomorphic abelian groups of order n are p  n1  p  n2  ..... p  nk  , where

p  ni  denotes the number of partitions of ni .

 30
Remark : Fundamental theorem does not depend upon the base, it depends upon the powers only.

Exercise 5.1
How many non isomorphic groups of following orders are there. Also construct them.
1. 6 2. 10 3. 14 4. 22 5. 26 6. 15 7. 21
8. 33 9. 39 10. 35 11. 55 12. 65 13. 85 14. 95
Construct all non isomorphic abelian groups of the following orders :
15. 16 16. 20 17. 80 18. 108 19. 120

Answers
1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 1 7. 2
8. 1 9. 2 10. 1 11. 2 12. 1 13. 1 14. 1
15.  2   2   2   2 ;  2   2   4 ;  2   8 ;  4   4 ;  16 16.  2   10 ;  20

17.  2   2   2   10 ;  2   2   20 ;  2   40 ;  4   20 ;  80

18.  3   6   6 ;  2   6   9 ;  2   54 ;  3   3   12 ;  9  12 ; 108

19.  2   2   30 ;  2   60 ;  120

Partial survery table of groups of order upto 50 :

No. of Name of
Order No. of Name of
non  non  Total no.
of the abelian abelian
abelian abelian of groups
group groups groups
groups groups
1 1 1 0  1
2 1 2 0  1
3 1 3 0  1
4 2 4,2  2 0  2
5 1 5 0  1
6 1 6 1 S3 2
7 1 7 0  1
8 3 2  2  2, 2  4,8 2 D4 , Q8 5
9 2 9 , 3  3 0  2
10 1 10 1 D5 2
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No. of Name of
Order No. of Name of
non  non  Total no.
of the abelian abelian
abelian abelian of groups
group groups groups
groups groups
11 1 11 0  1
12 2 12 ,  2   6 3 D6 , A4 ,.... 5
13 1 13 0  1
14 1 14 1 D7 2
15 1 15 0  1
 2   2   2   2 ,  2  2   4 ,  2  8, D8 ,  2  D4 ,
16 5 9 14
 4   4 , 16  2  Q8 ,....
17 1 17 0  1
18 2  3   6 , 18 3 D9 ,  3  S3 ,... 5
19 1 19 0  1
20 2  20 ,  2  10 3 D10 ,... 5

No. of Name of
Order No. of Name of
non  non  Total no.
of the abelian abelian
abelian abelian of groups
group groups groups
groups groups
21 1  21 1  2
22 1  22 1 D11 2
23 1  23 0  1
D12 , S4 ,  2  D6 ,  2  A4 ,  3  D4 ,
24 3  2   2   6 ,  2  12 ,  24 12 15
 3  Q8 ,  4  S3 ,  2   2  S3 ,...
25 2  25 ,  5   5 0  2
26 1  26 1 D13 2
27 3  3   3   3 ,  3   9 ,  27 2  5
28 2  2  14 ,  28 2 D14 ,  4
29 1  29 0  1
30 1  30 3 D15 ,  3  D5 ,  5  S3 4
 32

No. of Name of
Order No. of Name of
non  non  Total no.
of the abelian abelian
abelian abelian of groups
group groups groups
groups groups
31 1  31 0  1
2  2  2  2  2,
D16 ,  2   2  D4 ,
2  2  2  4,
32 7 44  4  D4 ,  2   2  Q8 , 51
 2   2   8 ,  2  16 ,
 4  Q8 ,  2  Q8 ,...
 32 ,  4   8 ,  2   4   4
33 1  33 0  1
34 1  34 1 D17 2
35 1  35 0  1
 2   2  3   3,
36 4  2   2   9 ,  4  3  3 , 10  14
4  9
37 1  37 0  1
38 1  38 1 D19 2
39 1  39 1  2
2  2  2  5,
40 3 11 D20 ,... 14
 2   4   5 , 8  5

No. of Name of
Order No. of Name of
non  non  Total no.
of the abelian abelian
abelian abelian of groups
group groups groups
groups groups
41 1  41 0  1
42 1  42 5  6
43 1  43 0  1
44 2  4   11,  2   2  11 2 D22 ,  2  D11 4
45 2 3  3   5 ,  9  5 0  2
46 1  46 1 D23 2
47 1  47 0  1
 2   2  2   2  3,
48 5  2   2   4   3,  2   8   3, 47 D24 ,    52
 4   4   3 , 16   3   48
49 2  7   7 ,  49 0  2
2  5  5,
50 2 3 D25 ,    5
 2   25   50
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Exercise 5.2
1. What is the smallest positive integer n such that there are two nonisomorphic groups of order n ?
2. What is the smallest positive integer n such that there are three nonisomorphic abelian groups of order n?
3. What is the smallest positive integer n such that there are exactly four nonisomorphic abelian groups of
order n ?
4. Show that there are two abelian groups of order 108 that have exactly one subgroup of order 3.
5. Show that there are two abelian groups of order 108 that have exactly four subgroup of order 3.
6. Show that there are two abelian groups of order 108 that have exactly 13 subgroup of order 3.
7. Suppose that G is an abelian group of order 120 and that G has exactly three elements of order 2.
Determine the isomorphism class of G.
8. How many abelian groups (up to isomorphism) are there
(i) of order 6 ?
(ii) of order 15 ?
(iii) of order 42 ?
(iv) of order pq where p and q are distinct primes ?
(v) of order pqr where p, q and r are distinct primes ?
(vi) Generalize parts (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
9. How does the number (up to isomorphism) of abelian groups of order n compare with the number (up to
isomorphism) of abelian groups of order m where
(i) n  32 and m  52 ?

(ii) n  24 and m  54

(iii) n  p r and m  q r where p and q are prime ?

(iv) n  p r and m  p r q where p and q are distinct primes ?

(v) n  p r and m  p r q 2 where p and q are distinct primes ?

10. Characterize those integers n such that the only abelian groups of order n are cyclic.
11. Characterize those integers n such that any abelian group of order n belongs to one of exactly four
isomorphism classes.
12. The set G  1, 4,11,14,16,19, 26,29,31,34, 41, 44 is a group under multiplication modulo 45. Determine

the isomorphism class of this group.

 34
13. Suppose that G is an abelian group of order 9. What is the maximum number of elements (excluding the
identity) of which one needs to compute the order to determine the isomorphism class of G ?
14. Suppose that G is an abelian group of order 16, and in computing the orders of its elements, you come
across an element of order 8 and two elements of order 2. Explain why no further computations are
needed to determine the isomorphism class of G.
Answers
1. n  4;  4 ,  2   2 2. n  8;  2   2   2 ,  2   4 ,  8

3. n  36;  2   2   3   3 ,  2   2   9 ,  3   3   4 ,  4   9 4.  2   2   27 ;  108

5.  3   4   9 ;  2   2   3   9 6.  3   6   6 ;  3   3  12 7.  2   3   4   5
8. (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1 (iv) 1 (v) 1
(vi) There is a unique abelian group of order n iff n is not divisible by the square of any prime.
9. (i) Equal (ii) Equal (iii) Equal (iv) Equal (v) Twice
10. n  p1 p2 ......... pk , where pi ' s are distinct primes

11. n  p12 p22 or p12 p22 p3 ....... pk , where pi ' s are distinct primes.

12.  2   2   3 13. 3 14.  2   8

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Group Theory - 6
Normal subgroups and Quotient groups
Coset : Let G be a group and H be its subgroup. For any element a G , the set Ha = {ha : h H} is
called right coset of H in G, and the set aH = {ah : h H} is called left coset of H in G. Note that if
the binary operation in G is additive, then the right coset of H in G is H + a = {h + a : h H}.
Similarly , the left coset is a + H = {a +h : h H}.
Results on cosets :
1. Let H be any subgroup of a group G, then Ha  aH  H if and only if a  H.
2. Any two left (right) cosets of a subgroup are either disjoint or identical i.e. either aH  bH or
aH  bH   .
3. If H is a subgroup of a group G, then G is equal to the union of all left (right) cosets of H in G.
4. Let H be any subgroup of a group G, then for a , b  G , Ha = Hb if and only if ab  1  H .

Similarly aH  bH iff ab  1  H .
5. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The number of distinct left cosets of H in G is equal to number
of distinct right cosets of H in G.
6. The number of distinct right (left) cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G and is denoted
o(G )
by [G : H]. For a finite group G , [G : H] = .
o( H )
Def. Normal Subgroup : A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal sub group of G if Ha = aH
for all a  G i.e. right and left cosets of H are same for each element of G. We denote this fact by H G .
For a group G , G and {e} are always normal subgroups of G and are called trivial normal subgroups.
Any other normal subgroup, if exists, is called proper normal subgroups.
Def. Simple group : A group is said to be simple group if it has no proper normal subgroups. In other
words, a group G is said to be simple group if its only normal subgroups are {e} and G.
Example : The alternating group An , n  4 , is always a simple group.

Result : A4 is not a simple group because it has a proper normal subgroup given by

K 4  V4  {I , (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} . This subgroup is called Klein’s four group.

Results on normal subgroups :

1. A subgroup H of a group G is normal if and only if g 1hg  H for all h  H, g G.
2. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
 36
3. Let G be any group and H is a subgroup of G such that, [G : H] = 2 then H is normal subgroup of G.
4. H is a normal subgroup of G if and only if , HaHb = Hab for all a , b G i.e. product of two right
cosets of H in G is again a right cosets of H in G.
5. Intersection of two normal subgroups of G is again a normal subgroup of G.
6. Let H be a normal subgroup of G and K be a subgroup of G, such that , H  K  G then H is a
normal subgroup of K.
7. If H and K are normal subgroup of G, then HK is also a normal subgroup of G.
8. Let H be a normal subgroup of G and K be a subgroup of G then HK is a subgroup of G.
Def. Centre of a group : Let G be a group then centre of the group G is defined to be the subset of all
elements of G which commute with every element of G and it is denoted by Z  G  . In symbols,

Z  G   a  G : ax  xa for all x in G

Results :
1. Z  G  is a normal subgroup of G.

2. G is abelian iff G  Z  G 

Def. Quotient Group : Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup of G. Define G H = {Ha : a G}

as the set of all right (or left) cosets of H in G. Now , let Ha , Hb G H , then the set G H together
with the binary composition defined by, HaHb = Hab is a group and is called the quotient group or factor
group. The identity element of G H is H.
Results on quotient groups :
1. Every quotient group of an abelian group is abelian . But converse may not be true.
2. Every quotient group of a cyclic group is cyclic. But converse may not be true.
o(G )
3. If G is a finite group and H be a normal subgroup of G then o( G H ) = = [G : H].
o( H )
4. Let H and K be two normal subgroups of a group G such that H  K , then K H is a normal

subgroup of G H .
5. Every subgroup of G / H is of the form K / H where K is a subgroup of G and H is a normal subgroup
of K.
6. Let H be a normal subgroup of G and G / H be the quotient group, then order of aH in G / H divides
the order of a in G.
7. Let G be a group and Z  G  be the centre of G. If G / Z  G  is cyclic then G is abelian. Contrapositive of

this statement is that, if G is non abelian then G / Z  G  is not cyclic. We can also express this fact as, if

G / Z  G  is cyclic then G  Z  G  i.e., G / Z  G  is trivial group.

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Exercise 6.1
1. Find all normal subgroups of S3 and S 4 . For every normal subgroup construct the corresponding

quotient group. Also find the isomorphism class of the quotient group.
2. Find all normal subgroups of A4 . For every normal subgroup construct the corresponding quotient

group. Also find the isomorphism class of the quotient group.

3. Find all normal subgroups of Q8 . For every normal subgroup construct the corresponding quotient

group. Also find the isomorphism class of the quotient group.

4. Find all normal subgroups of D3 , D4 , D5 . For every normal subgroup construct the corresponding
quotient group. Also find the isomorphism class of the quotient group.
5. Find two subgroups H and K of the dihedral group D4 such that H is a normal subgroup of K and K is a

normal subgroup of D4 but H is not a normal subgroup of D4 .

Answers
1. Normal subgroups of S3 are {I }, A3 , S3 and quotient groups are S3 {I }  S3 , S3 A3   2 , S3 S3  {e}

Normal subgroups of S 4 are {I }, K 4 , A4 , S 4

and quotient groups are S 4 {I }  S 4 , S4 K 4  S3 , S 4 A4   2 , S4 S4  {e}

2. Normal subgroups of A4 are {I }, K 4 , A4 and quotient groups are A4 {I }  A4 , A4 K 4   3 , A4 A4  {e}

3. Normal subgroups of Q8 are {I }, H1  {1, 1}, H 2  {1, 1, i, i}, H 3  {1, 1, j ,  j}, H 4  {1, 1, k ,  k}, Q8

and quotient groups are Q8 {I }  Q8 , Q8 H1   2   2 , Q8 H i   2 for i = 2, 3 and 4, Q8 Q8  {e}

4. Normal subgroups of D3 are {I }, H  {e, a, a 2 }, D3 and quotient groups are D3 {I }  D3 ,

D3 H   2 , D3 D3  {e}

Normal subgroups of D4 are {I }, H1  {e, a, a 2 , a 3 }, H 2  {e, a 2 , b, a 2b}, H 3  {e, a 2 , ab, a 3b}, D4 and

quotient groups are D4 {I }  D4 , D4 H i   2 for i  1, 2 and 3, D4 D4  {e}

Normal subgroups of D5 are {I }, H  {e, a, a 2 , a3 , a 4 }, D5 and quotient groups are D5 {I }  D5 ,

D5 H   2 , D5 D5  {e}

5. H  {e, a 2 }, K  {e, a 2 , b, a 2b}

 38

Exercise 6.2
1. Let G   4 U  4  , H   2,3 and K   2,1 . Determine the isomorphism class of G / H and G / K .

(This shows that H  K does not imply G / H  G / K .)

2. What is the order of element 5+ 6 in the factor group 18 / 6 ?

3. What is the order of the element 14+ 8 in the factor group  24 / 8 ?

4. What is the order of the factor group  60 / 15 ?


5. What is the order of the factor group  10  U 10  /  2,9  ?
6. Is U  30  / U 5  30  isomorphic to  2   2 or  4 ?

7. The group   4   12  /  2, 2  is isomorphic to one of  8 ,  4   2 or  2   2   2 . Which one ?

8. Let G  U  32  and H  1,31 . The group G / H is isomorphic to one of  8 ,  4   2 or  2   2   2 .

Which one ?
9. Let G  U 16  , H  1,15 and K  1,9 . Are H and K isomorphic ? Are G / H and G / K isomorphic ?

10. Let G   4   4 , H   0, 0  , (2, 0),  0, 2  ,  2, 2  and K  1, 2  . Is G / H isomorphic to  4 or  2   2

? Is G / K isomorphic to  4 or  2   2 ?

11. Show, by example, that in a factor group G / H it can happen that aH  bH but a  b .

12. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. If N is cyclic, prove that every subgroup of N is also normal in
G.
13. If G  30 and Z  G   5 , what is the structure of G / Z  G  ?

14. If H is a normal subgroup of G, and H  2 , prove that H is contained in the center of G.

15. Let G be a group. If H  g 2 | g  G is a subgroup of G, prove that it is a normal subgroup of G.

Answers
1. G H   4 , G K   2   2 2. 6 3. 4 4. 15 5. 4

6.  4 7.  8 8.  8 9. Yes; No 10.  4

11. Take G   6 , H  {0, 3}, a  1, b  4 13. G Z (G )   2   3

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Page 39

Group Theory - 7
Homomorphisms
Def. Homomorphism : Let ( G , * ) and  G ',o  be two groups. A mapping f : G  G is called a

homomorphism if f (a * b)  f  a  o f  b  for all a , b  G .

Definitions :
1. A homomorphism which is one-one is called monomorphism.
2. A homomorphism which is onto is called epimorphism.
3. A homomorphism which is one-one and onto is called isomorphism.
4. A homomorphism from a group G to itself is called endomorphism .
Def. Kernel of a homomorphism : Let f : G  G be a homomorphism, the kernel of f is defined
by Ker f  { g  G : f  g   e '} where e is the identity of G .

Some results : Let f :G  G ' be a homomorphism then

1. f (e) = e where e and e are identities of G and G respectively.
1
2.  f a  f (a 1 ) for all a  G.
n
3. f (a n )   f (a )  for all a  G.

4. if o  a   n then o  f  a   divides n.

5. If f  a   b then f 1  b   a Ker f .

6. Ker f is a normal subgroup of G.

7. f to be one-one iff Ker f = {e}.
8. If H is a subgroup of G, then f(H) is a subgroup of G .
9. If H be a normal subgroup of G , then f (H) is a normal subgroup of G .
10. If H is a cyclic subgroup of G then f  H  is a cyclic subgroup of G ' .

11. If H is a abelian subgroup of G then f  H  is a abelian subgroup of G ' .

12. If o  Ker f   n then f is a n-to-1 mapping from G to f  G  .

13. If o  H   n then o  f  H   divides n.

14. If K is a subgroup of G ' then f 1  K  is a subgroup of G.

15. If K is a normal subgroup of G ' then f 1  K  is a normal subgroup of G.

 40

Theorem : The number of homomorphisms from  m to  n is gcd  m, n  .

Fundamental theorem of homomorphism : Let f be a homomorphism of G to G then G Ker f is

isomorphic to f  G  i.e., G Ker f  f  G  .

or
Every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G.

Remark : If f is onto then G Ker f  f  G   G ' .

Natural homomorphism / Canonical homomorphism : Let H be a normal subgroup of G. We define a

mapping f : G  G H by setting f  g   Hg for all g  G, then f is a onto homomorphism and Ker f = H .

This homomorphism is called natural homomorphism.

or
Every normal subgroup of a group G is the kernel of a homomorphism of G.
First theorem of isomorphism : Let f : G  G is a onto homomorphism and K  is a normal subgroup

of G and let K  f 1 ( K ') , then G K  G K  .

Second theorem of isomorphism : Let H and K are two subgroups of G s.t. K  G , then

HK K  H H  K .
Third theorem of isomorphism : Let H and K be two normal subgroups of G s.t. H  K , then

G K  G H .
K H
Gyley’s Theorem : Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.
Results on number of homomorphism on finite cyclic groups :
1. The number of homomorphism from  m to  n is gcd(m, n) .

4 , if n is even
2. (i) The number of homomorphism from K 4 to  n   .
1 , if n is odd
(ii) The number of homomorphism from K 4 to Q8 is 4.

(iii) The number of homomorphis from K 4 to S n  3 (No. of elements of order 2) + 6 (No. of non-cyclic

subgroup of order 4) + 1.
4 , if n is even
3. (i) The number of homomorphism from Q8 to  n   .
1 , if n is odd
(ii) The number of homomorphism from Q8 to K 4 is 16.

4. (i) The number of homomorphism from S n to K 4 , (n  3) is 4.

(ii) The number of homomorphis from S n to Q8 , (n  3) is 2.

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2 , if m is even
(iii) The number of homomorphism from S n to  m , (n  3) =  .
1 , if m is odd
3 , if 3/n
5. (i) The number of homomorphism from A4 to  n  
1 , if 3 n
(ii) The number of homomorphism from An to K 4 , (n  4) is 1.

(iii) The number of homomorphism from An to Q8 , (n  4) is 1.

Exercise 7.1
1. Construct all homomorphisms in the following groups. How may of them are one-one and how many are
onto :
(i) from  4 to  6 (ii) from  6 to  9 (iii) from  8 to 12
2. Construct all homomorphism in the following groups. How many of them are one-one and how many are
onto :
(i) from K 4 to  2 (ii) from K 4 to  3 (iii) from K 4 to  4

(iv) from K 4 to Q8 (v) from K 4 to S2 (vi) from K 4 to S3

(vii) from K 4 to S4

3. Construct all homomorphisms in the following groups. How many of them are one-one and how many
are onto :
(i) from Q8 to  2 (ii) from Q8 to  3 (iii) from Q8 to  4 (iv) from Q8 to K 4
4. Construct all homomorphisms in the following groups. How many of them are one-one and how many
are onto :
(i) from S n to K 4 (ii) from S n to Q8 (iii) from S n to  3 (iv) from S n to  4

5. Construct all homomorphisms in the following groups. How many of them are one-one and how many
are onto :
(i) from A4 to  3 (ii) from A4 to  5 (iii) from A4 to  6 (iv) from A4 to K 4

(v) from A4 to Q8
 42

Answers
1. (i) 4 6 4 6
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4
5 5
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(ii)
6 9 6 9 6 9
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6
7 7 7
8 8 8
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(iii) 8 12 8 12
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
66 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11

8 12 8 12
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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K4 2 K4 2
2. (i)
e 0 e 0
a a
b 1 b 1
ab ab

K4 2 K4 2
e 0 e 0
a a
b 1 b 1
ab ab

_______________________________________________________________________________________

K4 3
e 0
(ii) a 1
b 2
ab

_______________________________________________________________________________________

K4 4 K4 4
e 0 e 0

(iii) a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
ab 3 ab 3

K4 4 K4 4
e 0 e 0
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
ab ab 3
3

_______________________________________________________________________________________
 44
(iv)
K4 Q8 K4 Q8
e 1 e 1
a 1 a 1
b i b i
ab i ab i
j j
j j
k k
k k

K4 Q8 K4 Q8
e 1 e 1
a 1 a 1
b i b i
ab i ab i
j j
j j
k k
k k
_______________________________________________________________________________________

K4 S2 K4 S2
e I e I
a a
(v)
b (12) b (12)
ab ab

K4 S2 K4 S2
e I e I
a a
b (12) b (12)
ab ab

_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Page 45
K4 S3
e I
a (12)
(vi)
b (13)
ab (23)
(123)
(132)

K4 S3 K4 S3 K4 S3
e I e I e I
a (12) a (12) a (12)
b (13) b (13) b (13)
ab (23) ab (23) ab (23)
(123) (123) (123)
(132) (132) (132)

Replacing (12) by elements of order 2 in S3 , we can construct 9 such homomorphisms.

K4 S3 K4 S3 K4 S3
e I e I e I
a (12) a (12) a (12)
b (13) b (13) b (13)
ab (23) ab (23) ab (23)
(123) (123) (123)
(132) (132) (132)

K4 S3 K4 S3 K4 S3
e I e I e I
a (12) a (12) a (12)
b (13) b (13) b (13)
ab (23) ab (23) ab (23)
(123) (123) (123)
(132) (132) (132)

_______________________________________________________________________________________
 46
K4 S4
e I
(vii) a (12)
b (13)
ab


K4 S4 K4 S4 K4 S4
e I e I e I
a (12) a (12) a (12)
b (13) b (13) b (13)
ab ab ab
  

Replacing (12) by elements of order 2 in S 4 we can construct 27 such homomorphisms.

K4 S4 K4 S4 K4 S4
e I e I e I
a (12) a (12) a (12)
b (34) b (34) b (34)
ab (12) (34) ab (12) (34) ab (12) (34)
  

K4 S4 K4 S4 K4 S4
e I e I e I
a (12) a (12) a (12)
b (34) b (34) b (34)
ab (12) (34) ab (12) (34) ab (12) (34)

  

Taking all non-cyclic subgroups of order 4 in S 4 , we can construct 24 such homomorphisms.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Q8 2 Q8 2
1 1
3. (i) 1 0 1 0
i i
i i
j j
j 1 j 1
k k
k k
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Q8 2 Q8 2
1 1
1 0 1 0
i i
i i
j j
j 1 j 1
k k
k k

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Q8 3
1
1 0
(ii) i
i
1
j
j
k 2
k

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Q8 4 Q8 4
1 1
1 0 1 0
i i
i 1 i 1
(iii)
j 2 j 2
j j
3 3
k k
k k
 48
Q8 4 Q8 4
1 1
1 0 1 0
i i
i 1 i 1
j 2 j 2
j j
3 3
k k
k k

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q8 K4
1
1 e
i
i a
(iv)
j b
j
ab
k
k
Q8 K4 Q8 K4 Q8 K4
1 1 1
e e e
1 1 1
i i i
i a i a i a
j j j
j b j b j b
k ab k ab k ab
k k k

Replacing a by b and ab, we can construct 9 such homomorphisms.

Q8 K4 Q8 K4
1 1
1 e 1 e
i i
i a i a
j b j b
j j
ab ab
k k
k k
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Q8 K4 Q8 K4
1 1
1 e 1 e
i i
i a i a
j b j b
j j
ab ab
k k
k k

Q8 K4 Q8 K4
1 1
1 e 1 e
i i
i a i a
j b j b
j j
ab ab
k k
k k

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. (i) Sn K4 Sn K4

I I
e e
(123) (123)
(12345) even a (12345) even a
permutations permutations
(12) (35) (12) (35)
b b
 
ab ab
(12) (12)
odd odd
(34) permutations (34) permutations
(12) (345) (12) (345)
 
 50

Sn K4 Sn K4

I I
e e
(123) (123)
(12345) even a (12345) even a
permutations
(12) (35) permutations (12) (35)
b b
 
ab ab
(12) (12)
odd odd
(34) permutations
(34) permutations
(12) (345) (12) (345)

 

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Sn Q8 Sn Q8
(ii) 1 1
I I
1 1
(123) (123)
i i
(12345) even (12345) even
permutations i permutations i
(12) (35) (12) (35)
j j
 
j j
(12) k (12) k
odd odd
(34) permutations k (34) permutations k
(12) (345) (12) (345)
 

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Sn 3

I
0
(123)
(12345) even 1
(iii) (12) (35) permutations
2


(12)
odd
(34) permutations
(12) (345)


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Page 51
4 Sn 4
Sn

I I
(iv) 0 0
(123) (123)
(12345) even 1
(12345) even 1 permutations
(12) (35) permutations (12) (35)
2
2 

3
3 (12)
(12) odd
odd (34)
(34) permutations
permutations
(12) (345) (12) (345)



_______________________________________________________________________________________
A4 3 A4 3

5(i) I 0 I 0
(12) (34) (12) (34)
(13) (24) 1 (13) (24) 1
(14) (23) (14) (23)
(123) 2 (123) 2
(132) (132)
(124) (124)
(142) (142)
(134) (134)
(143) (143) 
(234) (234)
(243) (243)

A4 3
I 0
(12) (34)
(13) (24) 1
(14) (23)
(123) 2
(132)
(124)
(142)
(134)
(143) 
(234)
(243)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
 52

A4 5
I 0
(12) (34)
1
(ii) (13) (24)
(14) (23) 2
(123)
3
(132)
(124) 4
(142)
(134)
(143)
(234)
(243)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
A4 6 A4 6
I 0 I 0
(12) (34) (12) (34)
(iii) 1 1
(13) (24) (13) (24)
(14) (23) 2 (14) (23) 2
(123) (123)
3 3
(132) (132)
(124) 4 (124) 4
(142) (142)
5 5
(134) (134)
(143) (143)
(234) (234)
(243) (243)

A4 6
1 0
(12)
1
(13)
(14) 2
(123)
3
(132)
(124) 4
(142)
5
(134)
(143)
(234)
(243)

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Page 53
A4 K4
(iv)
I e
(12) (34)
(13) (24) a
(14) (23)
(123) b
(132)
ab
(124)
(142)
(134)
(143)
(234)
(243)

_______________________________________________________________________________________
A4 Q8
(v) I 1
(12) (34) 1
(13) (24) i
(14) (23)
(123) i
(132) j
(124) j
(142)
k
(134)
(143) k
(234)
(243)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
 54

Automorphisms
Def. Automorphism : A mapping f : G  G where, G is a group under the binary operation '*' is called
an automorphism if
(i) f is a homomorphism i.e., f ( x) * y  f ( x ) * f ( y ) , for all x, y  G
(ii) f is one-one
(iii) f is onto
Remark : Aut(G) denotes the set of all automorphisms of a group G i.e., Aut (G )  { f : f is an
automorphism on G}.
Def. Inner Automorphism : Let a  G be any fixed element. The automorphism Ta : G  G defined by

Ta ( x)  a 1 xa for all x  G

is called an inner automorphism of G corresponding to the element ‘a’.

Remark : Inn(G ) denotes the sety of all inner automorphism of a group G.
Results :
1. The identity mapping is the only inner automorphism for an abelian group.
2. Let f : G  G be an automorphism and a, b  G be any tow elements, then

(i) o(a)  o  f (a )  (ii) o(b 1ab)  o(a )

3. If f is an automorphism of a group G and a  G be an element, then f  N (a )   N  f (a )  .

4. Inn(G ) is a normal subgroup of Aut (G ) .

5. Let G be a finite group and Z (G ) be centre of G. Then, G / Z (G )  Inn(G ) .

6. Let G be a finite group and Z (G ) be centre of G. Then, Z (G )  O  Inn(G )  .

7. If G is an abelian group such that O (G )  n , where n is an odd integer greater than 1, then

O  Aut (G )   1 .

8. If O  Aut (G )   1 , then O (G )  2

9. Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n, then O  Aut (G )    (n) .

10. Let G be an infinite cyclic group, then O  Aut (G )   2 .

11. For every positive integer n. Aut ( n )  U (n) .

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Exercise 7.1
1 if  is an even permutation,
1. Let G be a group of permutations. For each  in G, define sgn     
1 if  is an odd permutation.
Prove that sgn is a homomorphism from G to the multiplicative group {+1, –1}. What is the kernel ?
2. Prove that the mapping from G  H to G given by  g , h   g is a homomorphism. What is the kernel ?

This mapping is called the projection of G  H onto G.

1 if x is a rotation,
3. Let G be a subgroup of some dihedral group. For each x in G, define   x   
1 if x is a reflection.
Prove that  is a homomorphism from G to the multiplicative group {+1, –1}. What is the kernel of  ?

4. Suppose that k is a divisor of n. Prove that  n / k   k .

5. Explain why the correspondence x  3x from 12 to 10 is not a homomorphism.

6. Suppose that  is a homomorphism from  30 to  30 and Ker  = 0,10, 20 . If   23  9, determine all

elements that map to 9.

7. Prove that there is no homomorphism from  8   2 onto  4   4 .

8. Prove that there is no homomorphism from  16   2 onto  4   4 .

9. Can there be a homomorphism form  4   4 onto  8 ? Can there be a homomorphism from 16 onto

 2   2 . Explain your answers.

10. Suppose that there is a homomorphism  from 17 to some group and that  is not one to one.

Determine  .

11. How many homomorphisms are there from  20 onto  8 ? How many are there to  8 ?

12. If  is a homomorphism from  30 onto a group of order 5, determine the kernel of  .

13. Suppose that  is a homomorphism from a finite group G onto G and that G has an element of order 8.
Prove that G has an element of order 8. Generalize.
14. How many homomorphisms are there from  20 onto 10 ? How many are there to 10 ?

15. Determine all homomorphisms from  4 to  2   2 .

16. Determine all homomorphisms from  n to itself.

 56

17. Suppose that  is a homomorphism from S 4 onto  2 . Determine Ker  . Determine all homomorphisms

from S 4 to  2 .

18. Suppose that there is a homomorphism from a finite group G onto 10 . Prove that G has normal

subgroups of index 2 and 5.

19. Suppose that  is a homomorphism from a group G onto  6   2 and that the kernel of  has order 5.

Explain why G must have normal subgroups of orders 5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 60.
20. Suppose that  is a homomorphism from U  30  to U  30  and that Ker  = {1, 11}. If   7   7 , find all

elements of U  30  that map to 7.

21. Find a homomorphism  from U  30  to U  30  with kernel {1, 11} and   7   7 .

22. Suppose that  is a homomorphism from U  40  to U  40  and that ker  ={1, 9, 17, 33}. If  11 11 ,

find all elements of U  40  that map to 11.

23. Find a homomorphism  from U  40  to U  40  with kernel {1, 9, 17, 33} and  11 11 .

24. Determine all homomorphic images of D4 (up to isomorphism).

25. Suppose that G is a finite group and that 10 is a homomorphic image of G. What can we say about G ?

26. Suppose that 10 and 15 are both homomorphic images of a finite group G. What can be said about

G?

27. Show that a homomorphism defined on a cyclic group is completely determined by its action on a
generator of the group.
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Group Theory - 8
Class equation
Def. Conjugate Elements : Let a and b are two elements of group G , then a is said to be conjugate to b if there
exists an element x  G such that a = x 1b x
and we write a ~ b which is read as ‘a’ is a conjugate to ‘b’.
Result 1 : Relation of conjugacy is an equivalence relation.
Remarks :
1. Since we have proved that the relation of conjugacy is an equivalence relation, so instead of saying that a is
conjugate to b or b is conjugate to a, we can say that a and b are conjugates of each other.
2. As conjugacy is an equivalence relation , so it partitions the group G into disjoint equivalence classes and these
classes are known as conjugate classes.
Def. Conjugate Class : Let G be a group and a  G be any element. The collection of all conjugates of ‘a’ is called
conjugate class of a and is denoted by cl(a) or [a].
Thus , cl (a) = {b  G : b~a} = {x 1ax : x  G} .

Remark : By above definition, it is clear that to find the conjugates of an element ‘a’ we have to compute x 1ax for
every element x  G.
Example 1 : Partition the following groups into disjoint conjugate classes.
(a) Q8 = {1,  1, i ,  i , j ,  j , k ,  k }
(b) S3 = {I , (1 2) , (1 3) , (2 3) , (1 2 3) , (1 3 2)} .
Solution : (a) Let us find the conjugates of 1 :
(1) 1 (1)(1)  1 (1) 1 (1)( 1)  1 (i) 1 (1)(i)  1 (i) 1 (1)( i)  1

( j ) 1 (1)( j )  1 (  j ) 1 (1)(  j )  1 (k ) 1 (1)(k )  1 ( k )1 (1)( k )  1

So , 1 is the only conjugate to itself.
Let us find the conjugates of  1 :
(1) 1 ( 1)(1)  1 (1) 1 ( 1)( 1)  1 (i) 1 (1)(i)  1 (i) 1 ( 1)( i)  1

( j ) 1 ( 1)( j )   1 ( j )1 (1)( j )  1 (k ) 1 ( 1)( k )  1 ( k ) 1 (1)(  k )  1

So ,  1 is the only conjugate to itself.
Let us find the conjugates of i :
(1) 1 (i )(1)  i (1) 1 (i)( 1)  i (i) 1 (i)(i )  i (i) 1 (i )(i )  i

( j ) 1 (i)( j )  i ( j )1 (i)(  j )  i ( k ) 1 (i )(k )  i ( k ) 1 (i)( k )  i

So , conjugates of i are i and i .
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Now there is no need to find conjugates of  i . Since conjugacy is an equivalence relation , so i and  i forms
one conjugate class. Similarly it can be seen that j and  j forms one conjugate class and so does the k and  k.
Therefore , Q8 is divided into five different conjugate classes , namely {1} ,{  1} , {i ,  i } , { j ,  j} , {k ,  k}.
(b) Let us find the conjugate of I :
I 1 I I = I (1 2)1I (1 2)  I (1 3) 1I (1 3)  I

(2 3) 1I (2 3)  I (1 2 3) 1 I (1 2 3) = I (1 3 2)1 I (1 3 2)  I
So I is the only conjugate to itself.
Let us find the conjugates of (12) :
I 1 (1 2) I = (1 2) (1 2)1 (1 2)(1 2) = (1 2) (13 ) 1 (1 2)(1 3) = (2 3)

(2 3) 1 (1 2)(2 3) = (1 3) (1 2 3)1 (1 2)(1 2 3) = (1 3) (1 3 2)1 (1 2)(1 3 2) = (2 3)

So , (1 2) , (1 3) and (2 3) are conjugates of each other. Now there is no need to find the conjugates of (1 3) and
(23). Similarly, it can be checked that conjugates of (1 2 3) are (1 2 3) and (1 3 2).
Therefore , S3 is divided into three conjugate classes , namely {I } , {(1 2),(1 3),(2 3)} , {(1 2 3),(1 3 2)}
Result 2 : In any group G , prove that cl (a) = {a} iff a  Z(G).

Remark : If a  Z (G ), then cl (a ) contains at least 2 elements.

Result 3 : If G is abelian then cl ( a) = {a} for every a  G.

Result 4 : Let  and  be any permutations in the symmetric group S n then 1  has the same cyclic

decomposition as that of  .

Result 5 : Two permutations are conjugate in the symmetric group S n iff they have the same cyclic decomposition.

Result 6 : The number of conjugate classes in S n is p  n  .

Def. Normalizer (centralizer) of an element : Let G be any group and a be any element of G, then normalizer of
a in G and centralizer of a in G has the same meaning and is given by
N(a) = C(a) = { x G : xa = ax } = collection of those elements of G which commutes with a
By definition, it is clear that if a  Z(G), then N(a) = G.
Result 7 : Normalizer of an element is always a subgroup.
Example 2 : Find the normalizer of every element in the following groups.
(a) Q8  {1, 1, i ,  i , j ,  j , k ,  k }

(b) S3 = {I , (1 2), (1 3), (2 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)} .

Remark : Normalizer of an element need not be a normal subgroup as can be seen by following example. Consider
S3 = {I , (1 2), (1 3), (2 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}
We see that , N ((1 2)) = {I , (1 2)} = H (say)
which is not a normal subgroup because by definition of normal subgroup left and right coset for any element must be
same , but we see that
(1 3) H = (1 3) {I , (1 2)} = {(1 3) , (1 3)(1 2)} = {(1 3) , (1 2 3)}
H (1 3) = {I , (1 2)} (1 3) = {(1 3) , (1 2)(1 3)} = {(1 3) , (1 3 2)}
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 (1 3) H  H (1 3)
Result 8 : Let a  G be any element, then Z(G)  N(a).
o(G)
Result 9 : If G is a finite group and a  G, then o  cl  a   
o  N(a) 

o(G)
Result 10 : Class equation of a finite group : If G is a finite group , then o  G    where sum runs
a o  N(a) 

over ‘a’ taken one from each conjugate class.

Proof : We know that relation of conjugacy is an equivalence relation and it partitions the group into disjoint
equivalence classes and so we can write
G =  cl (a)
aG
where union runs over ‘a’ taken one from each conjugate class.

Since the conjugate classes are disjoint , so

o(G) =  o  cl (a) 
a
where sum runs over ‘a’ taken one from each conjugate class.

o(G )
Using above result , we obtain , o(G) =  o  N ( a) 
a
where sum runs over ‘a’ taken one from each conjugate class.

o(G )
Result 11 : Second form of class – equation : If G is a finite group then o  G   o  Z  G     o  N ( a)  where
 
aZ G

sum runs over ‘a’ taken one from each conjugate class.
Proof : We know that class equation is
o(G ) o(G ) o(G )
o(G) =  o  N ( a) 
aG
=  o  N ( a)    o  N ( a) 
aZ ( G ) aZ ( G )

o(G )
=  1  o  N (a )  Since N (a )  G iff a  Z (G )
aZ ( G ) aZ ( G )

o(G )
= 1 + 1 +………..…+ 1  o( Z (G)) times  +  o  N ( a) 
aZ ( G )

o(G )
= o  Z(G)    o  N ( a)  where sum runs over ‘a’ taken one from each conjugate class.
aZ ( G )

Remark : We know that a  Z (G) iff N(a) = G iff cl(a) = {a}. Therefore, we have aZ (G) iff N(a)  G iff
cl(a)  {a}. So in class equation 
aZ(G)
can be replaced by 
N ( a) G
or 
cl ( a ) { a}

and so we can write the class equation in the following forms:

o (G ) o (G )
o(G) = o  Z(G )    , o(G) = o  Z(G )   
N (a )G o  N (a )  cl ( a )  { a } o  N ( a ) 
 60
Three important applications of class – equation :

Result 12 : If o  G   p n , where p is a prime number then o  Z  G    1 . In words , a group of prime power order

always has a non – trivial centre.

2
Result 13 : If o  G   p , where p is a prime number, then G is abelian.

Remark : By above theorem, we can say that groups of order 4 , 9 , 25 , 49 , 121 , etc. are all abelian.
Result 14 : If G is a non – abelian group of order p3 , where p is a prime number , then o  Z  G    p and G has

p 2  p  1 conjugate classes.
Def. Normalizer of a subgroup : Let H be a subgroup of G , then normalizer of H ,denoted by N(H) , is defined
to be the set of all those element of G for which left and right cosets of H are identical i.e.
N(H) = {x  G : Hx  xH }
Def. Centralizer of a subgroup :Let G be any group and H be its subgroup, then centralizer of H in G is given by
C  H    x  G : xh  hx  h  H 

Result 15 : If H is a subgroup of a group G then N  H  and C  H  are subgroups of G .

Example 3 : Explain the difference between normalizer and centralizer of a subgroup with the help of an example.
Solution : G = Q 8 and H = {  1,  i}, we find N(H) and C(H).
To find Normalizer : Since H is a subgroup so each element of H gives left and right cosets identical i.e. Hh = hH =
H  h  H so H  N(H). Further, we note that

jH   j,  j , k ,  k and Hj   j ,  j, k ,  k i.e., jH  Hj .

Similarly we can check that kH  Hk , – jH  H   j  , – kH  H   k  so  j ,  k  N  H 

Hence N(H) = {  1,  i,  j,  k } = Q 8
To find Centralizer : We note that only  1,  i commute with every element of H, so C(H) = {  1,  i} = H
Remark : It should be noted that normalizer & centralizer for an element are not different things.
Result 16 :
(i) H is normal subgroup of N(H).
(ii) N(H) is the largest subgroup of G in which H is normal.
(iii) H  G iff N(H) = G.
Result 17 : Table of class equation of some familiar groups :
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Order Group Nature Class equation

1 1 abelian 11
2 2 abelian 2 11
3 3 abelian 3  111
4 4 abelian 4  1111
4 2 2 abelian 4  1111
5 5 abelian 5  11111
6 6 abelian 6  111111
6 S3 non abelian 6 1 2  3
7 7 abelian 7  1111 111
8 8 abelian 8  1  1 1 1 1 1 1  1
8 2 4 abelian 8  1  1 1 1 1 1 1  1
8 2  2  2 abelian 8  1  1 1 1 1 1 1  1
8 D4 non abelian 8  1 1  2  2  2
8 8 non abelian 8  1 1  2  2  2
9 9 abelian 9  1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1
9 3   3 abelian 9  1 1 1  1 1 1111
10 10 abelian 10  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1
10 D5 non abelian 10  1  2  2  5
11 11 abelian 11  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1
12 D6 non abelian 12  1  1  3  3  2  2
24 S4 non abelian 24  1  6  6  3  8

Exercise
1. Find the order of normalizer of the following elements in the indicated group :
(i) 1 2  in S 4 (ii) 1 2 3 in S 4 (iii) 1 2  in S5 (iv) 1 2 3 in S5

(v) 1 2  in S6 (vi) 1 2 3 in S6 (vii) 1 2 3 in A4 (viii) 1 2  3 4  in A4

(ix) ab in D4 (x) b in D5 (xi) a3 in D6 (xii) a 4b in D5

2. Write down the class equation for the groups S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 , A4 , D4 , D5 , D6 .

Answers
1. (i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 12 (iv) 6 (v) 48 (vi) 18 (vii) 3
(viii) 4 (ix) 4 (x) 2 (xi) 12 (xii) 2
 62
2. 6  1  2  3 , 24  1  6  6  3  8 , 120  1  10  20  30  24  15  20 ,
720  1  15  40  90  144  120  45  15  120  40  90 , 12  1  8  3 , 8  1  1  2  2  2 ,
10  1  2  2  5 , 12  1  1  3  3  2  2
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Group Theory - 9
Sylow Theorems
Result 1 : Cauchy theorem for finite abelian groups : If G is a finite abelian group such that p / o  G  , p is a

prime number , then there exists an element a   e   G such that a p  e i.e. o(a) = p.

Result 2 : Converse of lagrange theorem for finite abelian groups : If G is a finite abelian group and m / o  G  , where

m is a positive integer, then G has at least one subgroup of order m.

Result 3 : Cauchy theorem for finite groups : If G is a finite group such that p / o  G  , p is a prime number , then

there exists an element of order p in G.

m
Result 4 : Sylow’s first theorem : Let p be a prime number such that p / o  G  , where m is a positive integer,

then G has a subgroup of order p m .

Another statements of Sylow’s first theorem :
(i) If any power of prime divides the order of a group G , then G has a subgroup of order equal to that power of prime.
(ii) If o(G) = p k q ,where p is a prime number and q is a positive integer such that gcd (p, q) = 1 then G has

subgroups of orders p, p 2 ,..........., p k .

Def. Sylow p – subgroup : Let p be a prime number such that p k divides o(G) and p k 1 does not divide o(G) .

Then a subgroup of order p k is called a Sylow p – subgroup of G.

or
If o(G) = p k q where p is a prime number and gcd(p , q) = 1 , then a subgroup of order p k is called a Sylow p –
subgroup of G.
or
Sylow p – subgroup of a group G is a subgroup whose order is p k where k is the largest power of p such that p k
divides o(G) .
or
A subgroup of G is called a Sylow p-subgroup if its order is equal to the maximum power of p occurring in the order
of the group.
Result 5 : If H is a Sylow p – subgroup of G , then prove that x 1Hx is also a sylow p-subgroup of G for any
xG .
Def. p group : Let p be a prime number. A group G is said to be a p – group if order of every element of G is some
power of p. e.g. Q8  {1, 1, i, i, j ,  j , k ,  k}
 64

The group of quaternions is a 2 – group because o(1)  20 , o( 1)  21 , o ( i ,  i , j ,  j , k ,  k )  2 2

i.e. order of every element of Q8 is a some power of 2.
n
Result 6 : A finite group G is a p – group iff o  G   p for some integer n.

Result 7 : Sylow’s second theorem : Any two Sylow p – subgroups of a finite group G are conjugates in G.
Result 8 : Sylow’s third theorem : The number n p of Sylow p – subgroups of a finite group G is given by

n p  1  kp such that 1  kp / o  G  and k is a non – negative integer.

Result 9 : A Sylow p – subgroup of a finite group G is unique iff it is normal.
Def . Simple group : A group is said to be a simple group if it has no proper normal subgroups. In other
words, a group G is said to be simple group if its only normal subgroups are {e} and G.
Result 10 : The alternating group An , n  4 , is always a simple group.
Result 11 : A4 is not a simple group because it has a proper normal subgroup given by
K4 = V4 = I , (12)(34) , (13)(24) , (14)(23) . This subgroup is called Klein’s four group.

Result 12 : Sylow Test for Nonsimplicity : Let n be a positive integer that is not prime, and let p be a prime
divisor of n. If 1 is the only divisor of n that is congruent to 1 modulo p, then there does not exist a simple
group of order n.
Result 13 : 2  Odd Test : An integer of the form 2  n, where n is an odd number greater than 1, is not the
order of a simple group.
Result 14 : If G is a finite group of order  1000 and G is simple. If o  G  is not a prime then we must have

o  G   60 or 168 or 360 or 504 or 640.

Example 1 : Show that a group of order 28 is not simple.

or
Let o(G) = 28 , then show that group G has a normal subgroup of order 7.
Solution : We have o(G) = 28 = 22.71. By Sylow first theorem , G has Sylow 2 – subgroups each of order 4 and
Sylow 7 – subgroups each of order 7.
By Sylow third theorem , the number n7 of Sylow 7 – subgroups is given by 1 + 7k such that
1  7k o(G)  1  7 k 28

 1  7 k 2 2.7

 1  7k 4 [Since (1 + 7k , 7) = 1]
 k = 0
Thus , n7 = 1 i.e. there is unique Sylow 7 – subgroup say H and o(H) = 7
But we know that “a Sylow p – subgroup is unique iff it is normal”.
Thus H is a normal subgroup of order 7. Obviously H is proper. Hence G is not simple.
Example 2 : Let G be a group of order 52.7.11. Then G has how many
(i) Sylow 5 – subgroups
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(ii) Sylow 7 – subgroups

(iii) Sylow 11 – subgroups.
Tell whether G is simple or not.
Solution : (i) By Sylow third theorem , the number n5 of Sylow 5 – subgroups is given by

1 + 5k such that 1  5k o(G)  1  5k 5 2.7.11

 1  5k 77 [Since (1 + 5k , 5) = 1]
 k = 0 or 2
Thus , n5 = 1 + 5.0 or 1 + 5.2  n5 = 1 or 11
Thus G has one or eleven Sylow 5 – subgroups.
(ii) By Sylow third theorem , the number n7 of Sylow 7 – subgroups is given by 1 + 7k such that 1  7k o(G)

 1  7 k 52.7.11

 1  7k 275 [Since (1 + 7k , 7) = 1]
 k = 0
Thus , n7 = 1 + 7.0 = 1. Thus G has unique sylow 7 – subgroup.
(iii) By Sylow third theorem , the number n11 of Sylow 11 – subgroups is given by 1 + 11k such

that 1  11k o(G)  1  11k 52.7.11

 1  11k 175 [Since (1 + 11k , 11) = 1]

 k = 0
Thus , n11 = 1 + 11.0 = 1
Thus G has unique sylow 11 – subgroup.
Here we see that G has a unique Sylow 7 – subgroup. Since it is unique it must be normal in G and hence G is not
simple. (Here same reasoning can be given for Sylow 11 - subgroup).
Example 3 : Show that a group of order 40 is not simple.
-OR-
Show that a group of order 40 has a normal subgroup of order 5.
Solution : We have o(G) = 40 = 23.51. By Sylow third theorem , the number n5 of Sylow 5 – subgroups is given by

1 + 5k such that 1  5k o(G)

 1  5k 23.5

 1  5k 8 [Since (1  5k ,5)  1]
 k= 0
 n5 = 1 + 5 . 0 = 1
 66
Thus , G has a unique Sylow 5 – subgroup , say H and o(H) = 5. Since H is unique , it must be normal and hence G
is not simple.
Example 4 : Show that a group of order 20449 is not simple.
or
Show that a group of order 20449 has a normal subgroup of order 11.
Solution : We have o(G) = 20449 = 112.132. By Sylow third theorem , the number n11 of Sylow 11 – subgroups

is given by 1 + 11k such that 1  11k o(G)

 1  11k 112.132

 1  11k 169 [Since (1  11k ,112 )  1]

 k = 0  n11 = 1 + 11.0 = 1
Thus G has a unique Sylow 11– subgroup , say H and o(H) = 121. Since H is unique , it must be normal and hence
G is not simple.
Some typical examples on non simplcity of groups : Now we consider some typical examples of non – simplicity of
groups. In above examples , we have noted that a particular Sylow p – subgroup comes out be unique at very first
step. But in the following examples , we require some more computations.
Example 5 : Show that a group of order 56 is not simple.
Solution : o(G) = 56 = 23.71

By Sylow third theorem , the number n7 of Sylow 7 – subgroups is given by 1  7k such that

1  7k o(G) = 56  1  7k 8 [Since (1  7 k ,7)  1]

 k = 0 or 1
 n7 = 1+7.0 or 1+7.1

 n7 = 1 or 8.
We consider these two cases separately.
Case (i) - n7  1 i.e. G has a unique Sylow 7 – subgroup , say , H. Since H is unique , it must be normal and hence
G is not simple.
Case (ii) - n7 = 8 i.e. G has eight Sylow 7 – subgroups each of order 7. Let these are

H1 , H 2 ,H 3 ,.............., H8 and o(Hi )  7 for 1  i  8

We claim that identity is the only common element in all these Hi s .

Now , for i  j , Hi  H j  H i

By Lagrange’s theorem , o(H i  H j ) o(Hi )  7  o(H i  H j ) = 1 or 7

If o(H i  H j ) = 7 then since o(H i )  o(H j ) = 7 , we obtain Hi  H j i.e., i  j , which is not the case.

Hence o(H i  H j ) = 1 for i  j i.e. Hi  H j  {e} for i  j

Thus ‘e’ is the only common element in H1 , H 2 ,............, H8 .Also all non – identity elements of Hi s are of order 7.
Thus here are 8(7  1)  48 non – identity elements of order 7 in all Hi s .
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As o(G) = 56 ,so remaining elements (which are not of order 7) are 56  48  8 . Further a Sylow 2 – subgroups of
G is of order 23 = 8 and it can not have any element of order 7. Thus , these remaining eight elements must form a
unique Sylow 2 – subgroup , say K of G. Since K is unique Sylow 2 – subgroup , it must be normal. Hence G is not
simple.
Example 6 : Show that a group of order 30 is not simple.
Solution : We have o(G) = 30 = 2.3.5 By Sylow third theorem , the number n5 of Sylow 5 – subgroups is given by

1  5k such that 1  5k o(G) = 30

 1  5k 6 [Since (1  5k ,5)  1]
 k = 0 or 1
 n5 = 1 + 5.0 or 1 + 5.1

 n5 = 1 or 6

Again , the number n3 of Sylow 3 – subgroups is given by 1  3k such that 1  3k o(G) = 30

 1  3k 10 [Since (1  3k ,3)  1]
 k = 0 or 3
 n3 = 1 + 3.0 or 1 + 3.3

 n3 = 1 or 10
Thus we have the following four possible cases
Case (i) : n5 = 1 and n3 = 1

Case (ii) : n5 = 1 and n3 = 10

Case (iii) : n5 = 6 and n3 = 1

Case (iv) : n5 = 6 and n3 = 10.

In first three cases , either a Sylow 3 – subgroup or a Sylow 5 – subgroup is unique and hence normal. Thus G is not
simple in first three cases.
Now we consider the case – (iv). In this case we have six Sylow 5 – subgroups each of order 5. Let there be
H1 , H 2 ,.............., H 6 . We claim that the identity element is the only common element in all these Hi s .

Let i  j and Hi  H j  H i

By Lagrange’s theorem , o(H i  H j ) o(Hi )  5  o(H i  H j )  1 or 5

If o(H i  H j ) = 5 then since o(H i )  o(H j ) = 5 , we obtain Hi  H j i.e. i = j , which is not the case.

Hence o(H i  H j ) = 1 for i  j i.e. Hi  H j = {e} for i  j

Also , all non – identity elements of Hi s are of order 5. Thus there are 6(5  1) = 24 non – identity elements of

order 5 in all Hi s .

 68
Similarly , we have ten Sylow 3 – subgroups each of order 3.
Let these be K1 , K 2 ,............, K10
By the same manner as above , we can show that there are 10(3  1) = 20 non – identity elements of order 3.
Thus G has 24 + 20 = 44 non – identity elements , which is clearly impossible as o(G) = 30. Hence case – (iv) is
not possible. In the first three cases , we have already shown that G is not simple.

Example 7 : Let G be a finite group such that o(G) = p n , where p is a prime. Prove that any subgroup of order

p n 1 is a normal subgroup of G.
Example 8 : Show that no group of order 108 is simple.
or
Let G be a group of order 108. Show that G has a normal subgroup of order 27 or 9.
Solution : We have o(G) = 108 = 22.33.

By Sylow third theorem , the number n3 of Sylow 3 – subgroups is given by 1 + 3k such that

1  3k o(G)  2 2.33

 1  3k 4 [Since (1  3k ,33 )  1]
 k = 0 or 1
 n3 = 1 + 3.0 or 1 + 3.1

 n3 = 1 or 4
We consider the two cases separately.
Case (i) : n3 = 1 i.e. G has a unique Sylow 3 – subgroup , say H. Since H is unique , it must be normal and o(H) =
33 = 27. Thus G has a normal subgroup of order 27 in this case and hence G is not simple.
Case(ii) : n3 = 4 i.e. G has four Sylow 3 – subgroups each of order 27. Let H and K be any two distinct sylow 3 –
subgroups. We claim that o(H  K)  9 and H  K is a normal subgroup of G.
Clearly , H  K  H , and so by Lagrange’s theorem.
o(H  K) o(H)  27
 o (H  K) = 1 or 3 or 9 or 27.
If o(H  K) = 27 then since o(H) = o(K) = 27 , we obtain H = K , which is a contradiction. Hence o(H  K)  27 .

o(H)o(K) 27.27
If o(H  K) = 1 or 3 then o(HK) =   108  o(G) which is not possible.
o(H  K) 1 or 3
Hence o(H  K)  1 , 3 and so o(H  K) = 9.
We now show that H  K is normal in G. For this we shall prove that N(H  K) = G .

Now , we know a result that “if o(H) = p n 1 and o(G) = p n then H is a normal subgroup of G.”
Using this result , we see that H  K is a normal subgroup of both H and K as o(H  K) = 32 and o(H) = o(K) = 33.
Let x  H be any element , then
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(H  K) x  x (H  K) [Since (H  K)  H]
 x  N (H  K ) , normalizer of H  K .
 H  N (H  K )
Similarly , K  N(H  K)  HK  N(H  K)

o(H).o(K) 27.27
 o  N(H  K)   o(HK) = =  81
o(H  K) 9

 o  N(H  K)   81 ......(1)

On the other hand , N(H  K) is a subgroup of G so by Lagrange’s theorem

o  N(H  K)  o(G) i.e. o  N(H  K)  108 ......(2)

Both (1) and (2) are possible only when

o  N(H  K)  = 108 = o(G)

 o(N(H  K)) = o(G)

 N(H  K) = G

 H  K is normal in G. [Since N(H) = G iff H  G ]

Hence G is not simple.
Exercise
1. Show that a group of order 255 is not simple.
2. Show that a group of order 130 is not simple.
3. Show that there is no simple group of order 48.
4. Show that there is no simple group of order 96.
5. Let G be a finite group of order pq, where p and q are prime numbers (p < q). Then, G has one subgroup of order q.
6. A group G of order 2p, where p is prime and p  2 has exactly one subgroup of order p.

7. Find all subgroups of S n for 1  n  4 . Also find all Sylow p–subgroups for each prime p dividing the order of S n .

8. Find all subgroups of An for 1  n  4 . Also find all Sylow p–subgroups for each prime p dividing the order of An .

9. How many Sylow 5-subgroups are there in S5 , S6 , S7 , A5 , A6 , A7 .

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Group Theory - 10
Results :
1. The sets , , ,  are abelian groups under addition.
2.  is cyclic group under addition with generators 1 and –1.
3. , ,  are not cyclic groups.

4. * , * , * ,  ,   are abelian groups w.r.t. multiplication and all these groups are non-cyclic.

 
5. General linear group : The set GL  n, F   [aij ]nn : aij  F , det[aij ]  0, F is a field is a group w.r.t.

matrix multiplication and is known as general linear group.

 
6. Special linear group : The set SL  n, F   [aij ]nn : aij  F , det[aij ]  1, F is a field is a group w.r.t. matrix

multiplication and is known as special linear group.

7. GL  n, F  and SL  n, F  are non-abelian groups when n  1 .

 
8. o GL n,  p     p n  p n1  p n  p n2  ...... pn  1 .
p n
 p n 1  p n
  
 p n 2 ...... p n  1
9.  
o SL n,  p  
p 1
10. Centre of general linear group is the set of all scalar matrices in it. i.e.,
 a 0 ... 0  
  
 0 a ... 0
 : a  0, a  F  .
Z  GL  n, F     
 ... ... ... ... 
  0 0 ... a 
 

  
11. o Z GL n,  p   p  1 .
12. Centre of special linear group is the set of all scalar matrices in it. i.e.,
 a 0 ... 0  
 
 0 a ... 0  n
Z  SL  n, F       : a  1, a  F  .
 ... ... ... ... 
  0 0 ... a 
 

 
13. o Z  SL  n,     n .

1 if n is odd

14. o Z  SL  n,      .
2 if n is even
 72

  
15. o Z SL n,  p     gcd  n, p  1 .
16. For any group G, we have Z  Z  G    Z  G  .

17.  /  is an infinite group with every element of finite order. Further it has elements of every finite
order.
k
18. Number of elements of order n in the group  /  is   n  and these are of the form   where
n
gcd  k , n   1 .

19.  /  has a unique subgroup of order n for every positive integer n. Further this subgroup is cyclic and

1
is given by H   .
n
20. The set of all nth roots of unity is a multiplicative cyclic group of order n and therefore is isomorphic to

 
 n . In symbols Gn  z : z n  1 is a multiplicative cyclic group of order n. e.g. G2  1,  1 ,

 
G3  1,  ,  2 , G4  1,  1, i,  i and so on.

 
21. The set G  z : z n  1, n  1, 2,3,.... is an infinite abelian group w.r.t. multiplication. This group is not

cyclic. This is an infinite group with every element of finite order. Every finite subgroup of G is cyclic.
Exercise
1. Show that the group GL  2,   is non-abelian, by exhibiting a pair of matrices A and B in GL  2,  

such that AB  BA.

 2 6
2. Find the inverse of the element   in GL  2, 11  .
 3 5
3. (From the GRE practice exam) Let p and q be distinct primes. Suppose that H is a proper subset of
integers and H is a group under addition that contains exactly three elements of the set

 p, p  q, pq, p , q . Determine which of the following are the three elements in H.

q p

a. pq, p q , q p b. p  q, pq, p q c. p, p  q, pq d. p, p q , q p e. p, pq, p q

4. Prove that the set of all 2  2 matrices with entries from  and determinant 1 is a group under matrix
multiplication
5. Prove that the set of all rational numbers of the form 3m6n , where m and n are integers, is a group under
multiplication.

1 a b
6. Prove that the set of all 3  3 matrices with real entries of the form  0 1 c  is a group.
 0 0 1 
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a a  
7. Let G     a  , a  0  . Show that G is a group under matrix multiplication.
a a  
8. Let  be the group of rational numbers under addition and let  be the group of non zero rational

1 1
numbers under multiplication. In  , list the elements in . In  , list the elements in .
2 2

9. Find the order of each element in  and in  .

10. Suppose that H is a proper subgroup of  under addition and H contains 18, 30 and 40. Determine H.
 0 1 0 1
11. Consider the elements A    and B   1 1 from SL  2,   . Find A , B , and AB . Does
1 0   
your answer surprise you ?
1 1 1 1
12. Consider the element A    in SL  2,   . What is the order of A ? If we view A    as a
 0 1  0 1

member of SL  2,  p  (p is a prime), what is the order of A ?

13. For any positive integer n and any angle  , show that in the group SL  2,   ,
n
 cos   sin   cos n  sin n
 sin  cos     sin n cos n  .
   
Use this formula to find the order of

 cos 60  sin 60   cos 2  sin 2 

   and  .
 sin 60 cos 60   sin 2 cos 2 

14. Let G be the symmetry group of a circle. Show that G has elements of every finite order as well as
elements of infinite order.
  a b     a b  
15. Let G     a , b , c , d    under addition. Let H      G , a  b  c  d  0  . Prove that H is
  c d     c d  
a subgroup of G. What if 0 is replaced by 1 ?
16. Let G  GL  2,   . Let H   A  G |det A is a power of 2 . Show that H is a subgroup of G.

17. Let H be a subgroup of  under addition. Let K 2a | a  H  . Prove that K is subgroup of  under

multiplication.
 74

18. Let G be a group of functions from  to  under multiplication. Let H   f  G | f 1 1 . Prove that H

is a subgroup of G.
  a 0  
19. Let G  GL  2,   and H     a and b are nonzero integers  . Prove or disprove that H is a
  0 b  
subgroup of G.
20. Let H  a  bi | a, b  , ab  0 . Prove or disprove that H is a subgroup of  under mulitiplication.

21. H a  bi | a, b  , a 2  b 2 1 . Prove or disprove that H is a subgroup of  under multiplication.

Describe the elements of H geometrically.

22. Find the smallest subgroup of  containing
a. 8 and 14 (the notation for this is 8,14 ), b. 8 and 13, c. 6 and 15,

d. m and n, e. 12, 18, and 45.

In each part, find an integer k such that the subgroup is k .

23. Let G  GL  2,   .

 1 1    0 1  
a. Find N    . b. Find N    . c. Find Z  G  .
 1 0   1 0  
24. Let  denote the group of integers under addition. Is every subgroup of  cyclic ? Why ? Describe all
the subgroups of  .
25. Find all generators of  .
26. Let a be an element of a group and suppose that a has infinite order. How many generators does a

have ?
27. Show that the group of positive rational numbers under multiplication is not cyclic.
28. Let m and n be elements of the group  . Find a generator for the group m  n .

29. Prove that an infinite group must have an infinite number of subgroups.
 1 n  
30. Prove that H     : n    is cyclic subgroup of GL  2,   .
 0 1  

 
31. Let G  a  b 2 , where a and b are rational numbers not both 0. Prove that G is a group under

ordinary multiplication.
32. Suppose that H and K are nontrivial subgroups of  under addition. Show that H  K is a nontrivial
subgroup of  . Is this true if  is replaced by  ?

33. Let  be a group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication and let H  x   : x 2 is rational .

Prove that H is a subgroup of  .

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34. Let G  GL  2,   and let H   A  G |det A is rational. Prove or disprove that H is a subgroup of G.

What if we replace “rational” by “integer” ?

35. Prove that  under addition is not isomorphic to  under addition.

  a b  
36. Let  be the complex numbers and M     a , b   .
  b a  
Prove that  and M are isomorphic under addition and that  and M  the nonzero elements of M are
isomorphic under multiplication.
37. Let G  0, 2,  4,  6,... and H  0,  3,  6,  9,... . Show that G and H are isomorphic groups under

addition.
38. Prove that  under addition is not isomorphic to   under multiplication.

39. Let n be an integer greater than 1. Let H  0,  n,  2n,  3n,... . Find all left cosets of H in  . How

many are there ?

40. Let M be the group of all real 2  2 matrices under addition. Let N         under
componentwise addition. Prove that M and N are isomorphic. What is the corresponding theorem for the
group of n  n matrices under addition ?
 1 a b  
  
41. Let H   0 1 0  a, b   3  . Show that H is an abelian group of order 9. Is H isomorphic to  9 or
 0 0 1  
  
3  3 ?

42. Let G 3m6n | m, n   under multiplication. Prove that G is isomorphic to    .

43. Let  a1 , a2 ,..., an   G1  G2  ...Gn . Give a necessary and sufficient condition for |  a1 , a2 ,..., an  |   .

44. Let G   3   3   3 and let H be the subgroup of SL  3,  3  , consisting of

 1 a b  
  
H    0 1 c  a, b, c   3  . Determine the number of elements of each order in G and H. Are G and
0 0 1 
  
H isomorphic ?
 76

45. Let   denote he multiplicative group of positive reals and let T   z   | z 1 be the multiplicative

group of complex numbers of norm 1. (Recall that a  bi  a 2  b 2 .) Show that every element of 

can be uniquely expressed in the form of rz where r    and z  T .

46. Prove that  under multiplication is not isomorphic to  under multiplication.
47. Prove that  under addition is not isomorphic to  under addition.

48. Prove that  under addition is not isomorphic to  under multiplication.

49. Show that  (the set of positive rational numbers) under multiplication is not isomorphic to  under
addition.
50. Give an example of a group G with a proper subgroup H such that G and H are isomorphic.
51. In    under componentwise addition, let H   x,3x  | x   . (Note that H is the subgroup of all

points on the line y  3x .) Show that (2, 5) +H is a straight line passing through the point (2, 5) and
parallel to the line y  3x .
52. In    , suppose that H is the subgroup of all points lying on a line through the origin. Show that any
left coset of H is just a line parallel to H.
  a b  
53. Let H     a , b, d  , ad  0  . Is H a normal subgroup of GL  2,   ?
  0 d  

54. Prove that SL  2,   is a normal subgroup of GL  2,   .

55. Viewing 3 and 12 as subgroups of  , prove that 3 / 12 is isomorphic to  4 . Similarly, prove

that 8 / 48 is isomorphic to  6 . Generalize to arbitrary integers k and n.

56. Determine the order of      /  2, 2  . Is the group cyclic ?

57. Determine the order of      /  4, 2  . Is the group cyclic ?

58. Let G  GL  2,   and H  A  G |det A  3k , k   . Prove that H is a normal subgroup of G.

59. Let  denote the group of all nonzero real numbers under multiplication. Let   denote the group of
positive real numbers under multiplication. Prove that  is the internal direct product of   and the
subgroup 1,  1 .

60. Let  be the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication, and let r be a positive integer. Show
that the mapping that takes x to x r is a homomorphism from  to  .

61. Let G be the group of all polynomials with real coefficients under addition. For each f in G, let f
denote the antiderivative of f that passes through the point (0, 0). Show that the mapping f   f from
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G to G is a homomorphism. What is the kernel of this mapping ? Is this mapping a homomorphism if

f denotes the antiderivative of f that passes through (0, 1) ?

62. Prove that the mapping :      given by  a, b   a  b is a homomorphism. What is the kernel of

 ? Describe the set 1  3 (that is, all elements that map to 3).

63. Suppose that there is a homomorphism  from    to a group G such that   3, 2   a and   2,1  b .

Determine   4, 4  in terms of a and b. Assume that the operation of G is addition.

64. Prove that the mapping x  x 6 from  to  is a homomorphism. What is the kernel ?
65. For each pair of positive integers m and n, we can define a homomorphism from  to  m   n by
x  (x modm, x mod n). What is the kernel when (m, n) = (3, 4) ? What is the kernel when
(m, n) = (6, 4) ?
66. Let   x  be the group of polynomials in x with integer coefficients under addition. Prove that the

mapping from   x  into  given by f  x   f  3 is a homomorphism. Give a geometric description

of the kernel of this homomorphism. Generalize.

67. The factor group GL  2,   / SL  2,   is isomorphic to some very familiar group. What is the group ?

68. Prove that  /  under addition is an infinite group in which every element has finite order.
69. Show that  /  has a unique subgroup of order n for each positive integer n.

70. Let G     and H   x, y  | x and y are even integers . Show that H is a subgroup of G. Determine

the order of G / H . To which familiar group is G / H isomorphic ?

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--------------------- S C Q ------------------ 6. Let G be a simple group of order 168. What

is the number of subgroups of G of order 7
1. Consider a group G. Let Z(G) be its centre. ?
i.e. Z(G)=  g  G : gh  hg for all h  G . 1. 1 2. 7 3. 8 4. 28
(CSIR NET June 2013)
For n  , the set of positive integers, 7. The number of group homomorphisms
define from the symmetric group S3 to the
J n  { g1 ,..., g n   Z  G   ....  Z  G  : g1...g n  e} additive group  / 6 is
. 1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 0
As a subset of the direct product group (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
G  ...  G (n times direct product of the 8. The total number of non isomorphic groups
group G), J n is of order 122 is
1. not necessarily a subgroup. 1. 2 2. 1 3. 61 4. 4
2. a subgroup but not necessarily a (CSIR NET June 2014)
normal subgroup. 9. In the group of all invertible 4  4 matrices
3. a normal subgroup. with entries in the field of 3 elements, any
4. isomorphic to the direct product 3Sylow subgroup has cardinality
Z(G) ...  Z(G) (n1) times). 1. 3 2. 81 3. 243 4. 729
(CSIR NET June 2011) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
2. Let G be a group of order 77. Then the 10. The number of conjugacy classes in the
centre of G is isomorphic to permutation group S6 is
1.  1 2.   7  3.  11 4.   77  1. 12 2. 11 3. 10 4. 6
(CSIR NET June 2011) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
11. Up to isomorphism, the number of abelian
3. Let p be a prime number. The order of a p 
groups of order 108 is :
Sylow subgroup of the group GL50  p  of 1. 12 2. 9
invertible 50  50 matrices with entries 3. 6 4. 5
from the finite field Fp , equals : (CSIR NET June 2015)
12. A group G is generated by the elements
1. p 502. p125 3. p1250 4. p1225 2
x, y with the relations x 3  y 2   xy   1 .
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
4. The number of group homomorphisms The order of G is
 1. 4 2. 6
from the symmetric group S3 to is 3. 8 4. 12
6
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 6 (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
13. Let G  ( / 25) * be the group of units
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
5. Consider the group G   /  where  and (i.e. the elements that have a multiplicative
 are the groups of rational numbers and inverse) in the ring ( / 25) . Which of the
integers respectively. Let n be a positive following is a generator of G?
integer. Then is there a cyclic subgroup of 1. 3 2. 4
order n ? 3. 5 4. 6
1. not necessarily. (CSIR NET June 2016)
2. yes, a unique one. 14. Let p  5 be a prime. Then
3. yes, but not necessarily a unique one. 1. Fp  Fp has at least five subgroups of
4. never. order p.
(CSIR NET June 2012)
 80

2. Every subgroup of Fp  Fp is of the 19. Let S7 denote the group of permutations of

form H1  H 2 where H1 , H 2 are
the set 1, 2,3, 4,5,6,7 . Which of the
subgroups of Fp .
3. Every subgroup of Fp  Fp is an ideal of following is true ?

the ring Fp  Fp . 1. There are no elements of order 6 in S7

4. The ring Fp  Fp is a field. 2. There are no elements of order 7 in S7
(CSIR NET June 2016)
15. Let S n denote the permutation group on n 3. There are no elements of order 8 in S7
symbols and An be the subgroup of even 4. There are no elements of order 10 in S7
permutations. Which of the following is
true ? (CSIR NET June 2018)
1. There exists a finite group which is not a 20. The number of group homomorphisms
subgroup of S n for any n  1 .
from 10 to  20 is
2. Every finite group is a subgroup of An
for some n  1 . 1. zero 2. one
3. Every finite group is a quotient of An 3. five 4. ten
for some n  1 .
(CSIR NET June 2018)
4. No finite abelian group is a quotient of
S n for n  3 .
(CSIR NET Dec 2016) --------------------- M C Q -----------------
16. Let G be an open set in  n . Two points
x, y  G are said to be equivalent if they 1. If a non-trivial group has only one
can be joined by a continuous path generator then the number of elements in
completely lying inside G. Number of the group is
equivalence classes is 1. an odd prime
1. only one. 2. can not be prime greater than 2
2. at most finite. 3. even integer
3. at most countable. 4. 2
4. can be finite, countable or uncountable. 2. Let G be a finite abelian group of odd order
(CSIR NET Dec 2016) let H  {x 2 | x  G}, then
17. What is the number of non-singular 3  3 1. H is a subgroup of G only if G is cyclic
matrices over 2 , the finite field with two 2. H is a proper subsgroup of G
elements ? 3. H = G
1. 168 2. 384 4. H may not be subgroup of G
3
3. 2 4. 32 3. Let
(CSIR NET Dec 2016) H  e, 1, 2  3, 4  and
K  e , 1, 2  3, 4  , 1,3 2, 4  , 1, 4  2,3
18. Let f :     / 4     / 6  be the
be subgroups of S 4 where e denotes the
function f  n    n mod 4, n mod 6  . Then
identify element of S 4 . Then
1.  0 mod 4,3mod 6  is in the image of f 1. H and K are normal subgroups of S 4
2.  a mod 4, b mod 6  is in the image of f, 2. H is normal in K and K is normal in A4
for all even integers a and b 3. H is normal in A4 but not normal in S 4
3. image of f has exactly 6 elements
4. K is normal in S 4 but H is not
4. kernel of f  24
(CSIR NET June 2011)
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
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4. Let G  10   15 . Then 4.  and  commute

1. G contains exactly one element of order 2 (CSIR NET June 2013)
2. G contains exactly 5 elements of order 3 10. Let S n denote the symmetric group on n
3. G contains exactly 24 elements of order 5 symbols. The group S3    / 2  is
4. G contains exactly 24 elements of order
10 isomorphic to which of the following
(CSIR NET June 2011) groups ?
5. Which of the following numbers can be 1.  / 12
orders of permutations  of 11 symbols 2.   / 6     / 2 
s.t.  does not fix any symbol ? 3. A4 , the alternating group of order 12
1. 18 2. 30 3. 15 4. 28 4. D6 , the dihedral group of order 12
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
6. For any group G of order 36 and any (CSIR NET June 2013)
subgroup H of G order 4, 11. How many normal subgroups does a non
1. H  Z(G) abelian group G of order 21 have other than
2. H = Z(G) the identity subgroup {e} and G ?
3. H is normal in G 1. 0 2. 1 3. 3 4. 7
4. H is an abelian group (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
(CSIR NET June 2012) 12. Determine which of the following cannot
be the class equation of a group
7. Let G denote the group S 4  S3 . Then
1. 10 = 1+1+1+2+5.
1. a 2Sylow subgroup of G is normal 2. 4 = 1+1+2.
2. a 3Sylow subgroup of G is normal 3. 8 = 1+1+3+3.
3. G has a nontrivial normal subgroup 4. 6 = 1+2+3.
4. G has a normal subgroup of order 72 (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
(CSIR NET June 2012) 13. Consider the multiplicative group G of all
8. For a positive integer n 4 and a prime the (complex) 2n -th roots of unity where
number p  n , let U p ,n denote the union of n = 0, 1, 2 ... Then
all p –Sylow subgroup of the alternating 1. Every proper subgroup of G is finite.
group An on n letters. Also let K p ,n denote 2. G has a finite set of generators.
3. G is cyclic.
the subgroup of An generated by U p ,n , and 4. Every finite subgroup of G is cyclic.
let K p,n denote the order of K p ,n . Then (CSIR NET June 2014)
14. Let G be a non abelian group. Then, its
1. K 2,4 =12 2. K 2,4 = 4 order can be
3. K 2,5 = 60 4. K 3,5 = 30 1. 25 2. 55 3. 125 4. 35
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 15. Let G be a group of order 45. Then
9. Let  = (1 2)(3 4 5) and  =(1 2 3 4 5 6) be 1. G has an element of order 9
permutations in S6 , the group of 2. G has a subgroup of order 9
permutations on six symbols. Which of the 3. G has a normal subgroup of order 9
following statements are true ? 4. G has a normal subgroup of order 5
1. The subgroups    and    are (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
isomorphic to each other 16. Let  :1, 2,3, 4,5  1, 2,3, 4,5 be a
2.  and  are conjugate in S6 permutation (one-to-one and onto function)
3.        is the trivial group such that 1  j     j   j,1  j  5 .
 82
Then which of the following are true ? then G is cyclic.
1.     j   j for all j, 1  j  5 4. If H is a subgroup of G, there exists a
subgroup N of G such that G / N  H .
2. 1  j     j  for all j, 1  j  5
(CSIR NET June 2016)
3. The set k :  k   k  has an even 23. Consider the symmetric group S 20 and its
number of elements. subgroup A20 consisting of all even
4. The set k :  k   k  has an odd permutations. Let H be a 7-sylow subgroup
number of elements. of A20 . Pick each correct statement from
(CSIR NET June 2015) below :
17. If x, y and z are elements of a group such 1. H  49 .
that xyz  1 , then 2. H must be cyclic.
1. yzx  1 2. yxz  1 3. H is a normal subgroup of A20 .
3. zxy  1 4. zyx  1
4. Any 7-Sylow subgroup of S 20 is a
(CSIR NET June 2015)
18. Which of the following cannot be the class subset of A20 .
equation of a group of order 10 ? (CSIR NET June 2016)
1. 1+1+1+2+5 = 10 24. Let p be a prime. Pick each correct
2. 1+2+3+4 = 10 statement from below. Up to isomorphism,
3. 1+2+2+5 = 10 1. there are exactly two abelian groups of
4. 1+1+2+2+2+2 = 10 order p 2 .
(CSIR NET June 2015) 2. there are exactly two groups of order
19. Let an denote the number of those p2 .
permutations σ on 1, 2,..., n such that σ 3. there are exactly two commutative rings
is a product of exactly two disjoint cycles. of order p 2 .
Then 4. there is exactly one integral domain of
1. a5  50 2. a4  14 order p 2 .
3. a5  40 4. a4  11 (CSIR NET June 2016)
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) 25. Consider the following subsets of the group
20. Let G be a simple group of order 60. Then of 2  2 non-singular matrices over  :
1. G has six Sylow-5 subgroups.  a b  
2. G has four Sylow-3 subgroups.
G    : a, b, d  , ad  1
 0 d  
3. G has a cyclic subgroup of order 6.
4. G has a unique element of order 2.  1 b  
H    : b  
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)  0 1  
*
21. For n  1 , let   / n  be the group of Which of the following statements are
correct ?
units of   / n  . Which of the following 1. G forms a group under matrix
groups are cyclic ? multiplication
* 2. H is a normal subgroup of G.
1.   /10 * 2.  / 2 
3
3. The quotient group G / H is well-
3.   /100 * 4.   /163 
*
defined and is Abelian.
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) 4. The quotient group G / H is well
22. Let G be a finite abelian group of order n. defined and is isomorphic to the group
Pick each correct statement from below. of 2  2 diagonal matrices (over  )
1. If d divides n, there exists a subgroup of with determinant 1.
G of order d. (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
2. If d divides n, there exists an element of 26. Let  be the field of complex numbers and
order d in G. * be the group of non zero complex
3. If every proper subgroup of G is cyclic,
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numbers under multiplication. Then which 30. Let G  S3 be the permutation group of 3
of the following are true ?
symbols. Then
1. * is cyclic.
2. Every finite subgroup of  is cyclic. 1. G is isomorphic to a subgroup of a
3.  has finitely many finite subgroups. cyclic group
4. Every proper subgroup of  is cyclic. 2. there exists a cyclic group H such that G
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
27. For an integer n  2, let S n be the maps homomorphically onto H
permutation group on n letters and An the 3. G is a product of cyclic groups
alternating group. Let  be the group of 4. there exists a nontrivial group
non-zero complex numbers under homomorphism from G to the additive
multiplication. Which of the following are
correct statements ? group  ,   of rational numbers
1. For every integer n  2, there is a
(CSIR NET June 2018)
nontrivial homomorphism  : Sn  
2. For every integer n  2, there is a 31. Let G be a group with G  96 . Suppose H
unique nontrivial homomorphism
and K are subgroups of G with H  12
 : Sn  
3. For every integer n  3 , there is a and K  16 . Then

nontrivial homomorphism  : An  
1. H  K  e
4. For every integer n  5, there is no
nontrivial homomorphism  : An   . 2. H  K  e
(CSIR NET June 2017) 3. H  K is Abelian
28. Let G be a group of order 125. Which of
the following statements are necessarily 4. H  K is not Abelian
true ? (CSIR NET June 2018)
1. G has a non-trivial abelian subgroup
2. The centre of G is a proper subgroup
3. The centre of G has order 5
4. There is a subgroup of order 25
(CSIR NET June 2017)
29. Let F be a finite field and let K / F be a
field extension of degree 6. Then the Galois
group of K / F is isomorphic to
1. the cyclic group of order 6
2. the permutation group on 1, 2,3
3. the permutation group on 1, 2,3, 4,5,6
4. the permutation group on 1
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
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Page 1

Answer Key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 4 3. 4 4. 2 5. 2 6. 3 7. 2
8. 1 9. 4 10. 2 11. 3 12. 2 13. 1 14. 1
15. 2 16. 3 17. 1 18. 2 19. 3 20. 4

MCQ
1. -- 2. -- 3. 2,4 4. 1,3,4 5. 1,2,3,4 6. 4 7. 3,4
8. 2,3 9. 1,3 10. 4 11. 2 12. 1,2,3 13. 1,4 14. 2,3
15. 2,3,4 16. 1,2,3,4 17. 1,3 18. 1,2,4 19. 1,4 20. 1 21. 1,4
22. 1,4 23. 1,4 24. 1,2,4 25. 1,2,3,4 26. 2 27. 1,2,4 28. 1,4
29. 1 30. 2,3 31. 2,3