Instantaneous Speed

- obtained by taking the limit as Δ t →0

- lim f (x )=L
x →c
- limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L

Left-hand limit
- x is near c from the left
- lim ¿
x→ c−¿f (x)= M ¿

Right-hand limit
- x is near c from the right
- lim ¿
x→ c+¿ f (x)=M ¿

lim ¿= lim ¿ → limit exists

x→ c−¿f (x)= M ¿ x→ c+¿ f (x)=M ¿

lim ¿
x→ c−¿f (x)= M ≠ lim ¿¿ → limit does not exist
x →c+ ¿f ( x)=M ¿

Infinite limits
- If f(x) increases/decreases without bound as x approaches c
- lim f (x )=∞ , lim f (x )=−∞
x →c x→ c

Limit of a constant function:

- lim k=k
x →c

Limit of the identity function:

- lim x=c
x →c

Constant multiple law:

- lim k ⋅f (x)=k lim f (x)=k ⋅ L
x →c x→c

Sum / difference law:

- lim [f ( x)± g( x)]=lim f (x) ± lim g(x )=L ± M
x →c x→c x→ c

Product law:
- lim [f ( x)⋅g (x)]=lim f (x )⋅ lim g( x )=L⋅ M
x →c x→ c x→c

Quotient Law:
lim f (x) lim f (x )
x→ c L
- = x→ c = , provided that M ≠ 0
g (x) lim g (x) M
x →c
Power law:
- lim ¿, provided that L ≠0 when n < 0
x →c

Root law:
√
lim √ f (x )= n lim f (x )=√ L and lim f (x )=L>0 whenn is even
n n
-
x →c x→ c x →c

Algebraic function:
- functions that can be expressed using the operations addition, subtraction, multiplicat
ion, division, and raising to a fractional power
- 3 kinds: polynomial, rational, radical
1. polynomial function
n n−1
● f (x)=an x + an−1 x +...+a 0
● Theorem: limit of polynomial functionlim f (x )=f (c )
x →c

● Theorem: lim
x →c
√ f (x )=√❑
n

2. rational function
P(x)
● f (x)=
Q(x )
○ where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials
○ Q(x) is not equal to zero
lim P(x )
● Theorem: x→ c P(c ) , provided Q(x )≠ 0
=
Q(x ) Q(c)
● If 0/0, indeterminate
● L’Hopital’s Rule
lim f (x) lim f ' (x )
○ If x→ c = undefined, then x→ c
g (x) g ' (x)

Continuity:
- graph has no breaks or holes
- you can trace it without lifting your pen
- defined for any real number
● conditions
○ f (c ) exists
○ lim f (x ) exists
x →c

○ lim f (x )=¿ f (c )
x →c
■ If at least one of these conditions fails to hold at c, the function
is said to be discontinuous at c

Type of discontinuity:
1. hole/removable
- occurs when the limit of a function exists but not equal to the value of the func
tion
- hole in the graph of the function
 - removable because the discontinuity can be removed by redefining the functi
on
- EIther f (c ) is indeterminate or f (c ) exists but lim f (x )≠ f (c )
x →c
2. Nonremovable discontinuity/essential discontinuity
- occurs when the limit of a function fails to exist
- cannot be redefined to make it continuous t x = c
a. Jump/finite
- graph has a break
b. asymptotic/infinite
- has vertical asymptote

Tangent line:
- line that just touches the curve
- has the same direction as the graph at the point of tangency

Secant line:
- line that cuts through the curve

Slope of a line:
y 2− y 1
- m=
x 2−x 1
lim f (x )−f (a)
- m= x→ a , provided that this limit exists
x−a
dy
- m= (Leibniz’s notation)
dx
- m=f '(x )
lim f (a+h)−f (a)
- m= h → 0
h

Derivative of a function:
lim f (x + Δ x)−f (x )
- f ' (x)= Δ x →0
Δx

Derivative:
1. substitute all values of x and y in the given function by x + Δ x and Δ y
2. Subtract the given function from what is obtained in step 1 and simplify
3. Divide the result in step 2 by Δ x
4. Take the limit of the result in step 3 as Δ x → 0

Constant rule:
- derivative of a constant function is 0
d
- If c is a constant, then (c)=0
dx
Power rule:
d k k−1
- If k is a real number, then the derivative of the function f ( x)=x k is (x )=k x
dx

Constant multiple rule:

- If f is differentiable and c is a constant, then the derivative of the function c ⋅f is
d
[cf (x)]=cf ' (x )
dx

Sum or difference rule:

- Let f and g be differentiable functions, then the sum or difference of f and g is also diff
erentiable
d
- [f (x)± g (x)]=f ' (x) ± g ' (x)
dx

Product rule:
- left f and g be differentiable functions
- it follows that the product fg is also differentiable
d
- [f (x) g(x )]=f (x) g '(x )+ f '(x )g ( x)
dx

Quotient rule:
-
d f (x ) g(x )f '(x )−f (x)g ' ( x)
- [ ]=
dx g ( x) ¿¿

Composite function:
- Let f and g be two differentiable functions
- derivative of the composite function (f ∘ g)(x) is ¿
- we can think of f(x) as the outer function and g(x) as the inner function